Leonardo art, design and Gestalt theory author(s): Roy R. Behrens Source: Leonardo, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1998), pp. 299-303. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms and Conditions of Use, available at.
Leonardo art, design and Gestalt theory author(s): Roy R. Behrens Source: Leonardo, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1998), pp. 299-303. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms and Conditions of Use, available at.
Leonardo art, design and Gestalt theory author(s): Roy R. Behrens Source: Leonardo, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1998), pp. 299-303. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms and Conditions of Use, available at.
Author(s): Roy R. Behrens Source: Leonardo, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1998), pp. 299-303 Published by: The MIT Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1576669 . Accessed: 15/09/2014 16:35 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . The MIT Press and Leonardo are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Leonardo. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 181.118.153.134 on Mon, 15 Sep 2014 16:35:38 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Ar t , D e s i g n a n d G e s t a l t Th e o r y Ro y R Be h r e n s i i G e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g y be g a n i n G e r ma n y i n 1910. Wh i l e t r a ve l i n g by t r a i n o n va ca t i o n , a 30-y e a r -o l d Cze ch -bo r n ps y ch o l o g i s t n a me d Ma x We r t h e i me r wa s s e i ze d by a n i d e a wh e n h e s a w fl a s h i n g l i g h t s a t a r a i l r o a d cr o s s i n g t h a t r e s e mbl e d l i g h t s e n ci r cl i n g a t h e a t e r ma r que e . He g o t o ff t h e t r a i n i n Fr a n kfur t a m Ma i n , wh e r e h e bo ug h t a mo t i o n pi ct ur e t o y ca l l e d a "zo e t r o pe " (Fi g . 1). Wh e n a s t r i p o f pi c- t ur e s i s pl a ce d i n s i d e a n d vi e we d t h r o ug h t h e s l i t s i n a zo e t - r o pe , a s ucce s s i o n o f s t a t i o n a r y pi ct ur e s a ppe a r t o be a s i n g l e , mo vi n g pi ct ur e . In h i s h o t e l r o o m, We r t h e i me r ma d e h i s o wn pi ct ur e s t r i ps , co n s i s t i n g n o t o f i d e n t i fi a bl e o bje ct s , but o f s i mpl e a bs t r a ct l i n e s , r a n g i n g fr o m ve r t i ca l t o h o r i zo n t a l . By va r y i n g t h e s e e l e me n t s , h e wa s a bl e t o i n ve s t i g a t e t h e co n d i - t i o n s t h a t co n t r i but e t o t h e i l l us i o n o f mo t i o n pi ct ur e s , a n e f- fe ct t h a t i s t e ch n i ca l l y kn o wn a s "a ppa r e n t mo ve me n t " [1]. Ye a r s e a r l i e r , We r t h e i me r h a d s t ud i e d i n Pr a g ue wi t h a n Aus t r i a n ph i l o s o ph e r n a me d Ch r i s t i a n vo n Eh r e n fe l s , wh o h a d publ i s h e d a pa pe r i n 1890 e n t i t l e d "On G e s t a l t Qua l i t i e s " i n wh i ch h e po i n t e d o ut t h a t a me l o d y i s s t i l l r e co g n i za bl e wh e n pl a y e d i n d i ffe r e n t ke y s , e ve n t h o ug h n o n e o f t h e n o t e s a r e t h e s a me , a n d t h a t a bs t r a ct fo r m a t t r i but e s s uch a s "s qua r e n e s s " o r "a n g ul a r i t y " ca n be co n ve y e d by a wi d e r a n g e Fi g . 1. En g r a vi n g o f a zo e t r o pe , a mo t i o n pi ct ur e t o y i n ve n t e d i n En - g l a n d be fo r e 1850 by W.G . Ho r n e r . Th i s i s t h e t o y t h a t We r t h e i me r bo ug h t wh e n h e l e ft t h e t r a i n a t Fr a n kfur t a m Ma i n i n 1910. o f s pe ci fi c e l e me n t s . Cl e a r l y , a r - g ue d Eh r e n fe l s , i f a me l o d y a n d t h e n o t e s t h a t co mpr i s e i t a r e s o i n d e pe n d e n t , t h e n a wh o l e i s n o t s i mpl y t h e s um o f i t s pa r t s , but a s y n e r g i s t i c "wh o l e e ffe ct , " o r g e - s t a l t [2]. Li ke wi s e , We r t h e i me r co n cl ud e d , t h e e ffe ct o f a ppa r e n t mo ve me n t i s g e n e r a t e d n o t s o much by i t s i n d i vi d ua l e l e me n t s a s by t h e i r d y n a mi c i n t e r r e l a t i o n . We r t h e i me r r e ma i n e d i n Fr a n kfur t fo r mo r e t h a n 5 y e a r s . He co n t i n ue d h i s r e s e a r ch o f a p- pa r e n t mo ve me n t a t t h e Ps y ch o - l o g i ca l In s t i t ut e , wh e r e h e us e d a ABSTRACT G e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g y wa s fo un d e d i n 1910 by t h r e e G e r ma n ps y ch o l o - g i s t s , Ma x We r t h e i me r , Kur t Ko ffka a n d Wo l fg a n g K6h l e r . Th e a ut h o r d i s cus s e s g e - s t a l t t h e o r y 's i n fl ue n ce o n mo d e r n a r t a n d d e s i g n , d e - s cr i be s i t s r e s e mbl a n ce t o Ja pa n e s e -i n s pi r e d t h e o r i e s o f a e s t h e t i cs a n d fi n d s e vi - d e n ce o f a mut ua l , i f l i m- i t e d , i n t e r e s t be t we e n t h e g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t s a n d ce r t a i n a r t i s t s . s o ph i s t i ca t e d pr o je ct o r ca l l e d a "t a ch i s t o s co pe " t h a t e n a bl e d h i m t o fl a s h s h a pe s o n t h e s cr e e n s ucce s s i ve l y fo r pr e ci s e i n - cr e me n t s o f t i me . He r e cr ui t e d a s s ubje ct s t wo y o un g e r ps y - ch o l o g i s t s , Kur t Ko ffka a n d Wo l fg a n g Ko h l e r . Aft e r g a t h e r i n g d a t a fo r mo r e t h a n a y e a r , h e s h a r e d t h e r e s ul t s wi t h h i s co l - l e a g ue s , t h e n publ i s h e d h i s fi n d i n g s i n 1912 i n a pa pe r t i t l e d "Expe r i me n t a l St ud i e s o f t h e Pe r ce pt i o n o f Mo ve me n t " [3]. Th i s wa s t h e fi r s t i mpo r t a n t e ve n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f g e s t a l t ps y - ch o l o g y , a mo ve me n t t h a t g r e w fr o m t h e s ubs e que n t wo r k o f i t s pr o d i g i o us t r i umvi r a t e : We r t h e i me r , Ko ffka a n d Ko h l e r . Th e t h r e e fo un d i n g g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t s we r e s e pa r a t e d by Wo r l d Wa r I, t h e n r e un i t e d i n 1920, wh e n Ko h l e r be ca me D i - r e ct o r o f t h e Ps y ch o l o g i ca l In s t i t ut e a t t h e Un i ve r s i t y o f Be r - l i n , wh e r e We r t h e i me r wa s a l r e a d y a fa cul t y me mbe r . Wh i l e ma i n t a i n i n g co n t a ct wi t h Ko ffka , wh o co n t i n ue d t o t e a ch n e a r Fr a n kfur t , We r t h e i me r a n d Ko h l e r e s t a bl i s h e d a g r a d u- a t e pr o g r a m, l o ca t e d i n t h e a ba n d o n e d Impe r i a l Pa l a ce , a n d be g a n a r e s e a r ch jo ur n a l ca l l e d Ps y ch o l o g i s ch e Fo r s ch un g (Ps y - ch o l o g i ca l In ve s t i g a t i o n ). Fo r t h e mo s t pa r t , t h e s t ud e n t s d i d n o t l e a r n by a t t e n d i n g l e ct ur e s but by a ct ua l l y co n d uct i n g r e - s e a r ch us i n g fe l l o w s t ud e n t s a s s ubje ct s a n d by pr e pa r i n g a r - t i cl e s fo r publ i ca t i o n . Th e s ucce s s o f t h e me t h o d i s e vi d e n ce d by t h e n umbe r o f t e a ch e r s a n d s t ud e n t s a t t h e In s t i t ut e wh o s e n a me s a r e n o w fa mi l i a r i n ps y ch o l o g y , i n cl ud i n g Rud o l f Ar n h e i m, Kur t Le wi n , Wo l fg a n g Me t zg e r , Ha n s Wa l l a ch , Bl uma Ze i g a r n i k, Ta ma r a D e mbo , Ka r l D un cke r , Ma r i a Ovs i a n ki n a , He r t a Ko pfe r ma n n a n d Kur t G o t t s ch a l d t [4]. Ko ffka l e ft Eur o pe fo r t h e Un i t e d St a t e s i n 1924; We r t h e i me r i n 1933. By t h e e a r l y 1930s , t h e Ps y ch o l o g i ca l In - s t i t ut e h a d be g un t o e r o d e . Wh e n t h e Na t i o n a l So ci a l i s t s ca me t o po we r i n 1933, a mo n g t h e i r i mme d i a t e me n a ci n g a ct s wa s t h e d i s mi s s a l o f Je wi s h un i ve r s i t y pr o fe s s o r s , fr o m Ro y R. Be h r e n s , (a r t i s t , wr i t e r , t e a ch e r ), 2022 X Ave n ue , D y s a r t , IA 52224-9767, U.S.A. E-ma i l : <ba l l a s t @n e t i n s .n e t >. LEONARD O, Vo l . 31, No . 4, pp. 299-303, 1998 299 h fr - ? 1998 ISAST This content downloaded from 181.118.153.134 on Mon, 15 Sep 2014 16:35:38 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Fi g . 2. Wo r l d Wa r I Ame r i ca n s h i p ca mo ufl a g e , i n t e n d e d t o co n fus e t h e a i m o f G e r ma n U- bo a t t o r pe d o g un n e r s (ci r ca 1918). Th a t pe r ce pt ua l g r o upi n g t e n d e n ci e s a r e i n bo r n a n d un i ve r s a l i s s ug g e s t e d by t h e cr o s s -cul t ur a l e ffe ct i ve n e s s o f ca mo ufl a g e , wh i ch r e l i a bl y wo r ks by s ubve r t i n g t h e "l a ws " t h a t t h e g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t s po s t ul a t e d . In h i g h -s i mi l a r i t y , o r bl e n d i n g , ca mo ufl a g e , o bje ct s a n d t h e i r s ur r o un d i n g s a r e s o s i mi l a r a s t o be n e a r l y i n - d i s t i n g ui s h a bl e . In h i g h -d i ffe r e n ce , o r d a zzl e , ca mo ufl a g e , a s i n t h i s e xa mpl e , t h e co n t i n u- i t y o f a s h a pe i s i n t e r r upt e d by a s ur fa ce d e s i g n o f un r e l a t e d , co n t r a s t i n g e l e me n t s . (Ph o t o co ur t e s y o f Na t i o n a l Ar ch i ve s a n d Re co r d Se r vi ce ) No be l Pr i ze s ci e n t i s t s t o g r a d ua t e a s s i s - t a n t s . Rumo r e d a s be i n g i n s y mpa t h y wi t h "t h e Je w We r t h e i me r , " Ko h l e r pub- l i cl y co n d e mn e d a n t i -Se mi t i s m a n d pr o - t e s t e d t h e d i s mi s s a l s i n a Be r l i n n e ws pa - pe r a r t i cl e , t h e l a s t s uch a r t i cl e a l l o we d un d e r t h e Na zi s . To h i s s ur pr i s e , h e wa s n o t a r r e s t e d , but t h e i n t i mi d a t i o n mo un t e d , a n d i n 1935, h e t o o e mi g r a t e d t o t h e Un i t e d St a t e s [5]. No n e o f t h e g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t s we r e a r t i s t s , much l e s s d e s i g n e r s , but e a r l y o n t h e r e we r e s i g n s o f a mut ua l i n t e r e s t be - t we e n t h e t wo d i s ci pl i n e s . In 1927, fo r e xa mpl e , g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t Rud o l f Ar n h e i m vi s i t e d t h e D e s s a u Ba uh a us , t h e n publ i s h e d a n a r t i cl e i n D i e We l t bi i h n e pr a i s i n g t h e h o n e s t y a n d cl a r - i t y o f i t s bui l d i n g d e s i g n [6]. So o n a ft e r , g e s t a l t i s t Kur t Le wi n co mmi s s i o n e d Pe - t e r Be h r e n s (t e a ch e r o f Ba uh a us fo un d e r Wa l t e r G r o pi us ) t o d e s i g n h i s h o me i n Be r l i n , but , a ft e r a d i s a g r e e - me n t , Ba uh a us fur n i t ur e d e s i g n e r Ma r ce l Br e ue r wa s a s ke d t o co mpl e t e t h e i n t e r i o r [7]. In 1929, Ko h l e r d e - cl i n e d a Ba uh a us i n vi t a t i o n t o l e ct ur e be ca us e o f a s ch e d ul i n g co n fl i ct , s o h i s s t ud e n t Ka r l D un cke r s po ke i n s t e a d . In t h e a ud i e n ce wa s t h e pa i n t e r Pa ul Kl e e , wh o h a d kn o wn a bo ut We r t h e i me r 's r e - s e a r ch a s e a r l y a s 1925 [8]. But o t h e r Ba uh a us a r t i s t s we r e a l s o i n t e r e s t e d , i n - cl ud i n g Wa s s i l y Ka n d i n s ky a n d Jo s e f Al be r s , bo t h o f wh o m a t t e n d e d a s e r i e s o f l e ct ur e s a bo ut g e s t a l t t h e o r y by Co un t Ka r l fr i e d vo n D i i r ckh e i m, a vi s i t i n g ps y - ch o l o g i s t fr o m t h e Un i ve r s i t y o f Le i pzi g , i n t h e wi n t e r o f 1930-1931 [9]. Al be r s 's cur i o s i t y a bo ut g e s t a l t t h e o r y ma y be s i g n i fi ca n t be ca us e h e i s n o w co mmo n l y cr e d i t e d wi t h a r e s ur g e n ce o f i n t e r e s t i n "s i mul t a n e o us co n t r a s t , " wh i ch vo n D i r ckh e i m d i s cus s e d i n h i s l e ct ur e s . Re co g n i ze d a n d us e d by a r t i s t s fo r ce n t ur i e s , t h e e ffe ct wa s d e s cr i be d s ci e n t i fi ca l l y i n 1839 by a Fr e n ch ch e m- i s t , Mi ch e l -Eug e n e Ch e vr e ul , wh o e s s e n - t i a l l y fo un d t h a t a co l o r ma y a ppe a r t o ch a n g e , o ft e n d r a ma t i ca l l y , wh e n mo ve d fr o m o n e ba ckg r o un d t o a n o t h e r . A s wa t ch o f r e d , fo r e xa mpl e , ma y e xh i bi t o n e i n t e n s i t y o n a g r e e n ba ckg r o un d , a n o t h e r o n o r a n g e . As a r e s ul t o f t h i s ph e n o me n o n , t h e r e i s n o e a s y a n s we r t o t h e que s t i o n "Wh a t i s t h e t r ue a ppe a r - a n ce o f a co l o r ?" Si mul t a n e o us co n t r a s t a n t i ci pa t e d h o l i s m, i n t h e s e n s e t h a t g e s t a l t i s t s a r e l i ke l y t o s a y t h a t a l l s uch a ppe a r a n ce s o f a co l o r a r e l e g i t i ma t e , be ca us e we a l wa y s e xpe r i e n ce pe r ce p- t ua l wh o l e s , n o t i s o l a t e d pa r t s . We n e ve r s e e fi g ur e s (o r s wa t ch e s ) a l o n e , o n l y d y - n a mi c "fi g ur e -g r o un d " r e l a t i o n s h i ps [10]. Of e qua l i n t e r e s t i s Al be r s 's a n d g r a ph i c d e s i g n e r La s zl 6 Mo h o l y -Na g y 's e mph a s i s o n un us ua l us e s o f co mmo n ma t e r i a l s i n t h e Ba uh a us fo un d a t i o n s co ur s e , i n wh i ch s t ud e n t s we r e pr e - s e n t e d wi t h d i s ca r d e d ma t e r i a l s (wi r e me s h , ca r d bo a r d , n e ws pa pe r s , ma t ch - bo xe s , ph o n o g r a ph n e e d l e s a n d r a zo r bl a d e s ) a n d i n s t r uct e d t o ba s t e l n -t o i m- pr o vi s e o r "r i g up" s o me t h i n g . It i s s a i d t h a t t h i s me t h o d wa s i n fl ue n ce d by Fr i e d r i ch Fr o e be l 's pe d a g o g y o f "e d uca - t i o n t h r o ug h pl a y " (i n pa r t be ca us e Jo h a n n e s It t e n , wh o s t a r t e d t h e fo un d a - t i o n s co ur s e , wa s a Fr o e be l -t r a i n e d e l - e me n t a r y s ch o o l t e a ch e r ), e s pe ci a l l y t h e ce l e br a t e d Fr o e be l "g i ft s " (ci t e d by Fr a n k Ll o y d Wr i g h t a s pi vo t a l i n h i s e a r l y e d uca t i o n ), wh i ch we r e s e t s o f wo o d e n bl o cks , pr e s e n t e d i n s e que n ce t o ch i l - d r e n be t we e n t h e a g e s o f 2 mo n t h s a n d 6 y e a r s , t h a t co ul d be r e a r r a n g e d i n a va r i - e t y o f co n fi g ur a t i o n s [11]. Th i s i s a l s o s ur pr i s i n g l y s i mi l a r t o g e - s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t D un cke r 's "fun ct i o n a l fi xe d n e s s " e xpe r i me n t s , publ i s h e d i n 1935, i n wh i ch s ubje ct s we r e a s ke d t o i mpr o vi s e s o l ut i o n s t o va r i o us pr o bl e ms us i n g s e e mi n g l y i n a ppr o pr i a t e ma t e r i - a l s . In o n e , fo r e xa mpl e , t h e s ubje ct wa s s h o wn a t a bl e wi t h a va r i e t y o f co mmo n i t e ms o n i t , i n cl ud i n g a co r d , n a i l a n d we i g h t s ca t t e r e d a mo n g t h e m, a n d a s ke d t o co n s t r uct a pe n d ul um. Mo s t s o l ve d t h e pr o bl e m by us i n g t h e we i g h t a s a h a mme r t o po un d t h e n a i l i n t o t h e wa l l , t y i n g t h e co r d t o t h e we i g h t a n d s us pe n d i n g t h e i mpr o vi s e d pe n d ul um fr o m t h e n a i l . But t h a t s o l ut i o n o c- cur r e d l e s s r e a d i l y t o o t h e r s ubje ct s i f, d ur i n g i n s t r uct i o n s , t h e we i g h t wa s d e - s cr i be d a s a "pe n d ul um we i g h t " a n d a l - r e a d y t i e d t o t h e co r d . In s uch i n s t a n ce s , Fi g . 3. Ry a n McAd a m, t r a d e ma r k fo r a h y - po t h e t i ca l r e s t a ur a n t ca l l e d D a d a Ca fe (1996). Th e g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t s d e s cr i be d t h e e ffe ct s o f s i mi l a r i t y g r o upi n g , t h e i n n a t e t e n d e n cy t o co n s t e l l a t e o r t o s e e a s be l o n g - i n g t o g e t h e r e l e me n t s t h a t l o o k a l i ke . An - t i ci pa t i n g t h a t t e n d e n cy , t h e d e s i g n e r o f t h i s l o g o h a s s e t up d e l i be r a t e vi s ua l r h y me s by t h e r e cur r e n t us e o f ci r cul a r s h a pe s , s -s h a pe d s ca l l o ps a n d s e ve r a l t h i ck- n e s s e s o f l i n e . 300 Be h r e n s , Ar t , D e s i g n a n d G e s t a l t Th e o r y This content downloaded from 181.118.153.134 on Mon, 15 Sep 2014 16:35:38 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Fi g . 4. Th o ma s J. Le ch t e n be r g , t r a d e ma r k fo r a h y po t h e t i ca l a i r l i n e co mpa n y (1996). In t h i s e xa mpl e o f r e ve r s i bl e fi g ur e -g r o un d , t h e wh i t e ba ckg r o un d a r e a be t we e n t h e t wo a i r pl a n e s ca n be pe r ce i ve d a s a "Z" by s wi t ch i n g a t t e n t i o n fr o m fi g ur e t o g r o un d . Co mpa r a bl e ph e n o me n a ca n be fo un d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Ch i n e s e y i n -y a n g s y mbo l , a n d i n t h e co mpo s i t i o n a l e qui va l e n ce o f l i g h t a n d d a r k (o r po s i t i ve a n d n e g a t i ve ) ca l l e d n o t a n i n Ja pa n e s e a r t . D un cke r co n cl ud e d , t h e we i g h t a n d t h e co r d we r e a s s ume d t o be l i n ke d (a s a g e - s t a l t ), ve r ba l l y a n d vi s ua l l y , ma ki n g i t d i f- fi cul t t o pe r ce i ve t h e we i g h t s e pa r a t e l y a s a h a mme r [12]. Wh a t ma y be g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g y 's mo s t e n d ur i n g i n fl ue n ce o n a r t a n d d e s i g n ca me fr o m a pa pe r by Ma x We r t h e i me r t i t l e d "Th e o r y o f Fo r m, " publ i s h e d i n 1923 [13]. Ni ckn a me d "t h e d o t e s s a y " be ca us e i t wa s i l l us t r a t e d wi t h a bs t r a ct pa t t e r n s o f d o t s a n d l i n e s , We r t h e i me r co n cl ud e d i n i t t h a t ce r t a i n g e s t a l t s a r e e n h a n ce d by o ur i n n a t e t e n d e n ci e s t o co n s t e l l a t e , o r t o s e e a s "be l o n g i n g t o - g e t h e r " e l e me n t s t h a t l o o k a l i ke (ca l l e d "s i mi l a r i t y g r o upi n g "), a r e cl o s e t o g e t h e r ("pr o xi mi t y g r o upi n g ") o r h a ve s t r uc- t ur a l e co n o my ("g o o d co n t i n ua t i o n "). Th a t s uch t e n d e n ci e s a r e i n bo r n , n o t l e a r n e d , i s s ug g e s t e d by t h e cr o s s -cul - t ur a l e ffe ct i ve n e s s o f s l e i g h t -o f-h a n d ma g i c a n d ca mo ufl a g e , bo t h o f wh i ch wo r k by s ubve r t i n g t h e "l a ws " d e s cr i be d i n We r t h e i me r 's pa pe r (Fi g . 2). But t h e i n t e r pl a y o f s uch g r o upi n g t e n d e n ci e s i s fa r fr o m s i mpl e , be ca us e : (1) a s t h e e f- fe ct o f s i mul t a n e o us co n t r a s t d i s cus s e d e a r l i e r d e mo n s t r a t e s , t h e a ppe a r a n ce o f pa r t s i s d e t e r mi n e d by wh o l e s ; (2) jud g - me n t s a bo ut s i mi l a r i t y o r pr o xi mi t y a r e a l wa y s co mpa r a t i ve ; a n d (3) i n co mpo s i - t i o n s a s i n t r i ca t e a s pa i n t i n g s , po s t e r s a n d pa g e l a y o ut s , pa r t s ma y be pur po s e l y ma d e t o co n n e ct by o n e g r o upi n g t e n - d e n cy (s i mi l a r i t y o f co l o r , fo r e xa mpl e ) but t o d i s co n n e ct by o t h e r s (d i s t a n ce , fo r e xa mpl e , o r d i ffe r e n ce s o f s h a pe , s i ze o r d i r e ct i o n ) (Fi g . 3) [14]. It i s l i ke l y t h a t fe w a r t i s t s we r e d i r e ct l y a wa r e o f We r t h e i me r 's d o t e s s a y , o n e e x- ce pt i o n be i n g Pa ul Kl e e , wh o (a s Ma r i a n n e Te ube r h a s s h o wn ) us e d s o me o f i t s d i a g r a ms i n h i s pa i n t i n g s i n t h e 1930s [15]. Ra t h e r , t h e y l e a r n e d a bo ut h i s "l a ws o f vi s ua l o r g a n i za t i o n " fr o m o t h e r wr i t i n g s , l o n g a ft e r t h e e s s a y wa s fi r s t publ i s h e d , a n d pa r t i cul a r l y fr o m t wo bo o ks t h a t h a d a n e n o r mo us a n d l a s t i n g e ffe ct o n a r t a n d d e s i g n e d uca - t i o n : La n g ua g e o f Vi s i o n (1944) by G y 6r g y Ke pe s , a Hun g a r i a n -bo r n g r a ph i c d e - s i g n e r wh o t a ug h t wi t h Mo h o l y -Na g y a t t h e Ne w Ba uh a us i n Ch i ca g o ; a n d Ar t a n d Vi s ua l Pe r ce pt i o n : A Ps y ch o l o g y o f t h e Cr e a t i ve Ey e (1954) by Rud o l f Ar n h e i m, a Be r l i n g e s t a l t i s t wh o e mi g r a t e d t o t h e Un i t e d St a t e s , be ca me pr o fe s s o r o f t h e Ps y ch o l o g y o f Ar t a t Ha r va r d Un i ve r s i t y a n d publ i s h e d 13 bo o ks o n g e s t a l t t h e o r y a n d a r t [16]. Sur e l y , o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s a r t i s t s e m- br a ce d g e s t a l t t h e o r y i s t h a t i t pr o vi d e d , i n t h e i r mi n d s , s ci e n t i fi c va l i d a t i o n o f a g e -o l d pr i n ci pl e s o f co mpo s i t i o n a n d pa g e l a y o ut . A Fr e n ch by n a me fo r g e - s t a l t t h e o r y i s l a ps y ch o l o g i e d e l a fo r me . In - a d ve r t e n t l y , d ue t o i t s e mph a s i s o n fl a t a bs t r a ct pa t t e r n s , s t r uct ur a l e co n o my a n d i mpl i ci t n e s s , g e s t a l t t h e o r y be ca me a s s o ci a t e d wi t h t h e mo d e r n i s t t e n d e n cy t o wa r d "a e s t h e t i ci s m, " t h e be l i e f t h a t - l i ke mus i c a n d a r ch i t e ct ur e -a l l a r t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a bs t r a ct d e s i g n a n d , a s El l e n Lupt o n a n d J. Abbo t t Mi l l e r ch a r a ct e r - i ze i t i n D e s i g n Wr i t i n g Re s e a r ch (1996), t h a t "d e s i g n i s , a t bo t t o m, a n a bs t r a ct , fo r ma l a ct i vi t y " i n wh i ch t h e "t e xt [o r s ubje ct ma t t e r ] i s s e co n d a r y , a d d e d o n l y a ft e r t h e ma s t e r y o f fo r m" [ 17]. Ae s t h e t i ci s m h a d be e n a n t i ci pa t e d i n 1851 by Jo h n Rus ki n i n a pa s s a g e i n St o n e s o f Ve n i ce , t h e bo o k t h a t s pa wn e d t h e a r t s a n d cr a ft s mo ve me n t , i n wh i ch h e s t a t e d t h a t "t h e a r r a n g e me n t o f co l - o r s a n d l i n e s i s a n a r t a n a l o g o us t o t h e co mpo s i t i o n o f mus i c, a n d e n t i r e l y i n d e - pe n d e n t o f t h e r e pr e s e n t a t i o n o f fa ct s " Fi g . 5. Li s a Ja me s , (l e ft ) co l l a g e po r t r a i t o f Si g mun d Fr e ud (1996). (r i g h t ) Un d e r l y i n g t h i s co mpo s i t i o n o f t y po g r a ph i c a n d pi ct o r i a l e l e - me n t s i s a n i mpl i e d g r i d s y s t e m, a n a r r a n g e me n t o f i n t e r s e ct i n g l i n e s t h a t r e s e mbl e s Or i e n t a l l a t t i ce pa t t e r n s a n d pl a i d fa br i cs , l i ke t h o s e i l l us t r a t e d i n Ar t h ur D o w's Co mpo s i t i o n . As a n t i ci pa t e d by g e s t a l t t h e o r y , e d g e s t h a t a l i g n i n s pa ce a ppe a r t o be l o n g t o g e t h e r . Ta r t a n co m- po s i t i o n a l g r i d s a r e wi d e l y us e d i n g r a ph i c d e s i g n , e s pe ci a l l y i n pa g e l a y o ut s . -- --- ---- - O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. _. Be h r e n s , Ar t , D e s i g n a n d G e s t a l t Th e o r y 301 This content downloaded from 181.118.153.134 on Mon, 15 Sep 2014 16:35:38 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions [18]. Mo r e t h a n 2 d e ca d e s l a t e r , t h i s vi e w wa s r e a ffi r me d by Ja me s A.M. Wh i s - t l e r , a l e a d i n g fi g ur e i n t h e a e s t h e t i c mo ve me n t , fo r wh i ch t h e un fo r t un a t e s l o g a n be ca me "a r t fo r a r t 's s a ke ." "As mus i c i s t h e po e t r y o f s o un d , " Wh i s t l e r wr o t e i n 1878 (i n Th e G e n t l e Ar t o f Ma k- i n g En e mi e s ), "s o i s pa i n t i n g t h e po e t r y o f s i g h t , a n d t h e s ubje ct -ma t t e r h a s n o t h - i n g t o d o wi t h h a r mo n y o f s o un d o r o f co l o r " [19]. To un d e r s co r e t h e a n a l o g y be t we e n a r t a n d mus i c, a n d t o pr o mo t e t h e i d e a o f a r t a s d e s i g n , h e i n cl ud e d i n t h e t i t l e s t o h i s pa i n t i n g s mus i ca l t e r ms s uch a s "a r r a n g e me n t s , " "n o ct ur n e s " a n d "h a r mo n i e s ." Li ke ma n y o f h i s co n t e mpo r a r i e s , Wh i s t l e r wa s fa s ci n a t e d by Ja pa n e s e a r t , e s pe ci a l l y Uki y o -e wo o d bl o ck pr i n t s , wh i ch we r e i n t r o d uce d t o Eur o pe a n d Ame r i ca a ft e r Ja pa n e s e po r t s we r e o pe n e d t o fo r e i g n t r a d e i n 1854. At t h e cl o s e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h ce n t ur y , t h e r e wa s a fr e n zy o f i n t e r e s t i n t h i n g s Ja pa - n e s e (a t r e n d ca l l e d "Ja po n i s me "), wh i ch wa s fue l e d by a h a n d ful o f po pu- l a r bo o ks by Br i t i s h , Ame r i ca n a n d Ja pa - n e s e a ut h o r s , n o t a bl y Er n e s t Fe n o l l o s a 's Th e Ma s t e r s o f t h e Uki y o -e (1896), Ar t h ur D o w's Co mpo s i t i o n (1899), D e n ma n W. Ro s s 's A Th e o r y o f Pur e D e s i g n (1906) a n d Ka kuzo Oka kur a 's Th e Bo o k o f Te a (1906) [20]. Publ i s h e d i n mo r e t h a n 20 e d i - t i o n s be t we e n 1899 a n d t h e e a r l y 1940s , D o w's bo o k i n pa r t i cul a r h a d a fa r -r e a ch - i n g e ffe ct o n t h e fo r ma l t r a i n i n g o f a r t - i s t s , d e s i g n e r s a n d a r ch i t e ct s i n t h e Un i t e d St a t e s . Th e r e i s a pe r s ua s i ve r e s e mbl a n ce be - t we e n g e s t a l t pr i n ci pl e s a n d t h e Ja pa - n e s e -i n s pi r e d a e s t h e t i cs t h a t D o w a n d o t h e r s pr o pa g a t e d . Fo r e xa mpl e , t h e g e - s t a l t e mph a s i s o n t h e d y n a mi c i n t e r pl a y o f pa r t s a n d wh o l e s h a d be e n a n t i ci - pa t e d a s e a r l y a s t h e t h i r d ce n t ur y B.C. i n Ch i n a by a pa s s a g e i n t h e Ta o Te Ch i n g t h a t s t a t e s t h a t a l t h o ug h a wh e e l i s ma d e o f 30 s po ke s , i t i s t h e s pa ce be t we e n t h e s po ke s t h a t d e t e r mi n e s t h e o ve r a l l fo r m o f t h e wh e e l . Th e ph e n o me n o n o f r e - ve r s i bl e fi g ur e -g r o un d (Fi g . 4) h a s pr e - ce d e n t s i n t h e y i n -y a n g s y mbo l a n d , i n Ja pa n e s e a r t , i n t h e co mpo s i t i o n a l e qui va l e n ce o f l i g h t a n d d a r k, ca l l e d n o t a n . Th e g e s t a l t i s t s ' i d e a s o f s t r uct ur a l e co n o my a n d cl o s ur e (t h e t e n d e n cy t o pe r ce i ve i n co mpl e t e fo r ms a s co mpl e t e ) a r e e ch o e d i n t h e Ja pa n e s e e mph a s i s o n e l i mi n a t i o n o f t h e i n s i g n i fi ca n t a n d i n t h e i d e a s o f i mpl i ci t n e s s a n d t h e a ct i ve co mpl i ci t y o f t h e vi e we r , be ca us e g e n u- i n e be a ut y , a s Oka kur a e xpl a i n e d , "co ul d be d i s co ve r e d o n l y by o n e wh o me n t a l l y co mpl e t e d t h e i n co mpl e t e " [21]. Eve n t h e r e s e a r ch o f e mbe d d e d fi g ur e s by g e s t a l t i s t Kur t G o t t s ch a l d t h a s a n a s t o n i s h i n g pa r a l l e l i n D o w's us e o f t a r t a n co mpo s i t i o n a l g r i d s (Fi g . 5), wh i ch we r e a d a pt e d fr o m Or i e n t a l l a t - t i ce pa t t e r n s a n d a ppa r e n t l y a ppl i e d by Fr a n k Ll o y d Wr i g h t a n d Pi e t Mo n d r i a n i n a r ch i t e ct ur e a n d pa i n t i n g , r e s pe c- t i ve l y [22]. Wh i l e Ja pa n e s e a e s t h e t i cs co n t r i but e d t o t h e t r e n d t o wa r d g e o me t r i c a bs t r a c- t i o n i n t ur n -o f-t h e -ce n t ur y a r t a n d d e - s i g n , t h e r e i s n o e vi d e n ce t h a t t h e g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g i s t s we r e d i r e ct l y o r kn o wi n g l y i n fl ue n ce d by e i t h e r Ja pa n e s e a r t o r a e s - t h e t i ci s m. "Our pl a ce a t t h e Impe r i a l Pa l a ce , " r e ca l l e d Rud o l f Ar n h e i m i n a l e t t e r i n 1995, "wa s a s mo n a s t i ca l l y i n - br e d a s mo s t s ci e n t i fi c br e e d i n g pl a ce s , a n d a l t h o ug h pe o pl e l i ke Ko h l e r a n d We r t h e i me r we r e i n t e r e s t e d i n a r t a n d mus i c, l e s s i n l i t e r a t ur e , [t h e i n fl ue n ce s o f Ja po n i s me a n d t h e Ae s t h e t i c Mo ve - me n t ] h a d n o r e s o n a n ce t h e r e . Fo r me , t h e y a l l ca me l a t e r . Oka kur a 's Th e Bo o k o f Te a i s s t i l l o n e o f my ch e r i s h e d po s s e s - s i o n s , a n d s o i s a bo o kl e t by Fe n o l l o s a o n Ch i n e s e i d e o g r a ph s .... A bo o k by D o w o n co mpo s i t i o n i s un kn o wn t o me e ve n n o w" [23]. We r t h e i me r a n d Ko ffka d i e d i n t h e e a r l y 1940s ; Ko h l e r i n 1967. To d a y , g e - s t a l t t h e o r y 's i n fl ue n ce i n t h e fi e l d o f ps y ch o l o g y i s un o bt r us i ve i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s fi n d i n g s h a ve a l l be e n a bs o r be d by mo r e r e ce n t vi e wpo i n t s a n d be ca us e mo s t o f t h e pr o mi n e n t g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o - g i s t s h a ve e i t h e r r e t i r e d o r d i e d . Th e n o - t a bl e e xce pt i o n i s Ar n h e i m, n o w i n h i s e a r l y 90s , wh o co n t i n ue s t o wr i t e pr o - vo ca t i ve e s s a y s o n ps y ch o l o g y a n d a r t a n d wh o s e l a t e s t bo o k o n a r t , a co l l e c- t i o n o f e s s a y s t i t l e d Th e Spl i t a n d t h e St r uc- t ur e , wa s publ i s h e d i n 1996 [24]. In r e ce n t y e a r s , Ar n h e i m h a s be e n o ut s po ke n i n h i s cr i t i ci s m o f s o me a s - pe ct s o f po s t mo d e r n cul t ur e , a s i mpl i e d by t h e t i t l e o f o n e o f h i s bo o ks , To t h e Re s cue o f Ar t . Th e r e a r e i mpa i r me n t s i n cur r e n t d e s i g n , h e be l i e ve s , t h a t cul t i - va t e "a n un br i d l e d e xt r a va g a n ce , a vul - g a r i t y o f t a s t e , a n d a t r i vi a l i t y o f t h o ug h t " [25]. In r e t ur n , s o me po s t mo d e r n cr i t i cs , pa r t i cul a r l y Lupt o n a n d Mi l l e r , h a ve a t t a cke d g e s t a l t t h e o r y a s i n t e r pr e t e d by Ar n h e i m, Ke pe s a n d D o n i s A. D o n d i s (a ut h o r o f A Pr i me r o f Vi s ua l Li t e r a cy ), co n t e n d i n g t h a t i t "i s o - l a t e s vi s ua l pe r ce pt i o n fr o m l i n g ui s t i c i n t e r pr e t a t i o n [a n d t h e r e by ] e n co ur - a g e s i n d i ffe r e n ce t o cul t ur a l me a n i n g ." To s t ud y a bs t r a ct co mpo s i t i o n i s n o t i n i t s e l f o bje ct i o n a bl e , t h e y a r g ue , but "d e s i g n 's l i n g ui s t i c a n d s o ci a l a s pe ct s a r e t r i vi a l i ze d o r i g n o r e d wh e n a bs t r a ct i o n i s ma d e t h e pr i ma r y fo cus o f d e s i g n t h i n ki n g " [26]. Cur i o us l y , Lupt o n a n d Mi l l e r us e co mpa r a bl e me t h o d s t o d i s a vo w g e s t a l t t h e o r y : Th e y a bs t r a ct , s i mpl i fy a n d r e i n - t e r pr e t i t , i s o l a t i n g i t fr o m much o f i t s h i s t o r i ca l , l i n g ui s t i c a n d s o ci a l ba ck- g r o un d a n d , t h e r e by , i r o n i ca l l y , l a r g e l y i g n o r e i t s "cul t ur a l i n t e r pr e t a t i o n ." A fi - n a l i r o n y i s t h a t t h e i r o wn e l e g a n t bo o ks ma ke e xa g g e r a t e d us e o f h a ut e co ut ur e t y - po g r a ph y a n d pa g e l a y o ut s , wi t h pur - po s e l y d i s s o n a n t g r o upi n g e ffe ct s , e m- be d d e d t a r t a n g r i d s a n d s t r uct ur a l e co n o my -d e vi ce s t h a t We r t h e i me r s o ug h t t o e xpl a i n i n 1910 wh e n h e fo un d e d g e s t a l t ps y ch o l o g y . Re fe r e n ce s a n d No t e s 1. Fo r d e t a i l e d i n fo r ma t i o n o n We r t h e i me r 's a p- pa r e n t mo ve me n t e xpe r i me n t s a n d t h e fo r mul a - t i o n o f g e s t a l t t h e o r y , s e e G r e g o r y A. 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Re g a r d i n g Eh r e n fe l s , s e e As h [1] pp. 88ff; a n d Fr i t z He i d e r , "G e s t a l t Th e o r y : Ea r l y Hi s t o r y a n d Re mi n i s ce n ce s , " i n Ma r y He n l e , Jul i a n Ja y n e s a n d Jo h n J. Sul l i va n , e d s ., Hi s t o r i ca l Co n ce pt i o n s o f Ps y ch o l - o g y (Ne wYo r k: Spr i n g e r , 1973). 3. As h [1] pp. 118ff. 4. Th e r e i s a br i e f but vi vi d r e co l l e ct i o n o f s t ud e n t l i fe a t t h e Ps y ch o l o g i ca l In s t i t ut e i n Rud o l f Ar n h e i m, "My Li fe i n t h e Ar t Wo r l d , " a t a l k pr e - s e n t e d a t t h e Sch o o l o f Ar t , Un i v. o f Mi ch i g a n , An n Ar bo r , o n 8 Fe br ua r y 1984. Th e l i s t o f n a me s pr o - vi d e d h e r e wa s ve r i fi e d t h r o ug h my co r r e s po n - d e n ce wi t h Ar n h e i m. 5. 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Ar n h e i m t o l d me i n a l e t t e r d a t e d 16 Jun e 1993 t h a t d ur i n g h i s vi s i t h e s a w o n l y t h e bui l d i n g s , be - ca us e "i t wa s i n t h e s umme r a n d n o bo d y , e i t h e r fa - mo us o r i n fa mo us , wa s a r o un d t h a t I r e me mbe r ." 7. A ph o t o g r a ph o f Le wi n 's h o me , d e s i g n e d by Be h r e n s a n d Br e ue r , i s fo un d i n Ti l ma n n Bud d e n s e i g , e d ., Be r l i n 1900-1933: Ar ch i t e ct ur e a n d D e s i g n (Ne w Yo r k a n d Be r l i n : Co o pe r -He wi t t Mu- s e um a n d G e br . Ma n n Ve r l a g , 1987) p. 30. 8. Re g a r d i n g D un cke r 's Ba uh a us l e ct ur e a n d We r t h e i me r 's i n fl ue n ce o n Kl e e , s e e Ma r i a n n e Te ube r , "Bl ue Ni g h t by Pa ul Kl e e , " i n Ma r y He n l e , e d ., Vi s i o n a n d Ar t i fa ct (Ne w Yo r k: Spr i n g e r , 1976) pp. 131-151. 9. 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