The American Heritage Book of English Usage.

A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporar English. !""#

$. Word Formation
a. Plurals% Possessives% Affi&es% and Compounds

TH'( chapter tells ou ho) to form the plural and possessive forms of nouns and ho) to
stle compound )ords. 't also provides some *asic rules that account for the spelling
changes that occur )hen suffi&es are added to a )ord. A final section lists and e&plains
the most commonl used prefi&es and suffi&es.
1

Guide to Forming Plurals
'n this section )e outline the rules for forming plurals in English. 2
The plural of most nouns is formed * adding -s to the singular+ apple, apples; bell,
bells; epoch, epochs; grief, griefs; law, laws; month, months; pear, pears; shade,
shades; George, Georges; the Walkers; the Romanos.
3
Common nouns ending in ch ,soft-% sh, s, ss, x, or usuall form their plurals *
adding -es! ch"rch, ch"rches; slash, slashes; gas, gases or gasses; class, classes; fox,
foxes; #"i, #"ies; b", b"es.
$
Proper nouns of this tpe al)as add -es! %harles, %harleses; the &eaches; the
'oneses; the %oxes.
(
Common nouns ending in ) preceded * a vo)el usuall form their plurals * adding
-s! ba), ba)s; g"), g")s; ke), ke)s; to), to)s.
*
Common nouns ending in ) preceded * a consonant or * #" change the ) to i and add
-es! bab), babies; cit), cities; fac"lt), fac"lties; solilo#"), solilo#"ies.
+
Proper nouns ending in ) form their plurals regularl% and do not change the ) to i as
common nouns do+ the two &ath)s, the %onnall)s, the two &ansas %it)s. There are a fe)
)ell.kno)n e&ceptions to this rule+ the ,lleghenies, the -tolemies, the Rockies, the .wo
/icilies
0
/ost nouns ending in f, ff, or fe form their plurals regularl * adding -s to the singular+
chief, chiefs; proof, proofs; roof, roofs; sheriff, sheriffs; fife, fifes. Ho)ever% some nouns
ending in f or fe change the f or fe to 1 and add -es! calf, cal1es; elf, el1es; half, hal1es;
knife, kni1es; life, li1es; loaf, loa1es; self, sel1es; shelf, shel1es; thief, thie1es; wife,
wi1es; wolf, wol1es. A fe) nouns ending in f or ff, including beef, dwarf, hoof, scarf,
wharf, and staff have t)o plural forms+ beefs or bee1es; dwarfs or dwar1es; hoofs or
hoo1es; scarfs or scar1es; wharfs or whar1es; staffs or sta1es. 'n this case% sometimes
different forms have different meanings% as beefs ,complaints- and bee1es ,animals- or
staffs ,people- and sta1es ,long poles-.
2
0ouns ending in o preceded * a vo)el form their plurals * adding -s to the singular+
cameo, cameos; d"o, d"os; st"dio, st"dios; oo, oos.
13
/ost nouns ending in o preceded * a consonant also usuall add -s to form the plural+
alto, altos; casino, casinos; ego, egos; 4atino, 4atinos; memo, memos; ne"trino,
ne"trinos; poncho, ponchos; silo, silos. Ho)ever% some nouns ending in o preceded * a
consonant add -es! echo, echoes; hero, heroes; 5ingo, 5ingoes; no, noes; potato,
potatoes; tomato, tomatoes. (ome nouns ending in o preceded * a consonant have t)o
plural forms ,the preferred form is given first-+ b"ffaloes or b"ffalos; cargoes or cargos;
11
!
desperadoes or desperados; halos or haloes; mos#"itoes or mos#"itos; eros or eroes.
/ost nouns ending in i form their plurals * adding -s!alibi, alibis; khaki, khakis;
rabbi, rabbis; ski, skis. Three nota*le e&ceptions to this rule are alkali, taxi, and chili!
alkalis or alkalies; taxis or taxies; chilies.
12
A fe) nouns undergo a vo)el change in the stem+ foot, feet; goose, geese; lo"se, lice;
man, men; mo"se, mice; tooth, teeth; woman, women. Usuall compounds in )hich one
of these nouns is the final element form their plurals in the same )a+ webfoot, webfeet;
gentleman, gentlemen; dormo"se, dormice; 6nglishwoman, 6nglishwomen. 0ote%
ho)ever% that mongoose and man )ords ending in man, such as German and h"man,
are not compounds. These )ords form their plurals * adding -s! mongooses; Germans,
h"mans.
13
Three nouns have plurals ending in en! ox, oxen; child, children; brother, brothers ,of
the same parent- or brethren ,a fello) mem*er-.
1$
Compounds )ritten as a single )ord form their plurals the same )a that the final
element of the compound does+ dishcloth, dishcloths; hairbr"sh, hairbr"shes; midwife,
midwi1es; anchorman, anchormen; b"sinesswoman, b"sinesswomen.
1(
'n rare cases *oth parts of the compound are made plural+ manser1ant, menser1ants. 1*
Compounds ending in -f"l normall form their plurals * adding -s at the end+ c"pf"l,
c"pf"ls; handf"l, handf"ls; tablespoonf"l, tablespoonf"ls.
1+
Compound )ords% )ritten )ith or )ithout a hphen% that consist of a noun follo)ed *
an ad1ective or other 2ualifing e&pression form their plurals * making the same change
in the noun that is made )hen the noun stands alone+ attorne)-general, attorne)s-
general; da"ghter-in-law, da"ghters-in-law; man-of-war, men-of-war; heir apparent,
heirs apparent; notar) p"blic, notaries p"blic.
10
(ome nouns% mainl names of *irds% fishes% and mammals% have the same form in the
plural as in the singular+ bison, deer, moose, sheep, swine. (ome )ords that follo) this
pattern% such as antelope, cod, crab, elk, fish, flo"nder, gro"se, herring, #"ail, reindeer,
salmon, shrimp, and tro"t, also have regular plurals ending in -s! antelope, antelopes;
fish, fishes; salmon, salmons. 0ormall in such cases the unchanged plural indicates that
the animal in 2uestion is *eing considered collectivel% )hile the plural ending in -s is
used specificall to indicate different varieties or species or kinds+ We ca"ght six fish *ut
7alf a doen fishes inhabit the lake. B far% ho)ever% most animal names take a regular
plural+ dogs, cats, lions, monke)s, whales.
12
/an )ords indicating nationalit or place of origin have the same form in the plural
as in the singular+ 'apanese, 8ilanese, /wiss.
23
(imilarl a fe) names of tri*es or peoples have the same form in the plural as in the
singular+ 9ro#"ois, /io"x. /an other such names have *oth an unchanged plural form
and a regular plural form ending in -s!,pache or ,paches; %herokee or %herokees;
6skimo or 6skimos; :"l" or :"l"s.
21
/an nouns derived from a foreign language retain their foreign plurals+ ,from 3atin-
al"mna, al"mnae; al"mn"s, al"mni; bacill"s, bacilli; gen"s, genera; series, series;
species, species; ,from Greek- anal)sis, anal)ses; basis, bases; crisis, crises; criterion,
criteria or criterions; phenomenon, phenomena or phenomenons; ,from 4rench- adie",
adie"x or adie"s; bea", bea"x or bea"s; madame, mesdames; ,from 'talian- paparrao,
paparai; ,from He*re)- cher"b, cher"bim or cher"bs; kibb"t, kibb"tim. As ou can
see% man )ords of this tpe also have a regular plural ending in -s or -es, in )hich case
the English plural is usuall the one used in everda speech% and the foreign plural is
reserved for a technical sense or for use * a specialist+ antennas ,T5 or radio part- or
antennae ,phsiological structure-.
22
6
Usage )ith regard to forming the plurals of letters% num*ers% and a**reviations varies
some)hat. 'n some cases ou have a choice *et)een adding -s or -;s, although the trend
is increasingl to add -s alone+ three ,s or three ,;s; the ,<%s or the ,<%;s; the 1233s or
the 1233;s; -h=s or -h=;s; se1eral 9>?s or se1eral 9>?;s. 7ith lo)ercase letters%
sm*ols% a**reviations )ith periods% and in cases )here confusion might arise )ithout
an apostrophe% use -;s to form the plural+ p;s and #;s; @;s; -;s; 8.,.;s; ,;s and 9;s; 2;s.
/ainl our goal is to *e as clear as possi*le and avoid confusion.
23
The plural of a )ord *eing used as a )ord is indicated * -;s! "nderline all the b"t;s.
0ote that in tped or tpeset cop% onl the )ord b"t )ould appear in italics ,the
apostrophe and the s )ould *e in regular tpe-.
*. 4orming Possessives

'0 English the possessive case is used to sho) not onl simple possession *ut also a
variet of other relationships *et)een the noun marked for possession and the noun that
follo)s+
'ohn;s car the senator;s aide ,possession or *elonging-
the tide;s ebbing, ,m);s presentation ,su*1ect of an action-
the compan);s owners, the hero;s betra)al ,o*1ect of an action-
learner;s dictionar), a women;s college ,description or tpe-
m) father;s gentleness, the character;s greed ,attri*ute-
the bird;s wing, the book;s co1er ,a constituent part-
<eetho1en;s s)mphonies, grandmother;s letter ,origin-
a da);s 5o"rne), an arm;s length ,measure or amount-
1
4ollo)ing are the fe) *asic rules for forming the possessive case in English. 2
The possessive case of a singular noun is formed * adding -;s! one;s home, b) da);s
end, o"r famil);s pet, the witness;s testimon), a fox;s habitat, the knife;s edge. 0ote that
although some people use 1ust the apostrophe after singular nouns ending in s Athe
witness; testimon), <"rns; poetr)-% the -;s is generall preferred *ecause it more
accuratel reflects the modern pronunciation of these forms. Ho)ever% in a fe) cases
)here the -;s is not pronounced% it is usual to add 1ust the apostrophe+ for righteo"sness;
Aappearance;B sake.
3
The possessive case of a plural noun ending in -s is formed * adding 1ust an
apostrophe+ the doctors; recommendations, the glasses; rims, the flies; b"ing noises.
Ho)ever% )hen the plural noun does not end in -s, form the possessive * adding -;s!
children;s clothes.
$
The possessive case of most proper nouns is formed according to the rules for common
nouns+ ,singular- 6liot;s no1els, Ceats;s poetr), =osto)e1sk);s biograph), DelE#"e;s
paintings; ,plural- the 8c%arth)s; and the Williamses; parties, the /chwartes; trip. B
convention% ho)ever% certain proper nouns ending in s form the possessive * adding 1ust
the apostrophe since adding -;s )ould make the pronunciation difficult or a)k)ard+
'es"s; teachings, 8oses; children, ,chilles; heel 7erc"les; strength, Ramses; reign,
Ferxes; con#"est.
(
4or compound names or titles that form short phrases% add the -;s or apostrophe to the
final element+ the &ing of <elgi"m;s birthda), /aint Grancis of ,ssisi;s life, the go1ernor
of Hew Cork;s speech. 3ong phrases such as the man we met on the train;s sister should *e
avoided in )riting. 8e)ord them using of! the sister of the man we met on the train.
*
7hen t)o or more people or things possess something 1ointl% add the -;s or apostrophe
to the last element onl+ 8artha and =an;s ho"se. Ho)ever% )hen t)o or more people or
things possess something separatel% add the -;s or apostrophe to each element+ the
9
/miths; and the 'oneses; ho"ses are for sale.
c. Affi&es

3AC:'0G an e&act correspondence *et)een its sounds and its )ritten sm*ols% English
spelling can *e frustratingl inconsistent and can pose pro*lems for even the *est spellers.
Although it )ould *e impossi*le to formulate a set of rules that )ould cover the spelling of
all English )ords% man spelling difficulties arise in connection )ith suffi&es% and the si&
*asic rules given here for determining spelling changes in a )ord root )hen a suffi& is added
are intended as an aid in learning and understanding the correct spelling of a large num*er of
English )ords. 4or a *rief discussion of the development of /odern English spelling% see
the introduction to Pronunciation Challenges.
Adding a Suffix to a Word
!. Adding a suffi& to a one.slla*le )ord+
a. 7ords of one slla*le that end in a single consonant preceded * a single
vo)el dou*le the final consonant *efore a suffi& *eginning )ith a vo)el+
bag, baggage; hop, hopper; hot, hottest; red, redder; r"n, r"nning; stop,
stopped. There are t)o nota*le e&ceptions to this rule+ b"s Ab"ses or b"sses;
b"sing or b"ssingB and gas Agasses or gases; gassing; gass)B.
*. 'f a )ord ends )ith t)o or more consonants or if it ends )ith one consonant
preceded * t)o or more vo)els instead of one% the final consonant is not
dou*led+ de*t% de*tor; lick% licking; mail% mailed; s)eet% s)eetest.
6. Adding a suffi& to a )ord )ith t)o or more slla*les+
a. 7ords of t)o or more slla*les that have the accent on the last slla*le and
end in a single consonant preceded * a single vo)el dou*le the final
consonant *efore a suffi& *eginning )ith a vo)el+ admit, admitted; confer,
conferring; control, controller; regret, regrettable. There are a fe)
e&ceptions+ chagrin, chagrined; transfer, transferred, transferring *ut
transferable, transference.
*. 7hen the accent shifts to the first slla*le of the )ord after the suffi& is
added% the final consonant is not dou*led+ prefer, preference; refer, reference.
c. 'f the )ord ends )ith t)o consonants or if the final consonant is preceded *
more than one vo)el the final consonant is not dou*led+ perform,
performance; repeal, repealing.
d. 'f the )ord is accented on an slla*le e&cept the last the final consonant is
not usuall dou*led+ benefit, benefited; de1elop, de1eloped; interpret,
interpreted. Ho)ever% some )ords like cobweb, handicap, and o"tfit follo)
the models of web, cap, and fit, even though these )ords ma not *e true
compounds. A fe) others ending in g dou*le the final g so that it )ill not *e
pronounced like 5! igag, igagged.
9. Adding a suffi& *eginning )ith a vo)el to a )ord ending in a silent e!
7ords ending )ith a silent e usuall drop the e *efore a suffi& *eginning )ith a
vo)el+ force, forcible; ro"te, ro"ted; glide, gliding; operate, operator; trifle, trifler.
Ho)ever% there are man e&ceptions to this rule+
a. /an )ords of this tpe have alternative forms ,the preferred form is given
first-+ blame, blamable or blameable; bl"e, bl"ish or bl"eish. And in certain
cases% alternative forms have different meanings+ linage or lineage ,num*er
of lines- *ut lineage ,ancestr-.
*. /an )ords ending in ce or ge keep the e *efore the suffi&es -able and -o"s!
ad1antage, ad1antageo"s; change, changeable; trace, traceable.
c. 7ords ending in a silent e keep the e if the )ord could *e mistaken for
<
another )ord+ d)e, d)eing; singe, singeing.
d. 'f the )ord ends in ie, the e is dropped and the i changed to ) *efore the suffi&
-ing. A )ord ending in i remains unchanged *efore -ing! die, d)ing; ski,
skiing.
e. 8ile and acre do not drop the e *efore the suffi& -age! mileage, acreage.
<. Adding a suffi& *eginning )ith a consonant to a )ord ending in a silent e!
7ords ending )ith a silent e generall retain the e *efore a suffi& that *egins )ith a
consonant+ plate, platef"l; shoe, shoeless; arrange, arrangement; white, whiteness;
awe, awesome; nice, nicet). Ho)ever% there are man e&ceptions to this rule. (ome
of the most common are abridge, abridgment; acknowledge, acknowledgment;
arg"e, arg"ment; awe, awf"l; d"e, d"l); 5"dge, 5"dgment; nine, ninth; tr"e, tr"l);
whole, wholl); wise, wisdom.
=. Adding a suffi& to a )ord ending in )!
a. 7ords ending in ) preceded * a consonant generall change the ) to i *efore
the addition of a suffi&% e&cept )hen the suffi& *egins )ith an i! accompan),
accompaniment; bea"t), bea"tif"l; ic), icier, iciest, icil), iciness; *ut repl),
repl)ing.
*. The ) is retained in derivatives of bab), cit), and lad) and *efore the suffi&es
-ship and -like! bab)hood, cit)scape, lad)ship, lad)like.
c. Ad1ectives of one slla*le ending in ) preceded * a consonant usuall retain
the ) )hen a suffi& *eginning )ith a consonant is added+ sh% shl% shness;
sl% sll% slness; )r% )rl% )rness; *ut drl or dril% drness. These
ad1ectives usuall also retain the ) )hen a suffi& *eginning )ith a vo)el is
added% although most have variants )here the ) has changed to i! dr), drier or
dr)er, driest or dr)est; sh), shier or sh)er, shiest or sh)est.
d. 7ords ending in ) preceded * a vo)el usuall retain the ) *efore a suffi&+
b"), b")er; ke), ke)less; co), co)er, co)est; ga), ga)er, ga)est; *ut da), dail);
ga), gail) or ga)l).
e. (ome )ords drop the final ) *efore the addition of the suffi& -eo"s! bea"t),
bea"teo"s.
#. Adding a suffi& to a )ord ending in c!
7ords ending in c almost al)as have the letter k inserted after the c )hen a suffi&
*eginning )ith e, i, or ) is added+ panic, panick); picnic, picnicker. This is done so
that the letter c )ill not *e pronounced like s.
d. 7ord Compounding

A C>/P>U0? )ord is made up of t)o or more )ords that together e&press a single idea.
There are three tpes of compounds. An open compo"nd consists of t)o or more )ords
)ritten separatel% such as salad dressing, <oston terrier, or ,pril Gools; =a). A
h)phenated compo"nd has )ords connected * a hphen% such as age-old, mother-in-
law, force-feed. A solid compo"nd consists of t)o )ords that are )ritten as one )ord%
such as ke)board or t)pewriter. 'n addition% a compound ma *e classified as permanent
or temporar. A permanent compo"nd is fi&ed * common usage and can usuall *e
found in the dictionar% )hereas a temporar) compo"nd consists of t)o or more )ords
1oined * a hphen as needed% usuall to modif another )ord or to avoid am*iguit. 'n
general% permanent compounds *egin as temporar compounds that *ecome used so
fre2uentl the *ecome esta*lished as permanent compounds. 3ike)ise man solid
compounds *egin as separate )ords% evolve into hphenated compounds% and later
*ecome solid compounds. Although the dictionar is the first place to look )hen ou are
tring to determine the status of a particular compound% reference )orks do not al)as
1
=
agree on the current evolutionar form of a compound% nor do the include temporar
compounds. The follo)ing general rules appl to forming compounds. :eep in mind
that )ords that are made up of a )ord root plus a prefi& or a suffi& are not normall
considered compounds% strictl speaking. But for convenience )e discuss them here
since the are also sometimes hphenated.
Prefixes and Suffixes
0ormall% prefi&es and suffi&es are 1oined )ith a second element )ithout a hphen%
unless doing so )ould dou*le a vo)el or triple a consonant+ antianxiet), anticrime,
antiwar *ut anti-intellect"al; childlike, taillike *ut bell-like. Even so% man common
prefi&es% such as co-, de-, pre-, pro-, and re-, are added )ithout a hphen although a
dou*le vo)el is the result+ coordinate, preeminent, reenter.
2
A hphen is also used )hen the element follo)ing a prefi& is capitali@ed or )hen the
element preceding a suffi& is a proper noun+ anti-,merican, ,merica-like.
3
The hphen is usuall retained in )ords that *egin )ith all-, ex- ,meaning AformerB-%
half-, #"asi- ,in ad1ective constructions-% and self-! all-aro"nd; ex-go1ernor; half-life *ut
halfhearted, halfpenn), halftone, halfwa); #"asi-scientific *ut a #"asi s"ccess; self-
defense *ut selfhood, selfish, selfless, selfsame.
$
Certain homographs re2uire a hphen to prevent mistakes in pronunciation and
meaning+ recreation ,en1oment-% re-creation ,ne) creation-; release ,to let go-% re-lease
,to rent again-.
(
When the Compound Is a Noun or Adjective
'n order to avoid confusion% compound modifiers are generall hphenated+ fine-wine
tasting, high-school teacher, hot-water bottle, minim"m-wage worker, rare-book store,
real-life experiences. 'f there is no possi*ilit of confusion% or if the hphen )ould look
clums% omit the hphen+ b"bonic plag"e o"tbreak, chemical engineering degree, temp
agenc) emplo)ee.
*
7hen a noun that is an open compound is preceded * an ad1ective% the compound is
often hphenated to avoid confusion+ wine cellar, damp wine-cellar; broom closet, tin)
broom-closet; ho"se cat, old ho"se-cat.
+
Compound ad1ectives formed )ith high- or low- are generall hphenated+ high-#"alit)
programming, low-b"dget films.
0
Compound ad1ectives formed )ith an adver* plus an ad1ective or a participle are often
hphenated )hen the occur *efore the noun the modif+ a well-known actor, an ill-
ad1ised mo1e, best-lo1ed poems, a m"ch-impro1ed sit"ation, the so-called c"re.
Ho)ever% )hen these compounds occur after the noun% or )hen the are modified% the
hphen is usuall omitted+ the actor is well known; an extremel) well known actor.
2
'f the adver* ends in -l) in an adver*.ad1ective compound% the hphen is omitted+ a
finel) t"ned mechanism, a caref"ll) worked can1as.
13
Compound ad1ectives formed )ith an adver* or a noun and a past participle are al)as
hphenated )hen the precede the noun the modif+ well-kept secret, abo1e-mentioned
reason, heli"m-filled balloons, snow-capped mo"ntains. /an compounds of this tpe
have *ecome permanent and are therefore hphenated )hether the precede or follo)
the noun the modif+ a well-worn shirt, his shirt was well-worn; the tong"e-tied
winner, she remained tong"e-tied.
11
Also hphenate compound ad1ectives formed )ith an ad1ective and a noun to )hich -d 12
#
or -ed has *een added+ )ellow-e)ed cat, fine-grained wood, man)-tiered cake, sto"t-
limbed toddler. /an of these compounds have *ecome permanent hphenated or solid
compounds+ middle-aged, old-fashioned, lightheaded, kindhearted.
Compound ad1ectives formed )ith a noun% ad1ective% or adver* and a present participle
are hphenated )hen the compound precedes the noun it modifies+ a bone-chilling tale,
two good-looking sons, long-lasting friendship. /an of these compounds have *ecome
permanent solid compounds+ earsplitting, farseeing. /an other compounds have
*ecome permanent and are hphenated )hether the precede or follo) the noun the
modif+ far-reaching conse#"ences; the conse#"ences are far-reaching.
13
Compound nouns formed )ith a noun and a gerund are generall open+ crime sol1ing,
ho"se h"nting, tro"t fishing. /an of these compounds% ho)ever% have *ecome
permanent solid compounds+ fa"ltfinding, ho"sekeeping.
1$
Compound modifiers formed of capitali@ed )ords should not *e hphenated+ >ld
6nglish poetr), 9ron ,ge man"fact"re, Hew World plants.
1(
Usage is divided )ith regard to compounds that are proper names used to designate
ethnic groups. Under normal circumstances such terms )hen used as nouns or ad1ectives
should appear )ithout a hphen+ a gro"p of ,frican ,mericans, man) Hati1e ,mericans,
Grench %anadians in <oston, a 'ewish ,merican organiation, an 9talian ,merican
neighborhood, 4atin ,merican co"ntries. Ho)ever% man ,*ut not all- compounds of
this tpe are no) fre2uentl hphenated+ ,frican-,mericans, ,sian-,merican families,
Grench-%anadian m"sic *ut Hati1e ,merican m)ths.
1*
0ouns or ad1ectives consisting of a short ver* com*ined )ith a preposition are either
hphenated or )ritten solid depending on current usage. The same )ords used as a ver*
are )ritten separatel+ a break"p *ut break "p a fight; a bang-"p 5ob *ut bang "p the
car.
1+
T)o nouns of e2ual value are hphenated )hen the person or thing is considered to
have the characteristics of *oth nouns+ secretar)-treas"rer, cit)-state, time-motion st"d).
10
Compound forms must reflect meaning. Conse2uentl% some compounds ma change
in form depending on ho) the are used+ ,n)one ma) go *ut ,n) one of these will do;
61er)one is here *ut 61er) one of these is good.
12
(cientific compounds are usuall not hphenated+ carbon monoxide poisoning,
dichromic acid sol"tion.
23
Phrases
Phrases used as modifiers are normall hphenated+ a happ)-go-l"ck) person, a here-
toda)-gone-tomorrow attit"de.
21
A foreign phrase used as a modifier is not hphenated+ a bona fide offer, a per diem
allowance.
22
Numbers
0um*ers from t)ent.one to ninet.nine and ad1ective compounds )ith a numerical first
element ,)hether spelled out or )ritten in figures- are hphenated+ twent)-one, thirt)-
first, second-rate mo1ie, third-stor) window, three-dimensional fig"re, six-sided
pol)gon, ten-tho"sand-)ear-old bones, 13-piece band, 12th-cent"r) no1el, decades-old
newspapers.
23
(pelled.out num*ers used )ith -fold are not hphenated; figures and -fold are
hphenated+ tenfold, 6C.fold.
2$
D
Compounds of a num*er and -odd are hphenated+ fo"r-odd, *3-odd. 2(
A modifing compound consisting of a num*er and a possessive noun is not
hphenated+ one week;s pa), ho"rs; work.
2*
4ractions used as modifiers are hphenated unless the numerator or denominator of the
fraction contains a hphen+ three-eighths inch, twent)-fo"r h"ndredths part; .he pie was
one-half eaten. 4ractions used as nouns are usuall not hphenated+ 7e ate one half of
the pie.
2+
Color
Compound color ad1ectives are hphenated+ a red-gold s"nset, a cherr)-red sweater. 20
Color compounds )hose first element ends in -ish are hphenated )hen the precede
the noun *ut should not *e hphenated )hen the follo) the noun+ a darkish-bl"e color,
a reddish-gold s"nset; .he sk) is reddish gold.
Agglutination ,the process of forming ne) )ords from e&isting ones * adding affi&es to
them% like shame E less E ness F shamelessness-
ac!"formation ,removing seeming affi&es from e&isting )ords% like forming edit from
editor-
lending ,a )ord formed * 1oining parts of t)o or more older )ords% like smog% )hich
comes from smoke and fog-
Acron#m ,a )ord formed from initial letters of the )ords in a phrase% like English laser from
light amplified b) stim"lated emission of radiation-
Clipping $morpholog#% ,taking part of an e&isting )ord% like forming ad from
ad1ertisement-
Compound $linguistics- ,a )ord formed * stringing together older )ords% like earth#"ake-
Incorporation $linguistics% ,a compound of a ver* and an o*1ect or particle% like intake-
Conversion $linguistics% ,forming a ne) )ord from an e&isting identical one% like forming
the ver* green from the e&isting ad1ective-
&oan'ord ,a )ord *orro)ed from another language% like clichI% )hich comes from 4rench-
(nomatopoeia ,the creation of )ords that imitate natural sounds% like the *ird name c"ckoo-
$