Aws WJ 201409

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
September 2014
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40 Making the Switch from Manual to Automated
Pipe Cutting
A pipe shop gains a competitive edge with
automation in the cutting and beveling operation
J. Henderson
44 Rolling Induction Technology Provides Steady Heating
Induction heating, along with rolling the pipe
while welding, proves a successful combination
in this pipe fabricating operation J. Ryan
48 Effects of Buttering on HighCarbonEquivalent
InService Pipe
This study comes up with some practical insights
on hardness when welding in-service pipe
M. Dull and K. Forest
50 Digital Systems Deliver Orbital Welding Consistency
The step from analog to digital technology in
orbital welding leads to improved reliability
and increased deposition rates S. Cole and
K. Beardsley
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 3
CONTENTS
321s Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing
Enhanced Droplet Oscillation Part II: Modeling
and Analysis
A numerical model of the dynamics of droplet
oscillation and detachment is verified
experimentally J. Xiao et al.
331s SemiCuttingAssisted Laser Welding of
ZincCoated Steels in a Zero Root Opening,
LapJoint Configuration
Laser beam welding successfully meets the challenge of
joining zinc-coated steel S. Yang et al.
338s Characterization of CSCGMAW TitaniumRich
Weld Overlays
Various titanium-rich cladding materials and a
combination of welding processes were tested to find
which provided the best erosion/wear resistance
J. E. Ramirez
351s Analysis of the Local Stresses at LaserWelded
Lap Joints
Localized stress analysis was conducted on lap joints
to better understand their fatigue life K. D. Lee et al.
362s Heat Treatment and YbFiber Laser Welding of
a Maraging Steel
Laser welding and postweld heat treatment were
analyzed for their effect on the weld joint in maraging
steel L. Fanton et al.
WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
September 2014 Volume 93 Number 9
FEATURES
96 Volunteers Repair Historic Navy Warship
Repairing a historical naval vessel gave students a
valuable lesson in real-world working conditions
M. Gomez
100 Preventing Rust on Stainless Steel Pipes
Widespread rusting on 316L stainless steel pipe
resulted in a costly delay of the project and a search
for its cause W. C. LaPlante
40 44
THE AMERICAN WELDER
50
54 Study of Underwater Friction Welding Technology
A remotely operated vehicle was used to repair
sacrificial anodes on underwater piping
G. Hui et al.
6 Editorial
8 Press Time News
10 News of the Industry
16 Business Briefs
18 International Update
20 Stainless Q&A
26 RWMA Q&A
32 Product & Print Spotlight
62 Coming Events
70 Certification Schedule
72 Conferences
75 Society News
76 Tech Topics
88 Guide to AWS Services
90 Personnel
The American Welder
106 Learning Track
110 Fact Sheet
112 Classifieds
114 Advertiser Index
WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014 4
DEPARTMENTS
Welding Journal (ISSN 00432296) is published monthly by the
American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the United
States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and $10.00 per sin
gle issue for nonmembers and $14.00 single issue for interna
tional. American Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 331666672; telephone (305) 4439353. Period
icals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices.
POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Welding Journal, 8669
NW 36th St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672. Canada Post: Publi
cations Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent
to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2,
Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles for per
sonal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which are
not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and
sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.
Copyright 2014 by American Welding Society in both printed
and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any
statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and informa
tion developed by the authors of specific articles are for informa
tional purposes only and are not intended for use without inde
pendent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential
users.
Officers
President Dean R. Wilson
Welldean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), University of Tennessee
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Olsson Associates
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Airgas USA, LLC, NorthCentral Region
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
WELDING JOURNAL
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Senior Advertising Sales Executive Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Sales Executive Annette Delagrange
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672
(305) 4439353 or (800) 4439353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing
Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair, ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
C. Coffey, Lincoln Electric
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
S. Fyffe, Astaras, Inc.
D. Levin, Airgas
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, WeldAid Products
D. Wilson, Welldean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
On the cover: For orbital welding, digital machines
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the capability to deliver faster travels speeds or
greater deposition while controlling distortion and
heat input levels. (Photo courtesy of The Lincoln
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Often the question arises, What is a
code and what are the qualifications of the
people who write them? The simple answer
is that a code provides rules or guidelines
that we follow to achieve a goal. While our
goals may change, forced by inventions and
technological changes, the basic mission re-
mains the same: with these guidelines, we
can set standards that are reasonable,
obtainable, and consistent. As the world
continues to invent new processes, materi-
als, and technologies, we strive to keep pace
with these inventions and incorporate them
into our codes. Those serving on AWS tech-
nical committees are expected to leave their
competitive differences aside while striving
to maintain a balance between their
supporting companies and the good of
industry. It is only through continuous im-
provement that our goal of being
competent, competitive, and good stewards
of a guiding code can be achieved.
This year, a new edition of AWS D1.2,
Structural Welding Code Aluminum, was
released. The D1.2 subcommittee members
volunteered countless hours to make
revisions relevant to todays needs. While
some of the codes clauses are very technical
and believe me, proposed changes to
them resulted in some spirited discussions
it is always the intent of the subcommit-
tee to improve the codes clarity. For this
new edition, we adjusted the scope of the
code to allow the engineer to take a more
significant role.
Aluminum has relatively stable and pre-
dictable properties. Therefore, it should be
possible to meet specific requirements
established in AWS D1.2. While the code
does not state how to achieve specific
results, it does provide the requirements for
aluminum weld design, qualification (of
welding procedures and welders),
fabrication, and inspection. In addition, the
code addresses requirements for fabricators
using gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten
arc welding, stud welding, and new for
2014, friction stir welding.
It is my opinion that, as the codes scope
broadens, additional business sectors will be
able to utilize it for transportation,
shipping/boating, recreational, and possibly
aerospace applications. Currently, there is
nothing in the scope that prevents
additional markets from adopting the code
in their applications.
I believe that regardless of where or how
aluminum is welded, the physical
requirements generally remain the same
and, therefore, can be treated similarly.
From my standpoint, teaching and training
aluminum welders to produce quality work
requires a code that has clear and meaning-
ful requirements that provide the ability to
meet industry standards regardless of the
product. While there are varying degrees of
liability among applications, I believe most
would agree that when it comes to the prod-
ucts they produce, failure is not an option.
This is a motivating factor when compa-
nies weigh the cost of adopting this or other
codes to capture the benefits of increased
quality and improved liability protection.
Savings can be measured in productivity im-
provements by consistently using qualified
weld procedures and having qualified
welders with proven skills. From a liability
standpoint, it would be better to state that a
companys weld operators follow written
procedures rather than undocumented set-
tings passed from one person to another.
I would like to thank the members of the
D1G Subcommittee and the D1 Committee
for the hard work they contributed to the
2014 edition of D1.2. Serving on these com-
mittees has given me a new perspective on a
code that I thought I knew quite well. I
found that many codes can be improved,
clarified, or modified to incorporate
advances in technology, and when they are,
it is because of committee members who
dedicated their time and efforts to making
those improvements.
EDITORIAL
How AWS Codes Reflect Changes in
Technology
Thom Burns
Chair, AWS D1G
Subcommittee on Alu-
minum Structures
We adjusted the
scope of the code
to allow the
engineer to take a
more significant
role.
WJ
AWS Unveils New Logo and Tagline, Plus
Becomes Global Supporter of WorldSkills
The American Welding Society (AWS), Miami, Fla., has
introduced a new logo and tagline as part of the first phase
of rebranding for the organization.
The logo reflects a contemporary interpretation of the
established AWS diamond insignia with modernized font
and beveled metal elements, while the tagline Inspiring
the World Forward focuses on AWSs goal to enhance
the welding industrys stability, strength, and future.
Our new logo and tagline reflects a new era for the Soci-
ety as it represents a more contemporary style propelling us
into the future, while still maintaining a link to our rich his-
tory with our iconic diamond, said Lorena Cora, marketing
director, AWS.
A video, The New Look of the American Welding Society,
has been uploaded to the organizations YouTube channel.
Lasting nearly 1 min and 30 s, it focuses on inspiring members
with better results and bigger opportunities; stronger
standards that keep us safer; new generations to join us;
important conversations about todays issues and tomorrows
possibilities; and urges welding communities from every cor-
ner of the globe to collaborate and share knowledge.
In addition, AWS has signed on as a Global Supporter of
WorldSkills International (WSI), a not-for-profit
membership association open to agencies or bodies that
have a responsibility to promote vocational education and
training in their respective countries/regions.
AWS will have representatives at the WorldSkills General
Assembly 2014 in Lucerne, Switzerland, this month as well
as promotional placing during the 43rd WorldSkills Compe-
tition in So Paulo, Brazil, next year.
Both AWS and WSI share a common vision to advocate
for the skilled trades through research, education, and train-
ing, international cooperation, and the creation of career
pathways, said Ray Shook, AWS executive director. AWS is
excited to partner with WorldSkills as a Global Supporter
and is looking forward to working with them to enhance the
welding profession worldwide.
AK Steel to Acquire Severstal Dearborn
AK Steel, West Chester, Ohio, has signed an agreement to
acquire Severstal North Americas integrated steelmaking
assets in Dearborn, Mich., for $700 million in cash. The
transaction includes a cokemaking facility and interests in
three joint ventures that process flat-rolled steel products.
Upon completion of the acquisition, AK Steels annual
shipments are expected to exceed 7.5 million tons. Also, the
company stated it intends to utilize all of Dearborns
production units and has no plans to cease operations at any
of its current steelmaking or steel finishing facilities.
Third Annual National Manufacturing Day
Set for Oct. 3
The American Welding Society is now a Bronze Sponsor
of National Manufacturing Day, Oct. 3. On that day, manu-
facturing facilities and educational institutions across North
America will host events showcasing the potential of
modern manufacturing and to foster interest in
manufacturing careers. Events in your local community can
be found at www.mfgday.com/events.
The Manufacturing Day 2014 steering committee
consists of representatives from four institutions Fabri-
cators & Manufacturers Association, Intl, National Institute
of Standards & Technology Hollings Manufacturing Exten-
sion Partnership, Manufacturing Institute, and National As-
sociation of Manufacturers.
Welding Journal Earns Three Top Honors
The Welding Journal
received three trophies
at the Florida Magazine
Associations 2014
Charlie Awards on Au-
gust 8, during the orga-
nizations 61st annual
conference and expo,
held at the Omni
Orlando Resort at
ChampionsGate in
ChampionsGate, Fla.
In the trade/techni-
cal division, the follow-
ing articles were recog-
nized: best feature,
Charlie (first place)
Award, for The Three
Rs of Welded Art by
staff members Howard
Woodward, Kristin
Campbell, and Mary Ruth Johnsen (October 2013 issue)
along with best in-depth reporting, Charlie Award, for Tak-
ing the Next Step in Additive Manufacturing by contribut-
ing authors Richard Martukanitz and Jay Hollingsworth
(March 2014 magazine).
Also, in the association and trade/technical category for
best single, original, B&W or color photograph, the silver
award went to a Hypertherm, Inc., image highlighting dedi-
cated bevel cutting heads (page 38, October 2013 issue).
PRESS TIME NEWS
WJ
The new AWS logo, featuring a contemporary interpretation of the
established AWS diamond insignia with modernized font and
beveled metal elements, is highlighted alongside the Inspiring the
World Forward tagline.
At the Florida Magazine Associa
tions 2014 Charlie Awards, the
Welding Journal was acknowledged
for writing and design excellence
achievements. Pictured are the tro
phies and October 2013/March 2014
issues.
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TransCanada Approved for Pipeline Project
and Launches Welder Training Program
TransCanada Corp., Calgary, Alberta, Canada, recently ac-
knowledged that the Alberta Energy Regulator approved its
application to construct and operate the Northern Courier
Pipeline Project. The company was chosen by Fort Hills En-
ergy LP to design, build, own, and operate this $800 million
pipeline project.
The approximately 56-mile pipeline system will transport
bitumen as well as diluent products between the Fort Hills
mine and bitumen extraction facility and Suncors East Tank
Farm located north of Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada.
It will consist of a 24-in.-diameter insulated steel pipeline
to transport the bitumen, and a 12-in.-diameter steel
pipeline to transport the diluent.
We currently expect construction on Northern Courier
to begin in the third quarter of 2014 with it being ready for
service by 2017, said Russ Girling, TransCanadas president
and CEO.
In addition, the United Association of Journeymen and
Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of
the United States and Canada (UA) in collaboration with
TransCanada unveiled a new pipeline training program
across Canada to enable welders, pipefitters, and
apprentices to continue obtaining advanced training and to
upgrade their skills in pipe welding and cutting.
The UA is working with TransCanada and its Energy East
Pipeline Project to provide sections of large-diameter steel
pipe for welder training.
Northwest Pipe and S. J. Louis Awarded
Major Wyoming Project
Northwest Pipe Co., Vancouver, Wash., has been selected
to supply pipe for a multimillion dollar pipeline project run-
ning between Wyodak and Moorcroft, Wyo. The project in-
cludes approximately 22 miles of 42-in.-diameter, cement
mortar lined, and polyurethane-coated spiral welded steel
pipe. It will expand the city of Gillettes groundwater sources
and, when complete, provide a new water treatment and
conveyance system for the city plus surrounding areas. The
pipeline is being constructed by S. J. Louis Construction,
Rockville, Minn., and expected to be done by October 2015.
Koch Pipelines Extension to Move
More South Texas Crude
Koch Pipeline Co., L.P., Wichita, Kan., will expand its
South Texas crude oil pipeline system by installing an addi-
tional 24-mile pipeline in San Patricio County. This will have
an expected initial capacity of approximately 200,000
barrels per day.
We are seeing additional opportunities with the Eagle
Ford shale project, and this new pipeline will help us move
domestic crude to the U.S. market more efficiently by using
a combination of new and existing pipeline infrastructure,
said Bob OHair, executive vice president of Koch Pipeline.
The new 16-in. pipeline is anticipated to begin service in
the second quarter of 2014.
New Welding Journal Android App Now Available
The Welding Journal Android reading app is currently
available for free download at the Google Play Store and
Amazon Appstore. These mobile apps enable AWS members
to read both current and past issues of the magazine, going
back to December 2011, either online or by downloading
them to mobile devices for offline reading. Also, they
complement the desktop digital issue automatically sent to
every AWS member via e-mail, which can be read on mobile
devices web browsers with comparable functionality.
To access content, AWS members must enter their ID
numbers and passwords. If assistance is needed, contact
Member Services Director Rhenda Kenny at rhenda@aws.org.
To get additional questions answered, contact Carlos
Guzman, manager of electronic media and international pe-
riodicals, at cguzman@aws.org.
The Welding Journal reading app for Apples iOS devices,
available since 2011, has been downloaded by almost 20,000
readers. Now all three apps share the same functionality and
user interface, including the archives, global search
functions, and web links.
Newport News Shipbuilding Supports Welding
Education in Allendale, S.C.
Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News Shipbuild-
ing division recently donated training materials to the
Southern Carolina Regional Development Alliance (SCA) for
a welding program in Allendale County, S.C.
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
Pipeline Plans Progress
We are pleased that the Alberta Energy Regulator has approved
Northern Courier, which will be a critical piece of infrastructure
to support the longterm plans for growth and increased produc
tion from the Alberta oil sands, said Russ Girling, TransCanadas
president and CEO. Displayed above is welding activity on a
TransCanada natural gas pipeline in Canada.
Its Advanced Manufacturing Skills Training Program has
educated 47 students. The alliance is currently working to
expand the program by implementing curricula developed
and used by Newport News Shipbuilding. A shipyard
welding instructor will also work with the training facility.
The curricula supplied by Newport News includes computer-
based training followed by hands-on practice.
Several recent professional studies have indicated the
need for thousands of welders and pipefitters in the Caroli-
nas and Georgia over the next five to ten years, said Danny
Black, SCA president and CEO.
Material Testing and Metrology Lab
Celebrates 30th Anniversary
Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield, Pa., recently celebrated
30 years in business. The company originated as the Nonde-
structive Testing division of Carson Helicopter in 1976.
In 1984, Robert McVaugh Sr. purchased his partners share
of Carson, incorporated as Laboratory Testing, Inc., and
moved to a 30,000-sq-ft building in Dublin, Pa.
The company has grown to a 91,500-sq-ft facility with
145 employees performing several services in addition to
nondestructive examination. These include chemical analy-
sis, mechanical testing, metallography, failure analysis, spec-
imen machining, dimensional inspection, and calibration.
In 1994, ownership was passed to the next generation.
Mike McVaugh assumed the role of president. In late 1999,
the company began moving to its current location. Accord-
Included in Laboratory Testings services are nondestructive
examination, mechanical testing, metallography, specimen
machining, and calibration. Pictured above is positive material
identification.
For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
ing to McVaugh, the 2000s was an eventful decade. It
purchased Gage Lab Corp. and built a 12,000-sq-ft addition.
In the last few years, two nearby buildings were rented,
opening space in the main building to renovate and expand
the destructive testing departments.
Today, the third generation is involved in the business
and preparing to take over ownership down the road.
Victor Announces 2014 Student Cutting
and Welding Contest
Victor Technologies
TM
, St. Louis, Mo., will award more
than $30,000 in equipment and cash prizes as part of its
2014 A Cut Above contest. Its open to students in cutting,
welding, and related programs at secondary and
postsecondary schools.
Three beginner students will each win $250 for writing a
500-word essay that the judges deem to best support the
contest theme. Judges will also choose three advanced stu-
dent winning teams, and each team member will receive
$500; advanced students will submit a team metal
fabrication project that utilizes an oxyfuel, airfuel, or
plasma cutting process.
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This Halloweenworthy Victor Man sculpture won one of three
team awards in the 2013 Victor Technologies A Cut Above con
test. This year, entries are accepted through October 31.
Each of the schools associated with the winners at their
entry time will receive the following prize package valued at
more than $4000: one Victor Medalist 250 medium-duty
cutting system; one Victor Thermal Dynamics Cutmaster
TM
42 air plasma cutting outfit; one Tweco Fabricator 211i 3-
in-1 shielded metal arc-gas metal arc-gas tungsten arc weld-
ing machine kit; and two Tweco 4-sensor autodarkening
welding helmets.
Entries are accepted through October 31. Contests are
open to residents of the United States or Canada (excluding
Quebec). Rules and entry forms are at
www.victortechnologies.com/acutabove.
Welding Program at South Plains College Gets
Boost with Advanced Equipment
South Plains College, Levelland, Tex., was recently
presented with a $134,087.94 award from the Jobs and Edu-
cation for Texans grant program thats administered by the
State of Texas Comptrollers office. Fifteen Miller Electric
PipeWorx welding systems were bought to provide opportu-
nities for students to work on advanced technologies.
According to Pete Stracener, chair for the Industrial Tech-
nology Department, program coordinator and professor of
Welding Technology, the colleges welding students will be
trained in the new regulated metal deposition process and
be better prepared for the oil/gas industry.
There are several oil field equipment manufacturing
companies in Midland and Odessa who are putting this
technology into their fabrication processes, he said. They
are looking for people who can operate these machines.
In addition, to meet the comptrollers office requirements
for the grant, 151 students will be trained on this new
equipment in 201415.
AME Debuts Job Board and Launches
AdoptaSchool Educational Initiative
The Association for Manufacturing Excellence (AME),
Rolling Meadows, Ill., has started a Manufacturing Job
South Plains College recently received delivery of 15 Miller Elec
tric PipeWorx welding systems. The welding students shown
(from left) are Cody Lane, Roy Perez, Travis Zumwalt, and Ben
jamin Rollo. (SPC Photo/Wes Underwood)
Board at jobs.ame.org. Job seekers can search jobs, post a r-
sum, and set up an e-mail job alert while employers can
post a job, view rsums, and look at the products/pricing
recruitment options.
In addition, the AME Adopt-a-School Program provides
high school and college students with access to educational
resources and hands-on learning experiences. Manufactur-
ers can participate in activities such as hosting tours, visit-
ing schools to give talks, mentoring, and promoting intern-
ships. Schools in the program provide their students a look
at careers in manufacturing industries across the country.
For more details, contact AME Education and Training
Director Nancy Wajler at nwajler@ame.org.
AWISCO Establishes Workforce
Development Award
AWISCO President Lloyd Robinson recently issued the
companys first Workforce Development Award to 2014
graduate Dalton Pegg of the Sussex Vocational Technical
School in Sparta, N.J., and also an entry-level welder
through the SENSE program.
Dalton won the award for exemplifying excellence in
welding, said Robinson. He will be a welcomed member in
the best tradition of the welding profession.
The award, presented by AWISCO Executive Vice
President Felim OMalley and Account Manager Mark
Gualandi, included more than $500 of professional welding
and safety equipment.
We cant thank the AWISCO family enough for all that
they have done for the students here at Sussex Tech, said
Welding Instructor Josh Conklin.
Industry Notes
Micro Air Clean Air Systems, Wichita, Kan., has a new
program to benefit welding schools. Its based on the
Extreme Air downdraft table and includes a free on-site
Felim OMalley, AWISCOs executive vice president, presents the
companys first Workforce Development Award to Dalton Pegg.
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Our team is dedicated to servicing
you with engineering and support.
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AECOM to Acquire URS, Creating Major
Integrated Infrastructure Provider
AECOM Technology Corp., Los Angeles, Calif., an
infrastructure and support services firm, will acquire all out-
standing shares of URS Corp., San Francisco, Calif., a
provider of engineering, construction, and technical
services, for a combination of cash as well as stock valued at
approximately $4 billion or $56.31 per URS share. Including
the assumption of URS debt, the total enterprise value of
the transaction is approximately $6 billion.
The combined company will be an integrated infrastruc-
ture and federal services provider with more than 95,000
employees in 150 countries. It will serve clients across many
markets, including transportation, energy, and government.
Terms of the definitive agreement have been
unanimously approved by the boards of directors from both
companies. The transaction is expected to close in October.
Michael S. Burke will be the combined companys CEO,
and the companies have also designed a new operating man-
agement structure. John M. Dionisio, AECOM executive
chairman, will serve as board chairman.
Astaras Buys Anviloy Product Line
Astaras, Inc., Largo, Fla., a provider of tungsten
electrodes, has purchased the entire Anviloy business from
the former CMW International, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.
Steve Fyffe, president of Astaras, mentioned the German
holding company IBG Group, of which the company and
Weldstone Europe GmbH are both members, relocated and
expanded its new 129,000-sq-ft tungsten production
facility. This plant will fill the demand of new E3 tungsten
electrodes along with Anviloy tungsten materials and spe-
cialty welding electrodes.
The new facility also increases our ability to grow our ex-
isting tungsten heavy metals materials, tungsten copper,
and specialty tungsten alloys, Fyffe said.
Centric Pipes New Project to Create 82
Direct Jobs at Louisiana Facility
Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal and SB International,
Inc., President/CEO Satish Gupta recently announced that
Centric Pipe, LLC, a company affiliate, will make a $32.5
million capital investment to renovate and expand the
former Northwest Pipe facility in Bossier City, La.
The project will create 82 new direct jobs with an average
salary of $50,000 per year plus benefits. In addition,
another 209 new indirect jobs will result according to
Louisiana Economic Development estimates.
Centric Pipe will retain 52 existing employees at the
Bossier City site. It will manufacture and supply welded-
steel pipe and tubular products for domestic clients in the
oil and gas industry. The investment will also add new
equipment and a rail spur.
The company has started hiring and expects to start facil-
ity upgrades and constructing the railroad spur by the first
quarter of 2015. Completion of all improvements is
expected by the end of 2017.
Manufacturing Jobs Report Offers Six Ideas
to Accelerate Innovation Pace
Building a Nation of Makers, recently released by a Univer-
sity of Virginia Miller Center commission chaired by former
Governors Haley Barbour and Evan Bayh, presents ideas on
creating manufacturing jobs.
The report proposes six objectives to accelerate the inno-
vation pace for Americas small- and medium-sized manufac-
turing enterprises, including the following: talent
investment loans to expand human capital; upside-down de-
grees to connect classroom learning with on-the-job
learning; a skills census to build a more efficient skilled
labor force; a national supply chain initiative to map Amer-
icas manufacturing ecosystems; up-skilling high school stu-
dents with expanded technology and engineering certifica-
tion programs; and a big trends-small firms initiative to
diffuse the latest technologies to small- and medium-sized
manufacturing enterprises.
To learn more, visit http://web1.millercenter.org/
conferences/milstein/MilsteinReport-Manufacturing.pdf.
Wisconsin Fast Forward Grants Awarded
to Technical Colleges for Welding Training
Wisconsins Lt. Governor, Rebecca Kleefisch, recently an-
nounced the awarding of numerous Wisconsin Fast Forward
grant dollars. Part of $28 million in grants that Governor
Scott Walker revealed as a component of his Blueprint for
Prosperity initiative, these will help Wisconsin technical col-
leges train more than 4900 workers. The Department of
Workforce Development will administer the grants.
During a visit to Western Technical College, Kleefisch
mentioned the departments intent to award more than
$1.5 million that will predominantly be for training 168
welding students. In addition, she recognized Madison
College for its plan to train 934 additional workers in many
areas including welding, metal processes/repair techniques,
and construction. The college will receive $5 million in grants.
While at Nicolet College, she further announced the de-
partments intent to award more than $1.9 million to train
303 additional workers in several fields including welding
and electromechanical technology.
BUSINESS BRIEFS
WJ
The new World Trade Center in New York is one of many projects
in which both AECOM and URS have been active. (Photo courtesy
of AECOM.)
FIRJAN and ITW Partner to Conduct
Research and Train Brazilian Welders
Sistema FIRJAN (The FIRJAN System Federation of
Industries of the State of Rio de Janeiro) and Illinois Tool
Works, Inc. (ITW), a producer of engineered fasteners and
components, equipment and consumable systems, and spe-
cialty products, recently entered into a partnership to
conduct welding research and implement training of Brazil-
ian professionals in Houston, Tex.
Pursuant to the agreement, the ITH group, a provider of
welding, cutting, raw materials, accessories, and automation
products, will donate the latest generation cutting and welding
equipment to SENAI Rio and provide the opportunity for
SENAI specialists in Houston to develop technologies associ-
ated with welding processes using a collaborative approach.
ITW has clients in Brazil who are demanding this equip-
ment, as well as professionals who have mastered these
technologies, said Mauricio Ogawa, manager of the SENAI
Welding Technology Center. FIRJAN will also be collaborat-
ing in the development of processes associated with the use
of these new technologies in the context of training or
methods in the welding environment.
The partnership is the culmination of contact that first
began at last years edition of OTC, and it will also include a
room for SENAI professionals inside a research center ITW
inaugurated in Houston. There, Brazilian professionals will
be trained in the new technologies that are being used in
Brazil, in keeping with the local content policy.
Ceremony Held to Unveil F35
Lightning II Aircraft
A ceremony was recently
held at Lockheed Martin, Fort
Worth, Tex., commemorating
the official roll out of the first
two F-35 Lightning II aircraft,
known as AU-1 and AU-2, for
the Royal Australian Air Force
(RAAF). Among the various
guests in attendance were
Frank Kendall, U.S. Under
Secretary of Defense for
Acquisition, Technology &
Logistics; Air Marshal Geoff
Brown, RAAF chief; and Mar-
illyn Hewson, chairman, pres-
ident, and CEO, Lockheed
Martin.
Today, we celebrate a mile-
stone in the U.S.-Australia
partnership a partnership
built on strength, friendship,
and technological
innovation, said Kendall.
We join Australia, as one of
our original partners, to celebrate this roll out and the
numerous Australian contributions to the Joint Strike
Fighter program. For both our nations, this program repre-
sents an exponential leap in capability on the cutting edge
of technology and an integral component of our ongoing
joint commitment to stability and peace in the Asia-Pacific.
The F-35 Lightning II aircraft will provide the RAAF with
a transformational fifth generation fighter capability and
provides significant benefits to the Australian aerospace in-
dustry, with more than $412 million already contracted and
up to $6 billion in expected manufacturing orders over the
programs life.
AT&F India Expands Operations in Chakan
AT&F India Fabrication Pvt. Ltd., a fully owned
subsidiary of AT&F headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio, a
provider of large-scale welding and steel fabrications,
announced a 94,000-sq-ft facility expansion in Chakan, Ma-
harashtra, India.
The firm has begun construction of the new manufactur-
ing facility to be completed in early 2015. The facility in
Chakan, an industrial development near Pune, will feature
20-ton lifting capacity and steel processing equipment to
fabricate and assemble components and equipment to serve
OEMs in the construction, transportation, mining, and
building industries.
Since its inception in 2011, AT&F India has been a key
partner in major infrastructure projects in the state of
Gujarat. The company has built major steel structures for
power plant construction, barges, and pontoons for port ex-
pansion projects.
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
WJ
Senator Mathias Cormann,
Minister for Finance, Aus
tralia, expressed the coun
trys support of the
program to a crowd of 300
at the unveiling of the first
Australian F35. (Photo by
Beth Groom, courtesy of
Lockheed Martin.)
Construction on AT&F Indias manufacturing facility is expected
to be completed in early 2015.
Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote.
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A: I have bad news and good news.
The bad news is you are building to the
wrong code. The good news is you are
building to the wrong code. Building
stainless steel structures to the D1.1
code was common for many years be-
cause there was no alternative, but
stainless steels are significantly differ-
ent materials from carbon steel and
low-alloy steels, and this created a
number of problems for stainless fab-
ricators. So, in 1999, the AWS D1
Committee published the first version
of AWS D1.6, Structural Welding Code
Stainless Steel. Clause 1.2 of
D1.1/D1.1M: 2008 encourages the En-
gineer to consider the applicability of
AWS D1.6 to stainless steel structures.
You should do that.
In the 1999 version of the D1.6
code, 316L and a number of other
nominally austenitic stainless steels
were designated as prequalified base
metals by Table 3.2. Furthermore, a
number of nominally austenitic stain-
less steel filler metals, whose
undiluted weld metal normally
contains a small amount of ferrite to
provide insensitivity to solidification
cracking, are designated as
prequalified by Table 3.3. That would
get you part way to the resolution of
your problem. If you build to D1.6 in-
stead of D1.1, you have quite a range
of prequalified base metals and
prequalified filler metals. A first revi-
sion of the D1.6 code was published in
2007, and the prequalified materials
and prequalified filler metal tables re-
tain the same numbers.
The other part of the way was pro-
vided by the prequalified CJP groove
welded joints in Fig. 3.6 of D1.6:1999,
but it was not so easy to find joints
that were prequalified for one-side
welding without backing. Note C1 at
the end of Fig. 3.6 in D1.6:1999
provided that certain joints were pre-
qualified when root welded from one
side. Backgouging not required
provided adequate gas purging is
used. Then the user had to dig
through the numerous joint prepara-
tions to find which ones included Note
C1. There were two, both for GTAW:
Joint Designation B-L2b (a single-V
groove with a 75-deg included angle,
for thicknesses of
1
16 to 1 in.), and
Joint Designation B-L6 (a single-U
groove with a 45-deg included angle,
STAINLESS Q&A
Q: We have built space frame structures from carbon steels and lowalloy
steels for many years, all according to AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code
Steel. Some of the space frames were built from tubular members. The
D1.1/D1.1M: 2008 code, Paragraph 3.13.3 (2), prohibits prequalified complete
joint penetration (CJP) welds made from one side without backing. So we
qualified a number of welding procedures to make CJP welds without backing
using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) for the root pass. Now we are prepar
ing to build a space frame from 316L stainless steel tubular members, again
using the D1.1 code. Table 4.6 of D1.1 considers that a change in base metal
Group Number is an essential variable, and 316L is not a listed base metal in
D1.1, so our engineering department is insisting that we have to qualify proce
dures for CJP welds made from one side without backing in 316L tubular mem
bers. This will take some time and cost quite a bit. Is there any alternative?
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
for thicknesses of
1
16 to 1 in.).
The D1.6 code was revised in 2007.
This version became a bit more
explicit regarding prequalified CJP
welds from one side without backing,
although it did not increase the num-
ber of prequalified joint details. Clause
3.28.1 (2), applicable to CJP tubular
groove welds, states, A prequalified
WPS [Welding Procedure
Specification] for tubular CJP butt
joints shall use Detail B-L6 or B-L2b of
Fig. 3.5, whichever is appropriate, and
shall conform to Clause 3.
These are the same joint designs
mentioned previously for the 1999
version of D1.6, but the reference is
clearer and makes the joint designs
easier to find. Each of those two joint
designs contains a reference to Note e,
which is identical in wording to Note
C1 in the 1999 version of D1.6. Figure
1 reproduces these two prequalified
joint designs.
So, one might think that there are
only two prequalified joint designs.
However, the Scope (Clause 3.0) of
both D1.6:1999 and D1.6/D1.6M:-
2007 also accepts as prequalified the
standardized WPSs approved by the
AWS B2.1 Committee. There are a
number of these that address stainless
steels in the B2.1 series. One of these
is B2.1-8-216, which uses a
consumable insert for the GTAW root
pass, a GTAW fill pass, and completion
of the joint by SMAW fill passes, with
gas purging of the root until at least
3
16
in. of deposit thickness is achieved. It
Fig. 1 Prequalified CJP oneside groove welds without backing from AWS
D1.6/D1.6M:2007, Structural Welding Code Stainless Steel.
also increases the maximum thickness
for prequalification to 1
1
2 in., vs. 1 in. for
the two joints contained in Fig. 1.
The consumable insert and mixtures
of a single bevel preparation on one side
and a single J preparation on the other
side of the joint are variations on the
prequalified joints of D1.6. You need to
examine the list of these in the AWS on-
line bookstore to determine which are
applicable to your space frame.
Note that you will have to provide
purging gas to the root side of the joint
if you want to use one of the two
prequalified CJP joints welded from one
side without backing (as well as with the
WPS of B2.1-8-216). Note C1 of Fig.
3.6 in D1.6:1999 or Note e of Fig. 3.5 in
D1.6/D1.6M:2007 requires adequate
gas purging of the root, which could
leave room for interpretation. I would
define adequate gas purging of the
root as purging such that sugaring of
the root is not encountered. Sugaring is
a rough, poorly formed root surface
that can provide notches. A well-formed
root surface, even one with heavy heat
tint, would still be adequately purged
for most purposes of the D1.6 code be-
cause the D1.6 code is intended mainly
for structural applications, not
corrosion applications, unless there is
specific mention of corrosion in the
contract documents (see Clause 3.0 of
AWS D1.6/D1.6M: 2007). It seems un-
likely that corrosion would be a concern
in the interior of the tubular members
making up the space frame you are
building. On the other hand, B2.1-8-
216 is more explicit concerning purging
it requires minimum six volume
changes of argon in the atmosphere of
the purge zone or achievement of no
more than 2% oxygen in that zone.
Finally, be aware that the D1.6 code
is under revision again, and a new publi-
cation may be expected later this year or
in 2015.
WJ
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president, Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc. He is a pas
treasurer of the IIW and a member of the A5D
Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Filler Metals,
D1K Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Struc
tural Welding; and WRC Subcommittee on
Welding Stainless Steels and NickelBase Al
loys. He is a past chair of the A5 Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, and served
as AWS president (20052006). Email your
questions to Dr. Kotecki at damian@dami
ankotecki.com, or mail to Damian Kotecki, c/o
Welding Journal Dept., 8669 NW 36 St., # 130,
Miami, FL 33166.
IBSC 2015
SAVE THE DATE FOR
APRIL 19 22, 2015 / LONG BEACH, CA
www.aws.org/conferences
From transportation to manufacturing and energy, brazing and soldering is at
the foundation of much of our daily life. And, just as in other joining
applications, the science, application and techniques of brazing and soldering
are constantly advancing.
The American Welding Society (AWS) has long been at the forefront of
these changes, and in that spirit is once again organizing a four day
International Brazing & Soldering Conference. Now in its 6th year, the IBSC
remains the premier event for the brazing and soldering community. For years,
the IBSC has provided professionals, scientists and engineers involved in the
research, development and application of brazing and soldering, a unique
networking and idea-exchange forum. This three-day conference provides
cutting-edge education and technical programming for the brazing and
soldering community, as well as peer-networking and a full exhibit program,
showcasing the latest trends, products, processes and techniques available in
the industry.
SAVE THE DATE TODAY to join us in sunny Long Beach, California for this
years conference, on April 19-22, 2015. If the weather alone isnt temptation
enough why not race in early and catch the 41st Toyota Grand Prix of Long
Beach? This annual race is happening right before the 2015 IBSC - yet one
more reason to mark your calendars today.
Registration will be opening soon, so keep an eye on our
website www.aws.org/conferences for the latest information.
Where is the welding
industry headed?
The CEO of Lincoln knows. Economist Alan Beaulieu knows.
Head to WEMCOs
annual meeting
or be left behind.
Non-member executives are encouraged to participate.
An Association of Welding Manufacturers
T
he WEMCO Annual Meeting is filled with
unparalleled networking opportunities and
enlightening presentations. Renowned economist
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for Trend Research will
again be our keynote speaker. Network with additional
speakers such as Lincoln Electric CEO Chris Mapes
and Industrial Distribution Magazines Jack Keough.
Non-members are welcome to attend and
experience the full benefits of networking
with your industry peers!
2015 Annual Meeting
Feb. 2527
Vinoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club
St. Petersburg, Fla.
Registration opens mid-December. For more
information, please contact Keila DeMoraes at
kdemoraes@aws.org or 800-443-9353, ext. 444
Chris Mapes
Chairman, President, and CEO
Lincoln Electric
Chris Mapes was appointed chairman of Lincoln Electric in
December 2013, and president and chief executive officer in
December 2012. Previously, Chris was Lincolns chief operating
officer, the position he was appointed to when he joined the
company in 2011. He was elected to the Lincoln Board in 2010
while serving as executive vice president of A.O. Smith Corporation
and president of its electrical products unit. Prior to his career at
A.O. Smith, Chris was president, motor sales and marketing of
Regal Beloit Corporation and had also served as president of the
Global OEM Business Group of Superior Essex, Inc.
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Alan Beaulieu
Economist and President
Institute for Trend Research
One of the countrys most informed economists, Alan Beaulieu is a
principal of ITR Economics, where he serves as president. He is
co-author of Make Your Move, a book on how to increase profits
through business cycle changes. Alan is also the senior economic
advisor to the NSW, chief forecaster for the European Power Train
Distributors Association, and the chief economist for HARDI.
Pronouncements from the Institute for Trend Research and/or Mr.
Beaulieu have appeared in/on the Wall Street Journal, New York
Times, USA Today, Knight Ridder News Services, Business Week,
Associated Press, Washington Times, CBS Radio, CNN Radio, Sirius
talk radio, KABC, NPR affiliate WLRN, and numerous other outlets.
Jack Keough
Contributing Editor and Associate Publisher
Industrial Distribution Magazine
Jack Keough has been researching and writing about the
distribution/manufacturing sector for 30 years. Hes been serving
as contributing editor and associate publisher for Industrial
Distribution Magazine of Madison, Wis. for 26 of those years. Jack
is also the president of his own marketing and consulting firm,
Keough Business Communications, and the contributing editor for
Electrical Distributor magazine and its website. He has written
extensively about distribution management, sales and technology
issues that have changed industrial distribution in the past three
decades.
MEET THE SPEAKERS
Theme: Welding Industry
Consolidation and Globalization
A: Resistance welding has historically
been considered a high-productivity,
low-energy-input, low-cost joining
technology. Resistance welding
processes are typically characterized
by very short processing times (from
milliseconds to seconds), and to
achieve necessary energy inputs typi-
cally do have high instantaneous
power draws. The theoretical energy
required to form a re-
sistance weld is quite
low. Figure 1 shows
the energy required to
create spot welds for
aluminum, titanium,
and steel. This plot is
based on a simple cal-
culation of the energy
to heat and melt spot
weld nuggets of nomi-
nal size for the given
sheet thickness and
material. You can see
that for any of these
metals, energy ranges
from hundreds to
thousands of joules.
These numbers, how-
ever, differ drastically
from energy measurements taken
from real spot welds. An example of
actual energy consumption for a real
spot weld in 0.8-mm-thick steel is pre-
sented in Fig. 2. Here it can be seen
that energy can easily achieve several
thousand joules (instead of several
hundred) depending on the process
conditions used.
RWMA Q&A
BY JERRY GOULD
Q: Reducing energy consumption is
a constant theme in our
production facility. Our industrial
engineering staff look at the
instantaneous power demands of
our resistance welding systems and
see this as an area where
improvements can be made.
How is energy consumed during
resistance welding, and how do
system changes affect these
energy requirements?
Fig. 1 Theoretical energy required to heat and melt spot
weld nuggets of a nominal size for aluminium, titanium, and
steel at various sheet thicknesses.
Heat balance considerations: A
major factor affecting energy
consumption during resistance spot
welding is heat extraction to the elec-
trodes themselves. Resistance welding
is implicitly a balance between heat
generation in the workpieces and
extraction through the electrodes.
Heat generation in the workpieces ef-
fectively facilitates local melting of the
weld nugget and creation of an effec-
tive joint. Heat extraction into the
electrodes centers the spot weld
nugget in the workpiece stackup as
well as provides thermal protection for
the sheet surfaces and electrodes
themselves. A dynamic analysis of this
heat balance shows how energy
consumption is affected by weld time.
This relationship is shown graphically
for two different steel sheet
thicknesses in Fig. 3.
For short-duration processing, the
energy retained in the weld (and
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T E C H NOL OGY F OR T H E WE L D E R S WOR L D .
Fig. 2 Measured energies to create minimum, nominal,
and expulsion spot welds in 0.8mm bare steel stackups.
Fig. 3 Influence of ontime and sheet thickness on the en
ergy efficiency of resistance spot welding steel sheet metal.
therefore used for creating weld
nuggets) and subsequent energy effi-
ciency is relatively high. This is
because at these short times relatively
little heat is lost to the electrodes
(through the workpiece material). At
longer durations, however, more heat
is extracted to the electrodes, and en-
ergy efficency decreases. Finally,
increasing weld times can be achieved
where the rate of heat extraction
(through the electrodes) matches heat
generation. In this case, the process is
effectively steady state, and energy is
wasted with no benefit to the spot
weld itself. This is seen as energy effi-
ciencies continuously decrease with
longer weld times. Clearly, there is bal-
ance between stable nugget growth,
protection of the electrodes and the
sheet surfaces, and minimum energy
consumption. These are the
conditions that define best practice re-
sistance spot welding schedules.
Energy consumption in AC spot
welding systems: AC spot welding sys-
tems were dominant for sheet metal
joining for decades. These systems
provide single-phase, 60-Hz (or 50 Hz
in some countries) electrical current to
the welding machine secondary for
heat generation. Energy delivery
through AC current is affected by both
resistive and inductive loads. Resistive
loads for these systems are dominated
by the workpiece itself. For spot weld-
ing, steady-state resistance loading is
typically less than 50 . Inductive
loading is affected by the size of the
secondary loop. Increases in both the
loop circumference and conductor size
can influence secondary inductance. A
plot showing the relationship between
secondary inductance and loop
perimeter is shown in Fig. 4. It can be
seen that for typical secondary loop
circumferences (2 up to about 10 m)
the implied inductance varies from
about 2 up to about 10 H. Increases
in loop size can have a dramatic effect
on energy efficiency. Essentially, that
portion of the secondary load
represented by inductance is lost
energy, required to provide current at
the workpiece. These inductive and re-
active loads can then be used to calcu-
late the influence of the welding
machines secondary geometry on en-
ergy efficiency. This relationship is
also shown in Fig. 4. Here it is clear
COR-MET
COR-MET QWP Stainless Steel
Flux Coated TIG Wire.
Eliminate the need for gas purging and backing for TIG
pipe welding. The QWP Flux Coated TIG rod forms a slag
on the backside of the pipe protecting the weld from
oxidation (sugaring).
Manufactured by COR-MET INC.,
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www.cor-met.com / sales@cor-met.com
Grades Available
308H, 308L, 309L, 316L, 347, 2209,
16-8-2, 625.
Available in 3/32 and
1/8 diameters.
Call for special
chemistry and
diameter requests.
COR-MET Q
Flux Coated TIG W
Eliminate the need for gas purging and bac
COR-MET

QW T QWP Stainless S
Wi Coated TIG Wire.
or gas purging and backing f
COR-MET

tainless Steel
king for TIG

G d A il bl
Eliminate the need for gas purging and bac
pipe welding. The QWP Flux Coat
on the backside of the pipe pr
oxidation (sugaring).

or gas purging and backing f
elding. The QWP Flux Coated TIG rod for
he pipe protecting the weld fr

king for TIG
orms a slag
eld from

Manufactur
Brighton, Mi
www.cor-me

ctured by COR-MET INC.,
chigan USA 800-848-27
-met.com / sales@cor-met.com

719
t.com
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that increasing loop sizes can have a
dramatic influence on energy
consumption for the process.
Energy consumption in secondary
rectified DC systems: Secondary recti-
fied DC systems are those that utilize
diodes at the transformer output.
These diodes are configured to provide
direct current to the welding machine
secondary. Common power supplies
using secondary rectification include
medium-frequency direct current
(MFDC), single-phase direct current
(1DC), and three-phase direct
current (3DC) systems. Direct
current systems have the advantage of
being considerably less sensitive to the
secondary loop configuration. At
steady-state current flow, there is no
implicit load associated with
secondary circuit inductance. There
are, however, some losses occurring
during current rise at the initiation of
the weld cycle. The resulting relation-
ship between secondary loop size and
energy-efficiency of DC systems is
shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 5.
For the application shown, it can be
seen that an increase of an order of
magnitude in secondary loop perime-
ter results in only a 20% loss in energy
efficiency. A larger influence for these
systems is that of the impedance drop
across the diodes. These diodes oper-
ate at full secondary current, with im-
pedances ranging from 300 to 1200
. When considering these
impedances to a typical workpiece load
of roughly 50 , the effect is evident.
The effect of increasing such system
impedance (with a constant 50-
workpiece load) is also shown in Fig. 5.
Here the influence of the diode imped-
ances is evident, dramatically reducing
system efficiency.
Balancing overall efficiency with
system functionality: It is clear from
examining the limited data presented
here that system configuration and de-
sign can have a dramatic influence on
the energy efficiency for resistance
welding systems. It would be tempting
to take these observations at face
value. However, to some degree the
causes for these losses in energy effi-
ciency have their roots in other
aspects of system functionality. For
example, changing the electrodes to
minimize heat extraction would
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certainly improve energy efficiency,
but would be catastrophic to electrode
wear and workpiece surface quality.
Limiting loop sizes for AC systems is
always good practice, but can reduce
system accessability and subsequent
utility of the process. Finally, DC
power has a range of benefits for spe-
cific applications. Most notably, MFDC
systems are seen as enablers for light-
weight portable gun configurations,
greatly contributing to the overall cost
competitiveness of the technology. In
short, resistance welding system
design must be seen as a balance
between these competitive engineer-
ing benefits, where energy efficiency is
only one component.
WJ
/ Perfect Welding / Solar Energy / Perfect Charging
/ Lugging around long mains leads or a bulky generator to do repair welding isnt always practical. We know that. Thats why
vc ocvclopco hc hrscvcr porallc MMA vcloing uni povcrco l, rcchargcallc lihiunion lacrics. Makc ,our vcloing
rcpairs sinplc ano convcnicn. AccuPockc. Wclo An,vhcrc.
vvv.froniususa.con vvv.facclook.con/fronius.usa
T
IG
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JERRY GOULD is technology leader,
Resistance & Solid State Welding, EWI,
Columbus, Ohio. Send your comments
and questions to Jerry Gould c/o Weld
ing Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., # 130,
Miami, FL 33166, or via email at
jgould@ewi.org.
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Fig. 4 Relationship between system inductance, power
efficiency, and secondary loop size for AC resistance spot
welding.
Fig. 5 Influence of system resistance and secondary loop
size on the efficiency of secondary rectified DC welding sys
tems. Calculations are done assuming a constant 50
workpiece resistance.
System Provides Position
Based Welding around the
Pipes Circumference
The M-400 a lightweight, multi-
process, multipower source, on-board
wire feed, single-torch welding system
provides the same range and func-
tionality of previous systems while re-
ducing the overall weight by 25%. It
includes an offset oscillator offering
its operator a view of the arc and the
ability to deposit automated fillet
(+45/30 deg) welds. Software track-
ing into the welding parameters also
allows operators to recall what
versions were used for each weld. The
unit can be adapted to weld flux cored,
Innershield, surface tension transfer,
and GMAW with minimal mechanical
changes. Additionally, it offers
position-based welding around the
pipes circumference.
CRCEvans Pipeline International, Inc.
www.crcevans.com
(800) 6649224
Titanium Tubing Resists Harsh
Environments
The companys new titanium
tubing for heat exchangers,
condensers, and chemical processing
applications has the corrosion
resistance and strength-to-weight
ratio that makes it suitable for opera-
tions in harsh environments,
including seawater. The company
offers Titanium Grade 2 in wall thick-
nesses from 0.020 to 0.083 in., with
outer diameter sizes from 0.5 to 1.5
in. The light-walled tubing optimizes
heat exchange and reduces overall op-
erating costs. A thin oxide film over
the tubes surface maximizes corrosion
resistance. All tubes are ASTM B338
and ASME SB338 certified.
RathGibson
www.rathgibson.com
(800) 3677284
Website Provides Access to
Technical Documents
A manufacturer of semiautomatic
and robotic GMAW guns and peripher-
als has launched a redesigned website
to provide easier navigation and
increased functionality. Visitors to the
site can access owners manuals and
technical documents, products and
news updates, career opportunities,
PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
Emphasis on Pipe and Tube
Let us demonstrate how you can increase your productivity and
lower defect rates with the high duty cycle that only machine
welding can achieve.
Worldwide installations in daily use
prove that there is a better way.
PIPEMASTER.
Simply the Best Tool
for Welding Small Pipe
Thirty-five years of listening to our customers and continuous
product improvement have led to the Pipemaster 515 and D-Head.
The system welds pipe from 1" - 14" (tubes from 1" - 5" OD).
Pipemaster 515
D-Head
Pendant
(
+
1) 860 653-2573
info@MagnatechLLC.com
www.MagnatechLLC.com
ORBITAL WELDING SYSTEMS
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Energy
300 megawatts. The lifeblood of our connected world.
Powering the towns, tools and technologies that drive us
forward. With pipe expertly welded by Tony Fischer and
the skilled craftsmen at Team Industries.
Together, we build energy.
W
E

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U
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L
D

The Power of Blue
Share what you build for a

chance to win a once-in-a-
lifetime experience at three
legendary sports venues.
MillerWelds.com/webuild
BUILD
& WIN!

and safety data sheets. The website is
mobile friendly and adapts to any
screen size.
American Weldquip, Inc.
www.weldquip.com
(330) 2390317
Pipe Beveling Tools Available in
Battery and Electric Models
The Mongoose MILLHOG
, a self-
centering, right angle drive, inside
clamping tool, now comes in a
rechargeable, 18-V, battery-powered
model for portability and a 950-W
electric motor for use where air is not
available. Useful for getting into tight
spaces, these tools require only a 2.25-
in. minimum clearance for beveling
tube and pipe from
5
8-in. ID to 3-in.
OD, and provide chatter-free
operation without cutting oils. The
tools feature TiN-coated cutting
blades that mount securely in a wedge-
style blade locking system and have a
radical chip breaker that directs the
chip away from the surface to
minimize heat generation.
ESCO Tool
www.escotool.com
(800) 3436926
Center Punch Includes Digital
Inclinometer Gauge
The Sumner center punch includes
a digital inclinometer gauge set on an
angled base, useful for measuring an-
gles on pipe. The easy-to-read gauge
displays angles to the nearest
hundredth and is removable from the
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continued from page 32
angled magnetic base. The angled base
contains a push-button, spring-loaded
striking hammer for clearly marking
pipe at the desired locale. Using the
tool involves setting the base on the
pipe, turning on the inclinometer
gauge and adjusting it as needed until
the desired angle is reached, pulling up
the spring-loaded hammer, and press-
ing the push button on the angled
base to mark pipe.
Sumner Manufacturing Co., Inc.
www.sumner.com
(281) 9996900
HeatResistant White Paint
Wont Yellow at 1200F
Thurmalox 290-00 heat-resistant
white paint features a proprietary for-
mulation to prevent yellowing at up to
1200F. The paint remains white and
will not chip, crack, or peel at elevated
temperatures. Designed for vent pipes
and other parts, it can be used with
the companys clear gloss top coat to
achieve a porcelain-like finish.
However, the paint is not intended for
direct contact with flames. It is avail-
able in 5-gal pails, gallons, quarts, and
aerosol spray cans.
Dampney Co., Inc.
www.dampney.com
(617) 3892805
Video Presents New Career
Planning System
AWS President Dean Wilson
discusses, in a new video, a free online
career management and planning sys-
tem to be released in January 2015.
The system is designed to help
students entering the welding
workforce match their career
knowledge and skills with available
jobs and careers. The video can be
viewed at www.aws.org/
innovation.
www.aws.org
(800) 4439353
Workcell Developed for
Pipe Prefabrication
For the Rotoweld 3.0, all machine
aspects, including mechanical design,
servo controls, computer, and
software, were reengineered. This base
model is built with a single rotator and
workbay. Because of its robotized ma-
nipulator, the same welding gun, wire
feeder, and power source can be used
to perform the vision-controlled root
PIPE WELDERS... PURGE PROBLEMS?
INTERPURGE... IS YOUR SOLUTION!
QUICK & ACCURATE
PIPE ALIGNMENT
PURGE MONITORS
(OXYGEN TO 1PPM)
PURGE 2-3 MINUTES!
DAMS FOR ALL SIZES
ASSORTED PURGE
KITS AVAILABLE
PERFECT PURGING = HIGH QUALITY WELDS
WHY SETTLE FOR THIS?
316L Stainless w/ Argon Purge @ 250ppm Oxygen Level
WHEN YOU CAN HAVE THIS!
316L Stainless w/ Argon Purge @ 12ppm Oxygen Level
NOTE: 1% Oxygen in Atmosphere is 2,094.6 ppm!
pass and all subsequent fill passes.
Using electronic mass flow controllers,
the unit can mix its own gas. Should
extra processes such as submerged arc
or flux cored arc welding be required,
upgrading is possible. The brands pipe
welding workcells are developed for in-
dustrial pipe prefabrication, small
pressure vessel manufacturing, or
other similar 1G welding. Pador Group
Ltd. is the companys North American
distributor.
Tecnar
www.tecnar.com
(450) 4611221
Training DVDs Cover Gas Metal
Arc Welding
The companys latest revision of its
Gas Metal Arc Welding Advanced
courseware includes updates to several
topics related to welding aluminum.
Topics include an introduction to the
process; equipment setup, operation,
and shutdown; V-groove, butt joint in
the flat and horizontal positions, with
spray transfer and pulsed spray trans-
fer; and weldability of aluminum, fillet
welds, and single-V-groove welds in
various joint configurations and posi-
tions, both spray and pulsed spray. A
section on welder safety and health is
included. The training package
includes two DVDs (15 topics) and the
instructor guide (1 student workbook,
1 technical guide, written tests, and
answer keys).
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
www.welding.org
(800) 3329448
Portable Crane Scales Handle
Pipe, Tube
The IE Series crane scales feature a
wireless remote control with a 32-ft
range along with function keys for
power, zero, tare, and hold. Offered in
100 0.05, 200 0.1, 500 0.2, 1000
0.5, and 2000 1.0 lb capacities,
reddarc.com 1-866-733-3272
ORBITAL TIG WELDING SYSTEMS
Sales, Rentals, Lease Programs
Intuitive, User-Friendly Operation
Rugged, Integrated Modular Design
Easy Service and Maintenance
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they have a 5-digit LCD display and
can operate up to 50 h on a fully
charged 9-V DC battery. They have an
aluminum die cast case, 1.1-in. LCD
display, and are supplied with a hook
and shackle for hanging. Applications
include manufacturing and assembly
for pipe, tube, and other tasks.
Alliance Scale, Inc.
www.alliancescale.com
(800) 3436802
Additive Manufacturing
Systems Offered
The company will be offering its
electron beam additive manufacturing
systems for purchase with accelerated
delivery opportunities available as
early as September 1. The process
combines computer-aided design, elec-
tron beam welding technology, and
layer-additive processing. Deposition
rates of its electron beam additive
manufacturing process range from 7 to
20 lb/h, depending upon part geome-
try and material selected. The build
envelope can reach up to 19 4 4 ft
(L W H).
Sciaky, Inc.
www.sciaky.com/additive_manufacturing.
html
(877) 4502518
WORK
SMART
Model 200 Positioner

Model 1200 Pipemate

RT RT R A M S
K R O W

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RT RT A M S

TT

Made In
The USA
C
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E
BRAT
IN
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1949-2014 6
5
YEAR
S
90, straight and 70 heads
Custom lengths built to your specs.
Welding Handles and Hand Cutting Torches available in all three styles.
Call or email for catalog.
Uniweld can build all your cutting equipment:
H-style, V-style and A-style and every tip
youll need to go with em.
All three styles...all U.S. made.
UNIWELD PRODUCTS, INC.
2850 RAVENSWOOD ROAD
FORT LAUDERDALE, FL 33312 U.S.A.
www.uniweld.com info@uniweld.com
800.323.2111
Uniweld. The only U.S. manufacturer
that can deliver all 3 torch styles.
FOR U.S. JOBS
U.S. TORCHES
See us @
Booth C2504
H-style
Head Mix
V-style
Head Mix
A-style
Head Mix
. S . U

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Y
ou can tell an ultraefficient com-
pany by this sign: competitors
become clients.
We can sell a pipe spool for less
money than our competitors can fabri-
cate it for themselves. Because we op-
erate so efficiently, more and more of
our clients are other mechanical con-
tractors, explained Kevin Prevett,
pipe shop superintendent, Bel-Aire
Mechanical, Phoenix, Ariz.
In addition to changing welding
processes (from shielded metal arc
welding to a modified short circuit
transfer gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) and pulsed spray GMAW),
Bel-Aire Mechanical increased produc-
tivity by changing pipe cutting and
beveling technology.
Prior to 2005, the company used
standard saddle-type, hand-cranked
beveling machines fitted with a
Making the Switch from
Manual to Automated
Pipe Cutting
New equipment combined with intelligent planning
resulted in more pipe cut in less time for an Arizona company
Fig. 1 Automated cutting
torch systems require about
70 ft of space for the entrance
conveyor and cutting bed
(shown here), as well as the
unloading conveyor.
JOHN HENDERSON is group
brand manager, Victor
Technologies, St. Louis, Mo.,
www.victortechnologies.com.
BY JOHN HENDERSON
straight oxyacetylene torch. Operators
coped pipe using manual oxyacetylene
torches. Then in 2007, the company
installed a two-axis microprocessor-
controlled mechanized cutting system
from Vernon Tool featuring a Victor
MT 5 machine torch. As a result of the
change, hours dedicated to pipe
cutting have been reduced from 16 to
about 4 per day. However, such a pro-
ductivity increase only came to
fruition after intelligent planning.
Planning the Space
Bel-Aire Mechanical is a full-service
mechanical, HVAC, and plumbing con-
tractor. Founded in 1986, it is the
largest privately owned mechanical
contracting company in Arizona. The
company fabricates duct work, plumb-
ing systems, and piping for municipal
work (water and gas), power plants,
semiconductor manufacturers, and
just about anyone else who needs pipe.
During the mid-2000s, President
and CEO Jim Dinan realized that if the
company wanted to increase its
market share, it would need a new pro-
duction facility. In 2006, the company
purchased a four-acre industrial prop-
erty with a 42,000-sq-ft high bay facil-
ity. The company completely retrofit-
ted the building, including an area
dedicated to pipe fabrication.
To that end, Dinan charged Project
Director Mike Mackintosh with find-
ing an automated pipe machine. After
flying to Louisiana and inspecting a
system in operation there, Mackintosh
selected a system that would bevel
pipe at any angle desired, as well as cut
lateral windows and saddles on pipe
from 4 to 48 in. in diameter. Choosing
a cutting torch was an easy decision, as
the new machine torch could use the
same cutting tips as the companys
manual torches, as well as the straight
torch on its hand-cranked beveler.
While choosing the right cutting ma-
chine may seem like the most difficult
decision, there are two other critical
factors. The first is space.
If youre buying an automated pipe
system, you need to make sure the sys-
tem fits your operation literally.
You have to have enough physical
room. For our roll turning system,
thats about 70 ft (Fig. 1), Prevett
said.
Pipe comes from the mill in 21-ft
lengths, which is stored in the
companys yard. When a project
begins, pipe is loaded on a storage rack
that feeds a 21-ft-long entrance
conveyor. Due to the climate in
Phoenix, the company has the luxury
of locating the entrance conveyor out-
side the building, opening a door as
necessary for the operator to roll the
length of pipe onto the conveyor. After
that, the operator no longer needs to
physically touch the pipe. A chain-
driven power feed moves the pipe for-
ward to the 22-ft-long bed of the cut-
ting machine.
In a turning roll machine (as
opposed to a chucking system), the
pipe rotates on a bed of turning rolls
mounted on two parallel main shafts.
The weight of the pipe secures it in the
turning rolls. The two main shafts are
interconnected by precision gearboxes,
which are driven by a variable-speed
DC motor. Traveling along one side of
the machine, a reciprocating torch car-
riage is synchronized with the pipe ro-
tation to perform contouring
movements. After cutting, another
chain-driven power feed moves the
pipe forward to an unloading conveyor
and another storage rack.
I know companies that purchased
automated systems and didnt have
the 70 ft of space necessary to support
them, Prevett said. Instead of
improving productivity, they created a
bottleneck because they have to
unload pipe from the cutting bed
instead of just sliding it over to the
storage racks.
Evaluating the Impact
In addition to planning facility lay-
out, Prevett notes that companies
need to evaluate how moving from
manual to mechanized cutting will
change logistics.
The move requires management to
shift its way of thinking about produc-
tion planning, he said. In fact, thats
probably the hardest thing. It takes a
different mindset, and it takes time to
change established habits Fig. 2.
While slower, manual oxyfuel cut-
ting (like manual or semiautomatic
Fig. 2 Successfully implementing an automated cutting system requires a different
mindset, such as cutting as much of the same type of pipe as possible without a consum-
able swap out.
welding) maximizes flexibility. For
example, operators can easily shift
from cutting thin- to thick-wall pipe
and cutting different pieces of pipe
Fig. 3.
The objective is different in a
mechanized operation, Prevett said.
If we put a 21-ft length of pipe on the
bed, we want to maximize the number
of cuts on that pipe so we dont have
to handle it more than once. Also, well
want to maximize the number of cuts
on pipe with the same wall thickness
so we dont have to change cutting tips
and reset oxygen and fuel gas pressure
and flow rates. You can cut much
faster with a machine, but you only in-
crease productivity with good
planning.
A Quality Cut
Mechanized cutting speed varies
with thickness, but, as an example, a
24-in.-diameter pipe with a wall thick-
ness of 0.375 in. takes approximately
three minutes to cut. This equates to a
travel speed of about 25 in./min using
a size 0, general-purpose 101 style
cutting tip.
With a machine, you get a straight
cut with a well-prepared finish. Theres
no grinding involved and a minimal
amount of buffing Fig. 4. Cleanup
time is perhaps 30 seconds for a 24-
in.-diameter piece, Prevett explained.
By way of comparison, a cut made by
a highly skilled operator with a hand
beveling machine typically requires
three to four minutes of cleanup time,
and course about twice the cutting
time.
After installing the mechanized cut-
ting system, a single operator working
a few hours can accomplish the same
volume of work as two operators work-
ing an eight-hour shift.
Oxyacetylene Advantages
Bel-Aire Mechanical does have a
plasma power source with a 180-deg
machine torch it can connect to its au-
tomated cutting system. However,
plasma is mainly used for cutting low-
purity stainless steel and other special
alloy materials. To start, the company
primarily cuts mild carbon steel or
black iron pipe Fig. 5. Much of this
pipe has a coating, and the
oxyacetylene flame cleanly burns away
the coating. The plasma arc does not,
and it creates more smoke. Any speed
gains offered by plasma on thinner
wall pipe are offset by the need to re-
move the coating.
When the company does cut stain-
less steel pipe, its often for high-
purity applications such as
semiconductor manufacturing. In this
case, the company uses a mechanical
cutting machine, as it is concerned
about spatter from the plasma arc get-
ting inside the pipe.
Cut accuracy is not an issue, as the
oxyacetylene process can actually cre-
ate a more precise cut than a plasma
system. Because the plasma gas swirls,
one side of the cut always has some
degree of bevel (and note that the
bevel is more of an issue on thinner
material than on thicker material).
Conversely, the cutting oxygen stream
produces a cut with straight walls, and
the cut is highly repeatable.
Fig. 3 The automated torch requires very little operator involvement after entering the
program. Here, the operator makes a small manual adjustment to correctly position the
preheat flames.
Setting Up for Success
When setting up an oxyacetylene machine torch or any torch for
that matter follow these three guidelines.
First, use the correct consumable for the application. Do not use a
high-speed cutting tip where a general-purpose tip would be more
appropriate. For most pipe beveling applications, use a general-purpose
tip (high-speed tips are generally for cutting flat plate in multiple-torch
applications).
Second, match the tip size to the metal thickness. Using too large of a
tip is a common error.
Third, set the gas flow rate and pressure according to the
manufacturers tip chart. Remember that the chart provides
recommended values for rate and pressure at the torch, not the
regulator. If hoses run halfway around the building to reach the torch,
values can drop and problems may ensue, especially on thicker-wall sec-
tions that require higher flow rates and pressures.
Lastly, Prevett likes the simplicity
of oxyacetylene consumables. The
mechanized system uses the same cut-
ting tips as the companys manual
torches, which are available at every
welding supply store.
The Vision for Investment
Moving from manual to automated
cutting requires more than just evalu-
ating cutting machines or cutting
processes. For a company cutting high
volumes of nonferrous pipe,
evaluating plasma cutting processes
further complicates the matter.
However, the company has demon-
strated that choosing equipment is
only half the battle. Without
forethought on how an automated sys-
tem will affect facility layout and radi-
cally change work planning, a seven-
figure investment could produce a
monumental headache. Fortunately,
the companys key managers knew
how to build its future.
WJ
Fig. 4 Automated oxyacetylene cutting produces a
clean cut that requires about 30 s of buffing. The slag
shown here will drop off at the end of the cut.
Fig. 5 Bel-Aire Mechanical uses an
automated oxyacetylene torch to make
repeatable bevels on mild carbon steel
(shown here) and black iron pipe. Note
the general-purpose cutting tip and
cleanliness of the cut.
T
wo common practices in pipe
fabrication that offer many ben-
efits for productivity, quality,
and operator comfort are preheating
and rolling the pipe while welding.
Preheating pipe helps reduce the
potential for a failed weld, and its nec-
essary for meeting code or quality re-
quirements when the pipe is chrome-
moly, more than 1 in. thick, or stored
in environments colder than 50F. Pipe
can be preheated using various meth-
ods, each with advantages and
drawbacks.
Rotating pipe while welding also
provides many benefits. It eliminates
out-of-position welding, which
increases the ease of achieving quality
welds, while also reducing operator fa-
tigue and offering productivity
improvements from the higher wire-
feed speeds and increased deposition
rates. Given the numerous benefits
the practice offers, its easy to under-
stand why the majority of pipe welds
completed in fabrication shops are
rolled.
However, the difficulty comes when
trying to combine preheating and
rolling. Thats due to the fact that
Using this approach
brings operational
value by enabling
strides in safety,
efficiency, and
quality
BY JOE RYAN
Rolling Induction
Technology Provides
Steady Heating
Induction is a safer and more efficient method for preheating pipe. There is no open flame
involved, and there is no element to transfer heat because it is generated within the part.
rolling the pipe while welding limits
the options for successfully maintain-
ing preheat and interpass
temperatures.
There is a newer technology for
preheating rolled pipe in a shop envi-
ronment called rolling induction heat-
ing. It offers the benefits of roll-weld-
ing pipe while also providing ease in
preheating and maintaining tempera-
ture consistency Fig. 1.
How Does Induction
Heating Work?
Induction heating of pipe has been
around for decades, but it wasnt well
suited for roll-welded applications due
to the heating cables that had to be
wrapped around the pipe.
However, a newer rolling induction
technology uses an inductor that sits
on the pipe and does not interfere
with the pipes rotation, making it bet-
ter suited for roll-welded applications.
As with standard induction
heating, this technology uses a
noncontact method to quickly heat
conductive metals by inducing current
into the part. Induction does not rely
on a heating element or flame to
transfer heat. Instead, an alternating
current passes through the device, cre-
ating a magnetic field around it. As the
magnetic field passes through the con-
ductive workpiece, it creates eddy cur-
rents within the part. The resistance
of the metal fights against the flow of
the eddy currents, generating heat in
the part. The part becomes its own
heating element, heating from within,
which makes induction efficient
because little heat is lost in the
process.
This method offers safety,
efficiency, and quality benefits for pre-
heating pipe in roll-welding
applications.
Additional Preheating
Techniques
An open flame from a torch is com-
monly used for preheating because
many shops already have a torch on
hand, and it can be simple and quick
to set up.
Open-flame preheating requires
use of consumables, such as propane
or propylene for the torch, and it heats
the area of the workpiece directly
below the flame. Safety is a considera-
tion with this method, given that
workers are handling an open flame,
and the method produces carbon-
monoxide fumes.
Another method used by some fab-
rication shops is resistance heating, an
electric form of preheating that uses
ceramic heating pads, cables, and wires
wrapped around the part. The ceramic
pads can heat up to 2000F, so they
must be allowed to cool down before
personnel handle them.
Resistance heating is typically done
on a contract basis, meaning
fabrication shops pay heating contrac-
tors to supply the equipment and peo-
ple to perform the job.
Productivity, Ease of Use,
and Safety
Rolling induction technology is de-
signed for easy and quick setup and
repositioning. The hinged arm and
rolling inductor mount on a standard
pipe stand, so the welding operator
can align the induction head on the
pipe. The power source recognizes the
attachment, so users only need to set
the maximum output and time, result-
ing in quick setup time.
Induction heating can bring the
part to temperature quickly and hold
the machine at a steady output, mak-
ing it a good option for getting consis-
tent temperature levels. This speed
and consistency help make it an
efficient heating method for welding
pipe.
Induction heating also offers
Fig. 1 Pictured is the ProHeat
TM
35
with rolling inductor.
numerous safety advantages.
Workplace safety and workers
compensation costs are major
concerns for employers.
Induction heating reduces burn
hazards and creates a safer and more
comfortable environment for the
welding operator.
Electrical heating methods, includ-
ing induction heating and resistance
heating, eliminate the need to store
explosive gases and that potential
hazard.
Consistency in Heating
Maintaining consistent
temperatures is especially critical,
when welding todays high-strength
steels. Rolling induction technology
provides steady heat output as the
pipe rolls to provide consistent
temperatures throughout the part and
reduce hot and cold spots.
Rolling induction offers a
maximum preheat temperature of
600F in rolled applications, and can
preheat pipe 8 in. and greater in diam-
eter. Multiple rolling induction
systems can be used to heat larger di-
ameters.
With the open-flame method, a
worker must continuously manually
check the temperature to make sure it
reaches a desired temperature. With
resistance heating, its important to
occasionally check the ceramic heating
pads, which can burn out and require
replacement.
Cost Considerations
While rolling induction is exclusive
to the preheating process, the power
source is compatible with other acces-
sories and tools. The power source can
be used for hydrogen bake out, shrink
fit, and postweld heat treatment to in-
crease the investments versatility and
value.
The initial investment in rolling in-
duction heating is higher, but the
return on investment grows over the
life of the equipment. The
technologys efficiency and result-
ing per-hour cost to operate the equip-
ment is an issue to consider in
choosing a heating method, in
addition to the productivity and safety
benefits of a particular method.
To recap, resistance heating is often
done on a contract basis by fabrication
shops, while open-flame heating is
typically done with a torch that shops
already have on hand, though it does
require use of consumables. The open-
flame method also often requires addi-
tional personnel to be on fire watch
during the heating process.
In Closing
Its important to consider the
safety, quality, and environmental is-
sues associated with various preheat-
ing methods. As an increasing number
of jobs require electric preheat, the
ability to use induction heating while
welding rolled pipe can improve
productivity, quality, and safety as well
as provide fabrication shops a viable
alternative.
JOE RYAN is marketing segment
manager, Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
(www.millerwelds.com), Appleton, Wis.
Easy to use
High quality
Fast
Affordable
W-60SM: Saddle miter cutting up to 12" pipe. The W-60SM cuts 90 degree
saddles, miters to 45 degrees and straight cuts. The torch is set to whatever bevel
angle is required. Comes standard with oxy-fuel torch and rotary ground. Plasma
torch holder with 32 pitch is available.
W-122: The W-122 is a two axis computerized cutter utilizing plasma. Cuts pipe
diameters from 1.5" to 12.75". The easy to use menu driven programming is very
user friendly. Up to 50 cuts can be linked together and 2500 files saved. The bevel
angle is set manually with the protractor torch mount. The cutting head tracks the
pipe both vertically and horizontally with the Watts unique tracking head.
Watts Specialties, Inc.
2323 East Pioneer STE. A
Puyallup, WA 98372 USA
(253) 848-9288
Fax: (253) 848-9295
sales@watts-specialties.com
MAKE WATTS YOUR #1 SOURCE
FOR PIPE CUTTING EQUIPMENT
web: watts-specialties.com
B
uttering is one of many methods
used to reduce the hardening ef-
fects inherent to in-service weld-
ing. The standard industry practice is
to weld a layer of low-hydrogen weld
metal matching the base material be-
fore commencing with the in-service
weld Fig. 1.
This layer is intended to be self-
tempering by using half overlapping
beads. The expected result is
significantly reduced hardness in the
weldment as well as a more substantial
wall thickness present during the
branch weld. The increased wall thick-
ness can greatly reduce the likelihood
of melt through during the root pass
in some applications. In this study, the
effect that buttering had on the hard-
ness of the weldment was examined
while keeping the carbon equivalent
and cooling rates constant.
Experimental Procedure
Two samples were welded with
every effort made to ensure that the
parameters were identical. The same
pipe was used to represent the run
pipe or header while the branch pipes
were cut from the same pipe. The
same position was used for both sam-
ples and the cooling rates were within
5% deviation.
The welding parameters were
closely monitored to ensure
consistency, and it was found that the
maximum deviations were current 6%
or 5 A, voltage 9% or 2 V, travel speed
30% or 95 mm/min, and heat input
2% or 30 J/mm.
Two macrosections were cut from
each sample as shown in Fig. 2. These
samples were inspected for defects and
various locations were then hardness
tested. The locations tested included
the root and cap weld toe on both the
Effects of Buttering on High-
Carbon-Equivalent In-Service Pipe
Experiments showed a buttering technique
significantly reduced hardness in the weld toes
BY MORGAN DULL AND
KAL FOREST
Fig. 1 Illustration of standard buttering technique.
Fig. 2 Weldment cross section without buttering.
run and branch sides as well as the
area near the center of the weld on the
run pipe side. The coarse-grain and
fine-grain heat-affected zones, along
with the weld metal, and base metal
were tested in all of these locations for
each sample.
Results
The maximum hardness found in
the samples with buttering was 315
HV1 (298 HB), while the maximum
hardness found in the samples
without buttering was 395 HV1 (374
HB). A more detailed comparison of
the samples with the highest hardness
values is shown in Fig. 3.
Note that the sample without but-
tering has some areas with a reduction
in hardness up to 40 HV1. These areas
were typically in the coarse- and fine-
grain heat-affected zones and were
usually areas in the 260 to 280 HV1
range in the buttered sample.
The areas in which the positive ef-
fects of buttering were most apparent
were the coarse-grain heat-affected
zones in the weld toes on the run pipe
side. Here, a maximum decrease in
hardness was shown to be 156 HV1
just below the cap. The buttering tech-
nique reduced the hardness in these
locations significantly by ensuring
proper tempering of the heat-affected
zone on the in-service pipe.
Conclusions
The results of this study reveal that
although some areas can show a mod-
erate decrease in hardness if buttering
is not used, a much more significant
decrease in hardness is apparent at the
weld toes on the in-service pipe side
when a buttering technique is utilized.
In this particular case, the
difference in the two techniques
resulted in hardness values that are ac-
ceptable for nonsour service when but-
tering is used and unacceptable values
when buttering is not used. The
acceptable hardness values are based
on CSA Z662-2011, Oil and Gas
Pipeline Systems, for nonsour
service.
WJ
KAL FOREST is engineering manager, and
MORGAN DULL is a certified engineering
technologist (welding) at Red Flame
Industries, Red Deer, Canada.
Fig. 3 Hardness comparison graphic.
Digitals advantages over
analog systems include
improved maintenance,
performance, and
lifecycle
BY STEPHEN COLE AND
KEVIN BEARDSLEY
O
rbital welding is not a simple
task. Strict parameters guide
the process, which operators
most frequently use to provide critical
welds for the demanding needs of re-
fineries, power and chemical plants,
and related industries.
Developed more than a half-
century ago as an automated alterna-
tive to straight manual welding on
tube and pipe, early orbital welding re-
lied primarily on analog technology.
Analog orbital welding systems
depended on operator skill and com-
plicated setup, preparation, and
process tasks to deliver a quality final
product.
With the progression from analog
to digital standards guiding product
development in many industries,
todays orbital welding systems also
are making this transition. New, digi-
tal technology offers improvements in
reliability and consistency over
analog, making it a logical choice for
upgrades.
In the bigger picture, this
transition to digital orbital welding
systems from earlier analog units
Digital
Systems
Deliver
Orbital
Welding
Consistency
Greater control over
arc parameters has
the capability to de-
liver faster travel
speeds or greater
deposition while con-
trolling distortion and
heat input levels.
Ease of setup, control,
and maintenance,
coupled with the ad-
vantages of the digital
platform, deliver more
uptime, greater pro-
ductivity, and higher
quality than common
analog systems.
SEPTEMBER 2014/ WELDING JOURNAL 51
promises to address not only applica-
tion-specific requirements unique to
the orbital welding process, but also
challenges in respect to quality and
productivity demands Fig. 1. Digital
technology also can help combat the
shortage of knowledgeable, skilled op-
erators in the welding and fabrication
industry.
Digital Brings Greater
Consistency
Digital technology in orbital weld-
ing systems delivers consistency
across equipment, important if the
equipment is fleet-wide, as an issue
can be addressed with a software
upgrade across the entire machinery
roster Fig. 2. In contrast, previous
analog-driven technology introduced a
certain amount of variance from ma-
chine to machine and required opera-
tors to physically address issues one
machine at a time. Such efforts made
it costly to maintain large fleets.
Challenges with analog orbital
welding systems, or with any analog
system, for that matter, start at the
beginning. Analog equipment
demands verification of each unit
as being in an operational state be-
fore it is ready for work in the field.
With an analog system, each func-
tion and operation exists as an
independent, unique circuit. To ensure
that an analog-driven piece of
equipment can be relied upon, opera-
tors must test every single function.
This testing consumes time and
money. In fact, prior to field issue, it
can take days to calibrate an analog or-
bital welding machine and verify its
motions.
Digital orbital welding systems, on
the other hand, are much easier to
make and keep field-ready. All
thats required is verifying the welding
circuits motion and the functional as-
pects. Software can control other sys-
tem characteristics, even if the equip-
ment has been idle for a month or two.
And with so much tied into the
software, programs can be updated
and uploaded to repair bugs or address
other performance issues. These
issues can be addressed consistently,
rapidly, and cost effectively across the
entire fleet, a much easier proposition
than manual inspections, fine-tuning,
and maintenance, as is the case with
analog systems.
Digital Communication
Is Key
Orbital welding systems benefit
from the digital nature of various sys-
tem components. For example, team-
ing a digital motions system with a
digital welding power source can offer
benefits via a digital communications
protocol.
Digital communication allows for
faster, more dependable, more
economical equipment performance.
Historically, welding system perform-
ance has been limited by the analog
circuitry that controlled it. For exam-
ple, analog signals only can be
transmitted over limited distances, as
the signals attenuate or die out with
distance, compromising data integrity
and limiting the cable lengths between
welding system components.
Digital communication promotes
faster signal transfer, while preserving
data integrity and simplifying wiring.
It speeds up data transfer rates and
minimizes delay, enhancing welder
performance. It also provides greater
opportunity for coordinating
movement of the mechanical with the
welding procedures, resulting in a
more controlled arc and access to
application-specific waveforms that
Fig. 1 The rapid change to digital orbital systems allows fabricators to address increasing
requirements for application flexibility as well as quality and productivity enhancements.
help control heat input at critical
points in the weld.
Digital communication also eases
production monitoring, a critical need
for orbital welding. High-speed
communication, enabled by digital
technology, permits the use of
software tools to track equipment
usage and condition. It also allows op-
erators to configure limits and
responses after each weld and provides
storage of thousands of weld
summaries.
And, as discussed, digital protocol
also provides a scalable framework for
future upgrades, allowing engineering
changes to be made through software
upgrades instead of module
replacements.
Fully digital, mechanized orbital
welding systems, given their software-
driven makeup, can be upgraded, with-
out the need to add hardware.
Forward-looking manufacturers are
developing and introducing systems
that are expandable and dynamic over
time, via software to support new
products and new technologies. Fabri-
cators no longer need to scrap a
machine and buy a new one with each
new industry advancement. For own-
ers of fleet equipment, it used to be
that the day they bought that
equipment, in some ways it already
was out of date. Not so with
mechanized, digital systems new
code updates bring equipment up to
speed.
Lincoln Electric, for instance, pro-
vides system updates as part of its up-
dates for the welding power sources.
With digital communication, software
recognizes the components surround-
ing the power source and uploads up-
dates specific to those components,
thus keeping the systems current.
Suppose the company produces a new
waveshape providing enhanced root
bead performance, faster travel
speeds, or greater deposition for its
power source. It can update system
software with new features to not only
control that waveshape (Fig. 3), but to
perform more with that arc things
that we may not even have thought of
today. This gives the new generation
of mechanized, digital orbital welding
systems a long life cycle.
Fig. 2 Setup, calibration, verification,
production performance monitoring, and
system upgrades, especially in multisys-
tem fleets, are significantly simplified for
fabricators with new systems based on
digital communications protocols.
Fig. 3 Updated processes or waveshapes resulting from new research or tailored specifically to a particular application can easily be up-
dated to enhance performance.
More Demanded from
Welding Systems
Software updates also enable new
system capabilities. Companies now
design orbital and other welding sys-
tems with future capabilities in mind,
so that new software can meet the
welding challenges ahead. This devel-
opment is critical, as new materials
and new processes define the current
welding industry, and the industry as
it moves forward.
Welding processes introduced in re-
cent years have greatly improved weld-
ing speeds and the range of materials
that can be welded. The versatility of
an orbital welding system, provided by
its increasingly digital, mechanized
nature and its ability to grow in capa-
bility as welding processes and materi-
als evolve, proves indispensable in
tackling challenges. Productivity
improves as welders have to give less
thought to the material and the
process, knowing that the machinery
provides the correct parameters and
procedures needed to produce quality
finished product.
Easier to Use, Addresses
Skilled-Welder Shortage
The lack of available, skilled welders
is not news to anyone. The digital and
mechanized nature of the latest orbital
welding systems address this challenge
by providing consistency across all
units within a fleet, resulting in high-
quality, repeatable automated welding
across all machines over long time pe-
riods. In contrast, human welders
being human and old-style analog
orbital welding systems inherently de-
liver distinct variability throughout
the course of a workday.
Older analog orbital welding equip-
ment was filled with knobs and
switches. Its complexity required users
to memorize switch locations and set-
tings, slowing the process and leaving
room for operator error.
Newer technology has produced
more of a game focus on the user in-
terface, allowing operators who are ac-
customed to video games to transition
to welding without having to
completely retrain their mind on how
to react. As an example, the new
Apex 3000 orbital gas metal arc weld-
ing system employs multiuse buttons
and switches. This enables the opera-
tor to focus on accessing a very small
section of the pendant instead of hav-
ing to memorize a large physical layout
and the location of every button and
knob Fig. 4. This new design brings
with it the intuitive feel and operabil-
ity of a video game controller.
Easier control, combined with ease
of maintenance and consistency from
system to system as well as simple op-
erator interfaces, show that the age of
digital, mechanized orbital welding is
here, and will continue to adapt to
the changing needs of the welding
industry.
SEPTEMBER 2014/ WELDING JOURNAL 53
WJ
Fig. 4 New glare-resistant interfaces feature multi-use controls to display relevant data required for any operation.
STEPHEN COLE is engineering manager,
Arc Products Inc., San Diego, Calif.,
www.arcproducts.com, and KEVIN BEARDS-
LEY is global application engineer, The Lincoln
Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio,
www.lincolnelectric.com.
Introduction
In the past few decades, offshore oil
and gas exploration has progressively
moved from shallow to deep water. In
South China Sea, the average water
depth is 1212 m (3975 ft); the depth is
increased to 5567 m (18,260 ft) on the
central abyssal plain. At present, there
are about ten oil and gas field groups
sited in this area. The Weizhou oilfield
is 30~40 m deep, and the Eastern gas
field is 63~70 m. The other ones are
close to or more than 100 m deep,
with the Liuhua oilfield (305 m) and
Liwan 3-1 gas field (1500 m) being the
deepest (Refs. 1, 2). The number of
underwater structures in deep ocean is
rapidly growing with the exploration,
and for some of them, the service time
is approaching the design life. The
Weizhou 10-3 oilfield, which entered
production in 1986, has been in use
for more than 20 years, thus the
importance of underwater structure
repair and sacrificial anode retrofit are
increasingly important.
Friction Welding
Underwater
Friction welding is a solid-state
connection technology with unique
technical advantages. It has recently
been introduced to underwater appli-
cations. Although there is some infor-
mation about this technology in a few
articles, there are also some aspects
about the welding process and equip-
ment that needed to be studied
further for the specific engineering ap-
plications (Refs. 310). Therefore, an
exploratory research program of
underwater friction welding technol-
ogy was carried out in 20062010, and
then the subsequent engineering
application was performed. The
underwater friction welding system
based on a remotely operated vehicle
(ROV) platform can be used to replace
the saturation diver to weld new sacri-
ficial anodes. This reduces greatly the
construction cost and improves the
production efficiency.
Design of the
Underwater Friction
Welding System Based
on the ROV Platform
Overall Scheme Design
The welding system (Fig. 1) mainly
consists of an underwater welding de-
vice and a high-powered ROV
platform. The ROV is widely used in
ocean engineering. The welding device
is composed of the welding head,
welding fixture, hydraulic control
module, hydraulic underwater hot stab
Study of Underwater Friction
Welding Technology
Friction welding on a remotely operated
vehicle platform was used to retrofit sacrificial
anodes on underwater pipelines
BY GAO HUI,
JIAO XIANG-DONG,
XU YA-GUO, AND
ZHOU CAN-FENG
Fig. 1 Underwater friction welding system based on the ROV platform.
Fig. 2 The remotely operated vehicle.
module, electronic control module,
and humanmachine interface. The
hydraulic control module and electrical
control module can be carried into
water by the ROV, but the assembly
composed of the sacrificial anode,
welding head, and welding fixture was
too heavy and had to be lifted into the
water separately. The main electrical
control module exchanges information
with a humanmachine interface by
communicating through an optical
fiber in the ROV. The power for the
welding head was supplied by the ROV
hydraulic system through the
underwater hydraulic hot stab module.
This kind of modular system design
enables fast installation and
separation between the underwater
friction welding device and ROV oper-
ation platform, which can improve the
work efficiency.
Interface between ROV and
Friction Welding System
The ROV (Fig. 2) is composed of
the body, manipulator, positioning
module, main hydraulic drive module,
tooling hydraulic drive module, under-
water camera module, and communi-
cation control module. The manipula-
tor can be used to position and fix the
underwater welding system, and exe-
cute the operations of plugging the hy-
draulic pipe and separating the welded
anode. The power of the welding head
is directly provided by the ROV tooling
hydraulic drive module, which can ef-
fectively reduce the hydraulic pressure
losses in the pipe. In addition, the con-
trol module of the ROV utilizes stan-
dard RS232/RS485 communication
protocol.
The remote control signal is
converted into light signals by the
photoelectric conversion device, so
that it can be transmitted through the
optical fiber. This kind of design pro-
vides convenience for the signal trans-
mission between the main control unit
and humanmachine interface, as the
friction welding electronic control
module also utilizes RS232/RS485
communication protocol.
Development of the Welding
Head and Welding Fixture
The underwater friction welding
head (Fig. 3) is driven by hydraulic
power. In the welding process, the ro-
tary motion is realized by a hydraulic
motor installed on top of the welding
head, and the axial feed movement is
driven by hydraulic cylinders. Spare
and accessory parts for the welding
head are made of stainless steel to
meet the needs of underwater opera-
tions. The maximum speed and work-
ing pressure of the hydraulic motor is
10,000 rev/min and 32 MPa,
respectively, and the stroke of the hy-
draulic cylinder is 80 mm. In addition,
the drive shaft is sealed by a mechani-
cal motive seal and can work normally
under the conditions of 2.5 MPa and
8000 rev/min.
The welding fixture is designed ac-
cording to the specific conditions of
underwater construction on site, and
it can be used to weld the sacrificial
anode on the top of underwater
suction anchors (Fig. 4), which is the
objective of this project. Now, the sac-
rificial anode used for the suction an-
chors is mostly bar-shaped, which
needs two weld points to fix, and its
shape caused difficulty in positioning
welds. So the shape of the anode was
changed to a disk-shape (Fig. 5), thus
the number of weld points was
reduced from two to one. Installation
and positioning of the welding head
and clamping of the disc-shaped anode
was accomplished with a welding fix-
ture Fig. 6. The welding fixture was
located and fixed on the underwater
suction anchor by magnetism. There
are two magnets installed on the weld-
ing fixture, and for each of them, the
nominal force is 20 kN and the maxi-
Fig. 3 Underwater friction welding
head.
Fig. 4 Underwater suction anchors. Fig. 5 Disk-shaped anode.
mum force is 60 kN, which fully meets
the requirement of the forging force
20 kN in the welding process. When
the welding work was finished, the
rapid separation between the anode
and welding fixture was carried out by
the manipulator of the ROV.
Hydraulic Control Module
The hydraulic control module (Fig.
7) of the underwater friction welding
device, which was sealed by a shell,
was connected to the tooling hydraulic
drive module and carried into the
water by the ROV. The hydraulic con-
trol module consists of two speed reg-
ulating valves, a relief valve, and three
magnetic exchange valves. In order to
realize the welding parameters control
by operators in the ROV control room,
the hydraulic control module is
connected to the main control unit by
the underwater sealing plug.
Electronic Control System
Module and Human-Machine
Interface
The control system of the underwa-
ter friction welding device includes the
main control unit and human-machine
interface Fig. 8. As the volume of
Panasonic DVP-10SX PLC is relatively
small and its very easy to put it into
the ROV electric cabin, it was selected
as the main control unit. A touch
screen with the configuration software
was selected as the human-machine
interface, and then placed into the
ROV control room so as to execute the
joint operation with the ROV control
system during the welding process.
The main control unit communicates
Fig. 6 Welding head and welding fixture. Fig. 7 Schematic of the hydraulic control module.
Fig. 8 The block diagram of the control system.
Fig. 10 Welding operation in the water
environment.
Fig. 11 The tensile specimen of weld
joint obtained in the water environment.
Fig. 9 Weld joint obtained in the air en-
vironment.
with the human-machine interface ac-
cording to RS232/RS485 protocol.
However, because of the long distance
of the signal transmission, a
photoelectric conversion module is
needed to convert the electric signal to
an optical signal for exchanging data
through the optical fiber.
Study of Welding Process
for Underwater Friction
Welding
The suction anchor is a barrel-
shaped structure fabricated with A36
steel plate. In this project, welding
process trials with 8-, 12-, and 16-mm-
diameter studs were conducted in the
air and water environment,
respectively (Figs. 9, 10), and tensile
tests were carried out for the weld
joint according to the requirement of
the contractor. The experimental
results showed that weld joints with-
out defects were obtained with a head
rotating speed of 3500~4000 rev/min
and the axial feed speed of 20~30
mm/min in the water. The joints had
good tensile properties, even higher
than the base metal Fig. 11. One
tensile test performed on a 16-mm
stud weld joint made in water resulted
in failure in the stud at a maximum
load of 92 kN Fig. 12. Therefore,
the properties of these weld joints met
the need for the installation of an un-
derwater sacrificial anode.
Debugging on Site
Based on laboratory studies of the
welding process, the hydraulic system
parameters of the underwater friction
welding device were determined. By
comparing the parameters of the ROV
tooling hydraulic system, it was deter-
mined that they met the needs of un-
derwater friction stud welding. In ad-
dition, the joint communication for
debugging between the electronic con-
trol module of the friction welding
system and the communication
control module of ROV were
completed successfully on site, and the
movement indexes of the weld head
also met the requirement of the weld-
ing process Fig. 13.
Summary
For the need of retrofitting sacrifi-
cial anodes on underwater pipelines
and other underwater structures, suit-
able welding parameters were
developed for an underwater friction
welding device using a ROV. Feasibility
of the process, as well as all key techni-
cal details of the system, were verified
through joint debugging between the
friction welding device and the ROV.
The technology can replace saturation
diving welding operations, which
reduces greatly the operating costs. It
has laid a good technical foundation
for the forthcoming work of
retrofitting sacrificial anodes in the
South China Sea.
Fig. 12 Experiment data of the tensile
test.
Fig. 13 Joint debugging between the friction welding device and the ROV.
WJ
Acknowledgments
Support Project: The national high
technology research and development
program (863 Program)
(2011AA090302), National Natural
Science Foundation of China
(51109005), Beijing Natural Science
Foundation (3122016), Science and
technology program of Beijing Munici-
pal Commission of Education
(KM201310017007).
References
1. Xi-zhao, J., et al. 2010. Study on
welding procedure and equipment ap-
plied in subsea pipeline laying. Ship
and Ocean Engineering (3): 128132.
2. Xiang-dong, J. et al. 2007. Chal-
lenges and countermeasures of
offshore engineering joining technol-
ogy in 21st century. J. Electric Welding
Machine 37(06): 7580.
3. Meyer, A. 2001. Subsea robotic
friction welding repair system.
Offshore Technology Conference, Hous-
ton, Tex.
4. Meyer, A., et al. 2001. Considera-
tions on robotic friction stitch welding
for the repair of marine structures.
20th International Conference on
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineer-
ing, Brazil.
5. Nicholas, E. D. 1984. Underwater
friction welding for electrical coupling
of sacrificial anodes. Paper OTC 4741,
presented at the 16th Annual OTC,
Houston, Tex.
6. Blakemore, G. R. 1992. Design
and implementation of a total control
system for a portable friction welding
machine. Paper 6, presented at the 4th
International Conference Computer Tech-
nology in Welding, TWI, Cambridge,
UK, 3-4 June.
7. Brown, P., McGowan, C.,
Blakemore, G., Cooper, M., and Bird, J.
1997. Evaluation of hydro marine sys-
tems HMS 3000 portable friction
welding machine. Paper presented at
ASM International European Conference
Welding and Joining Science and
Technology, Madrid, Spain.
8. McGowan, C. D. 1997. Evaluation
of the hydro marine systems
HMS3000 friction stud welding
machine. Defence Research Agency re-
port DRA/SMC/CR973005, Farnbor-
ough.
9. Gibson, D., Pacuba, N., and Grey,
I. 2010. Fiction stud welding underwa-
ter in the offshore oil and gas industry.
Proc. State of the Art, Science and Relia-
bility of Underwater Welding and Inspec-
tion Technology, Houston, Tex.
10. Gao, H. 2010. Study for the
process of friction stitch welding. Bei-
jing University of Chemical
Technology, Beijing, China.
GAO HUI (gaohui@bipt.edu.cn), JIAO
XIANG-DONG, XU YAGUO, AND ZHOU
CAN-FENG are with Beijing Higher Insti-
tution Engineering Research Center of
Energy Engineering Advanced Joining
Technology, Beijing Institute of Petro-
chemical Technology, Beijing, China.
This article is reprinted with permission
from Modern Welding Technology,
published by Chengdu ONLY Welding
Industry Development Co. Ltd., Chengdu,
Sichuan Province, China.
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Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical infor-
mation to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to
drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements,
and many others. Visit website for complete information
and to sign up for modules. Laser Institute of America;
www.lia.org/laseru.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly
and on request, include tutorials and practical training. Pre-
sented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For
schedule, cost, and availability, send your request to
info@servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.;
(800) 922-7533; www.rockfordsystems.com.
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
NACE International Training and Certification Courses. Na-
tional Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223;
www.nace.org.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute;
(800) 223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers loca-
tions. Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra-
diation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714)
255-1500; www.testndt.com.
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Stainless Steel Pickling Gel
Achieve maximum corrosion resistance to stainless steel.
Surface contamination may drastically reduce the life of
stainless steel. Wonder Gel removes (pickles) stubborn impurities,
cleans the toughest slag, scale and heat discoloration
and restores (passivates) the protective oxide layer.
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International ph: 714.695.0899
International fax: 714.965.0840
e-mail sales@derustit.com
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Nov. 11-13, 2014
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Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Miami, FL Sept. 712 Sept. 13
Idaho Falls, ID Sept. 712 Sept. 13
St. Louis, MO Sept. 712 Sept. 13
Houston, TX Sept. 712 Sept. 13
New Orleans, LA Sept. 1419 Sept. 20
Fargo, ND Sept. 1419 Sept. 20
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Sept. 27
Pittsburgh, PA Sept. 28Oct. 3 Oct. 4
Long Beach, CA Oct. 510 Oct. 11
Indianapolis, IN Oct. 510 Oct. 11
Tulsa, OK Oct. 510 Oct. 11
Nashville, TN Oct. 510 Oct. 11
Miami, FL Exam only Oct. 16
Beaumont, TX Oct. 1217 Oct. 18
South Plainfield, NJ Oct. 1217 Oct. 18
Portland, OR Oct. 1217 Oct. 18
Atlanta, GA Oct. 1924 Oct. 25
Des Moines, IA Oct. 1924 Oct. 25
Detroit, MI Oct. 1924 Oct. 25
Roanoke, VA Oct. 1924 Oct. 25
Shreveport, LA Oct. 1924 Oct. 25
Cleveland, OH Oct. 2631 Nov. 1
Spokane, WA Oct. 2631 Nov. 1
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Nov. 8
Atlanta, GA Exam only Nov. 13
Sacramento, CA Nov. 1621 Nov. 22
Miami, FL Nov. 1621 Nov. 22
Annapolis, MD Nov. 1621 Nov. 22
Dallas, TX Nov. 1621 Nov. 22
Edmonton, AB, Canada Exam only Nov. 24
St. Louis, MO Exam only Dec. 6
Los Angeles, CA Dec. 712 Dec. 13
Orlando, FL Dec. 712 Dec. 13
Reno, NV Dec. 712 Dec. 13
Houston, TX Dec. 712 Dec. 13
Miami, FL Exam only Dec. 18
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the
Code Clinic part of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Miami, FL Sept. 1519 Sept. 20
Norfolk, VA Oct. 1317 Oct. 18
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be
taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Location Seminar Dates
Denver, CO Sept. 712
Dallas, TX Oct. 510
New Orleans, LA Oct. 2631
Seattle, WA Nov. 1621
Miami, FL Dec. 712
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Chicago, IL Sept. 1519 Sept. 20
Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 1317 Oct. 18
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Seminar dates (S:) are followed by the exam dates (E:)
S: Dec. 811, E: Dec. 12; at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23, 24; at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23; at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
S: Oct. 1316, E: Oct. 17; at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
S: Sept. 2224, E: Sept. 25, 26; S: Nov. 1719, E: Nov. 20, 21;
at Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your
course status before making travel plans. Applicatons are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applicatons
received afer that tme will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify applicaton deadline dates by visitng our website
www.aws.org/certcaton/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit
www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 4439353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
Certcaton Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinatons
Welding Summit Workshop
October 8, 9
AWS Headquarters, Miami, Fla.
FABTECH 2014 Conferences
Georgia World Congress Center
So You're the New Welding Engineer
November 11, 12
Room C302
Thermal Spray Technology: HighPerformance Surfaces
November 12
Room C201
Additive Manufacturing
November 13
Room C205
Look ahead to 2015
International Brazing and Soldering Conference (IBSC)
April 1922, 2015
Long Beach, Calif.
CONFERENCES
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 4439353, ext. 234, or email
belkys@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department website at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences and
registration information.
The purpose of the Welding Summit Workshop is to pro-
vide an interactive open forum environment for profession-
als from various areas of the welding industry to discuss
issues and propose solutions.
Heres help for getting you up to speed quickly, asking
the right questions, getting the results you need, saving
money, and staying out of trouble. This two-day conference
is for managers, engineers, designers, and others with weld-
ing responsibility but limited exposure to or background in
welding. The conference focuses on arc welding applications,
but the principles have universal applicability. Presentations
and discussion are based on the Application Analysis Work-
sheet, which was developed to teach a senior college course
to engineers about to enter industry, with the objective of
helping them develop a path to understand and deal with
the challenges they were about to face.
This conference is aimed at exploring the many facets of
thermal spray, including advanced uses of robotics in
thermal spray, improving coating yield through powder feed
optimization, recycling thermal spray overspray dust, and
applying thermal spray anodic coatings to less than ideally
prepared surfaces.
Additive manufacturing represents the realization of the
ideal of on-demand manufacturing. Without molds or dies,
additive manufacturing enables production of parts and
prototypes on demand. Design improvements can be made
and tested rapidly without tooling and machining
constraints. Learn from the experts about additive manufac-
turing processes such as powder bed fusion, material extru-
sion, directed energy deposition, material jetting, and more.
Now in its sixth year, the IBSC remains the premier event
for the brazing and soldering community. For years, the
IBSC has provided professionals, scientists, and engineers
involved in the research, development, and application of
brazing and soldering, a unique networking and idea-
exchange forum. This three-day conference provides
cutting-edge education and technical programming for the
brazing and soldering community, as well as peer-network-
ing and a full exhibit program, showcasing the latest trends,
products, processes, and techniques. WJ
BY HOWARD WOODWARD woodward@aws.org
SOCIETY NEWS
The Leadership Symposium participants are shown July 23 in the lobby of AWS World Headquarters in Miami, Fla.
H. Glenn Ziegenfuss (right), an AWS
Life Member, receives an anniversary
pin commemorating his 30 years of
service to the International Institute
of Welding (IIW) from Damian
Kotecki. The presentation was made
during the 67th IIW Annual Assem-
bly and International Conference held
July 1318 in Seoul, South Korea. Dr.
Kotecki, a past treasurer for the IIW,
served as AWS president 20052006.
Ziegenfuss has held leadership posi-
tions at IIW, Standards Engineering
Society, ANSI, and AWS.
Leadership Symposium Meets in Miami

The 16th annual AWS Leadership
Symposium was held July 2023 at
AWS World Headquarters in Miami,
Fla. Section leaders from all 22 AWS
Districts and India participated to de-
velop the skills they need to better
perform their Section duties.
Listed are the District number, at-
tendees name, and Section. 1) Jeffrey
Mannette Sr., Boston; Luke Buss,
Green & White Mountains; 2)
Thomas Colasanto, New York; 3)
Richard Heisey, Reading; 4) Brandon
Hoffner, Charlotte; 5 Seth Evans,
South Carolina; 6) Larry Hidde,
Northern New York; 7) George Kirk,
Pittsburgh; 8) Jonaaron Jones,
Northeast Tennessee; 9) William
Lamperez, Baton Rouge; 10) Ward
Kiser, Drake Well; Johnny Napier,
Cleveland; 11) Justin Miller, Saginaw
Valley; Ryan Crandell, West Michigan;
Viji Kuruvilla, Detroit; 12) Paul
Fischer and Jennifer Lynn
Hildebrandt, Milwaukee; 13) David
Viar, Chicago; 14) Andrew Swyers, St.
Louis; Kyle Hutcheson, Indiana; 15)
Jerod Tengesdal and Danny Meckle,
Northern Plains; Dana Sorensen,
Northwest; 16) Maggie-Anne Landon
and John Shaw, Iowa; Greg Siepert,
Kansas; 17) Brie Jenkins, Ozark;
John Trotter, Oklahoma City; 18)
Thomas Holt, Sabine; 19) Gentry
Wood and Wanda Griesheimer,
Alberta; 20) Gordon Reynolds, Utah;
21) John Weber, Arizona; Tim
Chubbs, Inland Empire; 22) Jennifer
Bernard, San Francisco; Carlos Shel-
ton, Sacramento Valley; and Interna-
tional) Shyam Baskaran, India.
The Symposium is facilitated each
year by Ron Gilbert, senior partner
and principal management
consultant for Gilbert Education &
Management Systems,
www.gilbertems.com, and a professor
of management in the Chapman
Graduate School of Business at
Florida International University.
Assisting Dr. Gilbert again this
year were Lee Kvidahl, an AWS past
president and manager of
welding/manufacturing engineering
at Huntington Ingalls Industries,
Pascagoula, Miss., and AWS staff
members Cassie Burrell, senior asso-
ciate executive director; and Rhenda
Kenny, director, and Alfred Nieves,
coordinator, Member Services.
The Annual Meeting of the mem-
bers of the American Welding Soci-
ety will be held Monday, Nov. 10,
2014, beginning at 9:00 AM at the
Georgia World Congress Center in
Atlanta, Ga.
The regular business of the Soci-
ety will be conducted, including elec-
tion of officers and nine members of
the Board of Directors. Any business
properly brought before the
membership will be considered.
Notice of Annual Meeting of the American Welding Society
AWS Life Member Cited by IIW
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun on
the following two standards. Affected
individuals are invited to contribute
to their development. Participation
on all AWS Technical Committees is
open to all persons.
B5.1:2013-AMD1, Specification for
the Qualification of Welding Inspectors.
This revised standard defines the re-
quirements for qualifying visual weld-
ing inspectors including exam,
experience, demonstrated capabili-
ties, and proof of visual acuity. The
exam tests the inspectors knowledge
of welding processes, procedures, de-
structive and nondestructive exami-
nations, terms, definitions, symbols,
reports, welding metallurgy, essential
mathematics, safety, quality assur-
ance, and general responsibilities.
Stakeholders: Welding inspectors.
Contact S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
D20.1:20XX, Standard for Fabrica-
tion of Metal Components Using Addi-
tive Manufacturing. This new standard
will present the general contract re-
quirements, process and operator
qualifications, and inspections neces-
sary for fabricators using metal addi-
tive manufacturing processes to
produce product to customers' speci-
fications. Stakeholders: Everyone in-
volved in additive manufacturing.
Contact A. Alonso, aalonso@aws.org.
Two New Standards Approved
by ANSI
B2.1-1-302:2014, Standard Weld-
ing Procedure Specification for Naval
Applications (SWPS-N) for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (S-
1),
1
8 inch [3 mm] through 1
1
2 inch [38
mm] Thick, MIL-7018-M, in the As-
Welded or PWHT Condition, Primarily
Plate and Structural Naval Applica-
tions. Approved 7/9/14.
B2.1-1-312:2014, Standard Weld-
ing Procedure Specification for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (S-
1),
1
8 through 1
1
2 inch Thick, MIL-7018-
M, As-Welded or PWHT Condition,
Primarily Pipe for Naval Applications.
Approved 7/9/14.
Two Revised Standards for
Public Review
B2.1-1/8-010:201X, Standard
Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS)
for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1) to Austenitic Stainless
Steel (M-8/P-8), 18 through 10 Gauge,
in the As-Welded Condition, with or
without Backing. $124. 9/01/14. J.
Rosario, jrosario@aws.org.
D16.4M/D16.4:201X, Specification
for the Qualification of Robotic Arc
Welding Personnel. $26. 8/18/14. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
AWS was approved as an accred-
ited standards-preparing organiza-
tion by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1979.
AWS rules, as approved by ANSI, re-
quire that all standards be open to
public review for comment during the
approval process. The above stan-
dards were submitted for public re-
view with the review expiration dates
shown. A draft copy may be obtained
from the staff contact listed.
Two ISO Draft Standards for
Public Review
ISO/DIS 14272.2 Resistance
welding Destructive testing of welds
Specimen dimensions and procedure
for cross tension testing of resistance
spot and embossed projection welds.
ISO/DIS 14273.2 Resistance
welding Destructive testing of welds
Specimen dimensions and procedure
for tensile shear testing resistance spot,
seam and embossed projection welds.
Copies of these standards are
available through your national stan-
dards body, which in the United
States is ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Fl.,
New York, NY 10036; (212) 642-
4900. In the United States, if you
wish to participate in the develop-
ment of international standards for
welding, contact A. Davis,
adavis@aws.org.
Diusion Bonding Experts
Sought for ISO Standard
The U.S. TAG (Technical Advisory
Group) that serves as the United
States National Committee to ISO/TC
44/SC 10, Unification of Require-
ments in the Field of Metal Welding,
seeks United States experts to serve
on a newly created subgroup dealing
with the topic of micro melting diffu-
sion bonding. The group is working
on a new ISO standard concerning
micro joining of second-generation
high-temperature superconductors.
Contact A. Davis, adavis@aws.org.
Technical Committee Meetings
Sept. 9. D15 Committee on Rail-
road Welding. Chicago, Ill. Contact J.
Sept. 9. D15A Subcommittee on
Cars and Locomotives. Chicago, Ill.
Contact J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org.
Sept. 15. A5H Subcommittee on
Filler Metals and Fluxes for Brazing.
Charleston, S.C. Contact S. Borrero,
sborrero@aws.org.
Sept. 15, 16. C3 Committee and
Subcommittees on Brazing and Sol-
dering. Charleston, S.C. Contact S.
Borrero, sborrero@aws.org.
Sept. 17, 18. J1F Task Group 6 of
the J1 Committee on Resistance
Welding Equipment. Miami, Fla. Con-
tact E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Sept. 2325. B2 Committee and
Subcommittees on Procedure and
Performance Qualifications. Salt Lake
City, Utah. Contact J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org.
Sept. 24. SH4 Subcommittee on
Labeling and Safe Practices. Pitts-
burgh, Pa. Contact: S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Oct. 7. D10P Subcommittee on
Local Heat Treating of Pipework.
Miami, Fla. Contact B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Oct. 8, 9. A2 Committee and Sub-
committees on Definitions and Sym-
bols. Columbus, Ohio. Contact S.
Borrero, sborrero@aws.org.
Oct. 10. D10 Committee on Piping
and Tubing. Miami, Fla. Contact B.
McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Oct. 20, 21. D16 Committee on
Robotic and Automatic Welding.
Miami, Fla. Contact: C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Oct. 2124. D1 Committee and
Subcommittees on Structural Weld-
ing. Jackson, Wyo. Contact B. Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Oct. 23, 24. C4 Committee on
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting.
Clearwater, Fla. Contact C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
April 710, 2015. D1 Committee
and Subcommittees on Structural
Welding. Miami, Fla. Contact B. Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
TECH TOPICS
SOCIETY NEWS
Opportunites to Serve on
Technical Commitees
www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm
Te following committees have
openings for new members.
Joining of plastics and composites.
G1 Committee seeks educators, end
users, general interest, and
consultants. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Methods of weld inspection. The
B1 Committee seeks educators, gen-
eral interest, and end users. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Safety and Health Committee
seeks educators, end users, general
interest, and consultants. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting,
C4 Committee seeks educators, gen-
eral interest, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee
seeks professionals. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Highenergy beam welding and
cutting, C7 Committee seeks profes-
sionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals,
A5L Subcommittee seeks profession-
als. R. Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding,
D16 Committee seeks general inter-
est and educational members. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P
Subcommittee seeks professionals. B.
McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4
Committee seeks professionals. S.
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Reactive alloys, G2D Subcommit-
tee seeks volunteers. A. Alonso,
aalonso@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler met
als, A5K Subcommittee seeks profes-
sionals. A. Alonso, aalonso@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B
Subcommittee seeks members. J.
Resistance welding equipment, J1
Committee seeks educators, general
interest, and end users. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying, the C2 Commit-
tee seeks educators, general interest,
and end users. J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org.
Automotive, The D8 Committee
seeks members. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and
surfacing and reconditioning of
industrial mill rolls, D14 Committee
and D14H Subcommittee seek educa-
tors, end users, consultants, and gen-
eral interest members. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Hybrid welding. The C7D Subcom-
mittee seeks volunteers. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nominate Your Candidate for
MIT Masubuchi Award
This award, with a $5000 honorar-
ium, is presented to one person, 40 or
younger, who has made significant
contributions to materials joining
through research and development.
Send your candidates credentials and
three or more letters of recommenda-
tion from other researchers to Prof.
Todd Palmer, tap103@psu.edu.
SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Candidates Sought for
WeldingRelated Awards
The deadline for nominating can-
didates for the following awards is
December 31 prior to the year of the
awards presentations. E-mail Wendy
Sue Reeve at wreeve@aws.org or call
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
William Irrgang Memorial Award
This award includes a $2500
honorarium to recognize the indi-
vidual who has done the most over
the past five years to advance the
science and technology of welding.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges
eminence in the welding
profession, or one who has made
exceptional developments in the
welding art.
National Meritorious Award
This award includes a $2500
honorarium to recognize an
individuals loyalty, good council,
dedication to AWS affairs, and pro-
motion of cordial relations with in-
dustry and other technical organi-
zations.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an
individual who promoted the
advancement of welding
internationally by fostering cooper-
ative participation in technology
transfer, standards rationalization,
and promotion of industrial good-
will for the Society.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award
This honor recognizes, in the
broadest terms, the recipients sig-
nificant contributions and service
to activities in the international
welding community.
AWS Life Members Get Free
Registration for Professional
Program
AWS Life Members are offered free
admission to the FABTECH show
scheduled for Nov. 1113, 2014, at
the Georgia World Congress Center in
Atlanta, plus free registration for the
Professional Program, enabling them
to attend any of the technical
sessions presented during the three-
day period a $325 value.
The Registration Form is available
in the Welding Journal and the
Advance Program. You may also call
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 260, to
have the form mailed to you.
To obtain your free registration,
mark AWS Life Member Free Reg-
istration at the top of your Registra-
tion Form. Fax both sides of the form
to (305) 443-5647, Attn: Rhenda
Kenny, membership director; e-mail
to rhenda@aws.org; or mail the form
to Rhenda Kenny, AWS, 8669 NW
36th St., Ste. # 130, Miami, FL
33166.
Change of Address? Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding
Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address in-
formation (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.
SOCIETY NEWS
Sustaining Companies
Collett & Sons Welding, Inc.
370 N. Main St.
Smyrna, DE 19977
Representative: John V. Collett
www.collettandsonswelding.com
Knoxville Utilities Board
4505 Middlebrook Pike
Knoxville, TN 37919
Representative: Sean Elverd
www.kub.org
National Technical Systems
3801 Academy Pkwy. N., NE
Albuquerque, NM 87109
Representative: Adam Gonzales
www.nts.com/locations/albuquerque
Supporting Companies
American Power Connection
Systems, Inc.
2460 Midland Rd.
Bay City, MI 48706
Dryden Diving Co., Inc.
213 Russell Mill Rd.
Woolwich Township, NJ 08085
MEVACO S.A.
Thesi Pari Moustaki (NATO Ave.)
Aspropyrgos, Attica 19300, Greece
PacifiCorp Energy
Huntington Plant
PO Box 680
Huntington, UT 84528
Power Tech for Metal Fabrication
PO Box 11983, Jubail Ind. City, KSA
Al-Jubail 31961, Saudi Arabia
Rohn Products, LLC
6718 W. Plank Rd.
Peoria, IL 61604
SEABERY
176 West Ln.
Stamford, CT 06905
Affiliate Companies
Alfa Quality LLC
Dumlupinar Blvd. No. 266
Tepe Prime C Bloc, Office No. 99
Cankaya Ankara 06800, Turkey
Calhoun Superstructures Ltd.
530 Mooney St.
Goderich, ON N7A0A6, Canada
Great Lakes Turbines, Inc.
2620 Centennial Rd., Ste. V
Toledo, OH 43558
MDL Mfg. Industries, Inc.
15 Commerce Ct.
Bedford, PA 15522
Owens Specialty Co., Inc.
16014 Bear Bayon Dr.
PO Box 187
Channelview, TX 77530
Professional Certified
Inspection, Inc.
PO Box 60772
Phoenix, AZ 85082
Wollam Construction
656 W. 9400 S.
Sandy, UT 84070
Welding Distributor
Liberty Alloys
25 Portland Rd.
West Conshohocken, PA 19428
Educational Institutions
Ajay Kumar Garg
Engineering College
27th-km Milestone, Delhi-Hapur
Bypass, PO Adhyatmik Naga
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201009,
India
Alma High School
1500 N. Pine Ave.
Alma, MI 48801
Barton Community College
245 NE 30 Rd.
Great Bend, KS 67530
Clewiston Weld School
475 E. Osceola Av.
Clewiston, FL 33440
Clyde High School
500 Hays Rd.
Clyde, TX 79510
Fleming County High School
1658 Elizaville Rd.
Flemingsburg, KY 41041
Florida Mfg. and
Enterprise Program
1420 Celebration Blvd., Ste. 200
Celebration, FL 34747
Gilchrist Metal Fabricating
Co., Inc.
18 Park Ave.
Hudson, NH 03051
Grand Rapids Community College
622 Godfrey Ave., SW
Grand Rapids, MI 49503
LincolnWay Community
High School Dist. 210
1801 E. Lincoln Hwy.
New Lexon, IL 60451
Metcalfe County High School
208 Randolph Rd.
Edmonton, KY 42129
Penta Career Center
9301 Buck Rd.
Perrysburg, OH 43551
Universidad Tecnolgica de
San Juan del Ro
Ave. La Palma No. 125
Col. Vista Hermosa, San Juan Del Rio
Queretaro 76800, Mexico
AWS Member Counts
August 1, 2014
Sustaining.................................593
Supporting .............................350
Educational...............................700
Affiliate.....................................575
Welding Distributor ...................49
Total Corporate ......................2,267
Individual ...........................59,914
Student + Transitional .............9,493
Total Members ..................69,407
NEW AWS SUPPORTERS
SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Neitzel Membership
Awards Announced
The Houston Section, Dist. 18, and
the Wheeling Section, Dist. 7, have re-
ceived top honors in the Neitzel Na-
tional Membership Awards presented
for 20132014. Houston received the
award for achieving the greatest net
numerical increase in membership.
Wheeling earned recognition for
achieving the greatest net percentage
increase in members.
In the following list, the District
number is followed by the Section
that achieved the greatest percentage
increase in membership for the year.
1 Maine
2 Long Island
3 Central Pennsylvania
4 Triangle
5 Florida West Coast
6 Northern New York
7 Wheeling
8 West Tennessee
9 Morgan City
10 Stark Central
11 Saginaw Valley
12 Madison-Beloit
13 Blackhawk
14 Lexington
15 Arrowhead
16 Southeast Nebraska
17 North Texas
18 San Antonio
19 Spokane
20 Idaho/Montana
21 San Fernando Valley
22 Sacramento Valley
Student Chapter
Members Cited
The following Student Members
were chosen to receive the AWS Stu-
dent Chapter Member Award by Sec-
tion representatives during their
annual District conferences.
Dist. 3 Mason Rumble (Lehigh
Valley), Tyler Grove (Lancaster).
Dist. 4 Scott Poteot, Frank
Trimmer, David Zimmerman, Adam
Brinegar, Michele Beam, James Ray-
field, Kenneth Yates, Brian Ferrell
(Charlotte), Matthew Cook, Jamey
Richardson (Triangle).
Dist. 8 Jon Elsea (Chat-
tanooga); Randy Hammond, Tyler
Wyatt (Northeast Mississippi).
Dist. 9 Crystal Fuller (Auburn-
Opelika), Dillon Walton, Craig Sum-
ner, Courtney Wierzelewski, Ed
Rupier, Jaret Pera, James Dugger,
Jeff Gindro, Nicholas Abbey (Baton
Rouge).
Dist. 10 Steve Hippley, CCCTC,
(Mahoning Valley); Willard Wright,
Oil Region Student Chapter (Drake
Well).
Dist. 16 Jeff Clive (Southeast
Nebraska).
Dist. 18 Garrett Floyd (Sabine),
Javier Zuniga, Gary Dupnick (San An-
tonio).
Dist. 20 George Harris,
(Wyoming), Aaron Harker (Utah),
Florance Van Arkel (New Mexico).
Dist. 21 James Velduis, Arizona
Western College (Arizona).
Dist. 22 David Spiegel (Sacra-
mento Valley); Alexis Casillas, Erik
Sanchez (Sierra Nevada).
The AWS Board of Directors estab-
lished the Student Chapter Member
Award to recognize AWS Student
Members whose Student Chapter ac-
tivities have produced outstanding
school, community, or industry
achievements. This award also pro-
vides an opportunity for Student
Chapter advisors, Section officers,
and District directors to recognize
outstanding students affiliated with
AWS Student Chapters, as well as to
enhance the image of welding within
their communities.
To qualify for this certificate
award, the individual must be an
AWS Student Member affiliated with
an AWS Student Chapter. The criteria
and nomination form can be down-
loaded at www.aws.org/sections/
awards/student_chapter.pdf, or call the
Membership Dept. at (800) 443-
9353, ext. 260.
District Director Awards
The District Director Award pro-
vides a means for District Directors
to recognize companies and individu-
als who have contributed their time
and effort to the affairs of their local
Section and/or District.
Harland Thompson, Dist. 2 direc-
tor, has named the following to
receive this award: Bill Mowbray and
Matt Watson (Philadelphia); Brian
Cassidy and Alex Duschere (Long Is-
land); and George Sheehan (New
Jersey).
D. Joshua Burgess, Dist. 8 director,
has recognized the AWS Bradley Cen-
tral High School Student Chapter to
receive this award.
Robert Richwine, Dist. 14 director,
has nominated the following compa-
nies and members to receive this
award: Indiana Oxygen Corp.; Major
Tool and Machine; Sutton Garten
Corp.; The Lincoln Electric Co., Indi-
anapolis office; and Westfield Steel
(Indiana); Cee Kay Supply, Mike
Kamp, Rick Suria, and Andrew
Swyers (St. Louis); Peter Anderson,
Jerry Burke, and Bud Merrill
(Louisville); and Mike Bumgarner,
William Judd, and Phillip Young (Tri-
River).
MemberGetAMember
The campaign runs from Jan. 1 to
Dec. 31. Members earn 5 points for
each Individual Member recruited
and 1 point for each Student. See
page 81 of this issue for campaign
rules and prize list. Standings as of
July 21, 2014. Call (800) 443-9353,
ext. 480, for information.
J. Morris, Mobile 205
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 40
R. Barber, East Texas 30
D. Ebenhoe, Kern 25
J. Mckenzie, Detroit 25
E. Ramsey, Cumberland Valley 24
S. Miner, San Francisco 22
C. Bridwell, Ozark 20
D. Galiher, Detroit 19
D. Lynnes, Northern Plains 19
R. Munns, Utah 19
M. Haggard, Inland Empire 19
J. Kline, Northern New York 18
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 18
G. Smith, Lehigh Valley 17
A. Theriot, New Orleans 17
R. Farquhar, Cleveland 15
J. Tso, L.A./Inland Empire 15
R. Eckstein, Northwest 14
J. Foley, Pittsburgh 14
C. Lariche, Cleveland 14
J. Russell, Fox Valley 14
R. Polito, Spokane 13
R. Zabel, Southeast Nebraska 13
C. Wolfman, Sacramento 12
C. Ortega, North Texas 11
SOCIETY NEWS
The American Welding Society
(AWS) and the German Welding Soci-
ety (DVS) formally agreed to continue
to cosponsor International Electron
Beam Welding Conferences alternat-
ing between the United States and
Europe approximately every three
years. The next conference will be
hosted by AWS during FABTECH
2015 in Chicago, Ill.
The memorandum of understand-
ing was signed July 15 during the
67th International Institute of Weld-
ing (IIW) Annual Assembly held in
Seoul, South Korea.
Officiating were DVS General
Manager Roland Boecking, IIW Presi-
dent Baldev Raj, AWS Chief Technol-
ogy Officer Dennis Harwig, and
Ernest Levert, chairman IIW Com-
mission IV-B on Electron Beam
Processes and AWS president
20022003.
Calls for papers will be published
in the AWS Welding Journal, Welding
and Cutting (DVS), and Welding in the
World (IIW). The conferences plan-
ning committee will be drawn from
the IIW Commission IV-B members.
These conferences bring together
scientists, engineers, and technical
personnel who are involved in the re-
search, development, and application
of electron beam welding processes.
American and German Societies to Continue Electron Beam Welding Conferences
Shown (from left) are Dennis Harwig, Baldev Raj, Roland Boecking, and Ernest Levert.
Intertek Moody and Shanghai
Welding Assn. (SWA), supported by
the American Welding Society and
Shanghai Tayor Group, hosted the
AWS in China Past, Present, and Fu-
ture seminar, June 9, in Shanghai to
celebrate their cooperation with the
Society from 2004 to 2014. About
180 welding experts, scholars,
engineers, and managers from 90
welding-related companies were
invited to participate, including Dow
Corning, ZPMC, GE, CNOOC, Fluor,
Shanghai Baoye Group, Shanghai
Electric, China Construction Steel
Structure, Huaye Steel Structure, and
ABB Engineering. During the welding
seminar, Sun Aimin, regional director
for Intertek Moody Industries,
presented the opening speech. Chen
Yongqiang, chairman of SWA and
president of Shanghai Tayor Group,
presented the welcome speech. AWS
President Dean Wilson gave a speech
titled AWS Past, Present & Future,
which covered AWS history, its
current situation, and future business
goals worldwide. Shi Kaifeng,
Intertek Moody China deputy general
manager, spoke about the AWS Certi-
fication program and its present and
future impact in China, and the revi-
sions to AWS D1.1 expected for 2015.
Xu Feng, SWA general secretary, dis-
cussed the significant achievements
attained by Intertek Moody and SWA
during the past ten years. Other
welding experts discussed how to
control weld quality and the
differences among AWS D1.1, ASME
IX, EN 287-1, and other codes.
Intertek Moody stated its intention
to continue to provide professional
technical support to all of the
Chinese welding industries.
Dean Wilson, AWS president, front rowcenter, poses June 9 with attendees at the AWS in China seminar in Shanghai, China.
AWS and China Celebrate Ten Years of Cooperation
4 Easy Ways to Join or Renew:
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CONTACT INFORMATION
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Type of Business (Check ONE only)
A q Contract construction
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L q NDT
M q Safety and health
N q Bending and shearing
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P q Stamping and punching
Q q Aerospace
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S q Machinery
T q Marine
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W q Sheet metal
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Y q Other
Z q Automation
1 q Robotics
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Note: Hard copy option applies to students in U.S., Canada and Mexico. Digital delivery of magazine is standard beneft for all student members.
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT......................................................................................$_____________
REV. 11/13
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
CONNECTICUT
June 28
Activity: The Section hosted a CWI
exam for 47 participants in Hartford,
Conn. Participating were Jim Shore,
Steve Goodrow, Tim Kinnaman, Rick
Monroe, and Joe McGloin.
District 1 Conference
May 3
Activity: The Connecticut Section
hosted the meeting at the Marriott
Courtyard in Norwich, Conn.,
conducted by Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 direc-
tor. Construction engineers Howard
I. Epstein and George Torello Jr. dis-
cussed their study into the causes for
the collapse of the Hartford Civic
Center roof just hours after a basket-
ball game, and why it did not fail
sooner when the arena was occupied.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
NEW JERSEY
July 717
Activity: The Section joined the Mor-
ris County Vocational School District
to present a free welding workshop
for nine veterans. The intensive
eight-day course taught them basic,
job-specific skills using the SMA,
GTA, GMA, and FCA welding
processes. The presenters included
Dist. 2 Director Harland Thompson,
Herb Browne, Jim Dolan, Eric Dolan,
George Sheehan, Don Smith, Bob
Petrone, and Ken Stockton.
CONNECTICUT Shown at the CWI exam site are (from left) Jim Shore, Steve
Goodrow, Tim Kinnaman, Rick Monroe, and Joe McGloin.
District 1 Conference From left are George Torello Jr., Dist. 1 Director Tom Ferri,
Howard Epstein, Connecticut Section Chair Steve Goodrow, and Rick Monroe.
NEW JERSEY Participants are shown at the welding training class for veterans.
Pennsylvania College of Technology S.C. Participants are shown at the first annual welding merit badge training event.
SECTION NEWS
SECTION NEWS
Pennsylvania College of
Technology Student Chapter
April 12
Activity: Advisor Aaron Biddle and
Student Chapter members hosted a
Boy Scout welding merit badge
program at the colleges Metal Trade
Center for 14 Scouts representing six
troops. Student Chapter members
Matt Stahlnecker, Scott Hutton,
Tyler Grove, Alex Martenas, Josh
Marvin, Nick Choiniere, and Jason
Bimle assisted with the classroom
and hands-on training and
demonstrated CNC plasma cutting
equipment and robotic arc welding
cells for the Scouts.
PHILADELPHIA
May 21
Activity: The Section hosted a tour of
Delaware Technical and Community
College Innovation and Technology
Center in Newcastle, Del. Guides in-
cluded Department Chair Tom
McCarthy, and welding instructor
Bob Mezoo. Matt Watson, an Oxicool
welding technician, discussed what
he learned at an AWS symposium on
welding stainless steel presented in
Philadelphia. Bruce Verbit and Jason
Crain, both AWS Certified Welding
Inspectors, participated in the event.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
PHILADELPHIA From left are Tom McCarthy, Chair Bill Mowbray, Bob Mezoo, and
Matt Watson.
Central Piedmont C. C. Student Chapter Shown at the International Diving Institute are (from left) Joel Taylor, Alex Czochara, Rich
Davis, Advisor Ray Sosko, Michael Scott, Jerome Patterson, Tyler Adams, Kirk Weese, and Eric Gavalya.
Central Piedmont C. C. Student Chapter Advisor Ray Sosko (front) is shown at the
Philip Simmons Foundation with (from left) Eric Gavalya, Rich Davis, Kirk Weese, Alex
Czochara, Jerome Patterson, Michael Scott, Tyler Adams, Joel Taylor, and Paige Hoose.
Central Piedmont C. C.
Student Chapter
Week of May 19
Activity: Advisor Ray Sosko led his
students on a service learning trip to
Charleston, S.C. At the Philip
Simmons Foundation they met with
Simmons, a master blacksmith, who
discussed how his organization bene-
fits young people interested in careers
in metalworking. At the International
Diving Institute they were introduced
to the various careers in underwater
welding. At Patriots Point Naval &
Maritime Museum they learned about
jobs in shipbuilding and how welders
played a crucial role in the
construction of the USS Yorktown.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
PITTSBURGH
July 15
Activity: The executive board held a
planning meeting at Springfield Grill
in Mars, Pa. Chair John Menhart dis-
cussed the Dist. 7 conference topics
and introduced incoming Chair
George Kirk. Attendees included Don
Stoll, Carl Ott, Carl Spaeder, Jim
Sekely, John Foley, Tom White, and
Ray Knobbs.
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com
CHATTANOOGA
March
Activity: Dist. 8 Director Joshua
Burgess and Section members partic-
ipated in the Tennessee SkillsUSA
welding competition held at the
Chattanooga Convention Center. The
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
MOBILE
May 8
Speaker: Mike Skiles
Affiliation: Airgas
Topic: District 9 goals and initiatives
Activity: Chair Michael Zoghby intro-
duced the incoming slate of officers at
Plumbers and Pipefitters Local 43
hosted the event, furnished all of the
materials, and provided lunches for
the 200+ attendees. The post-
secondary weld champs were Logan
Hensley, Brent Cameron, and Teddy
Riola. The top secondary welders
were Chris Bialczak, Austin Harris,
and Timothy Allen. Their instructors
included Dale Hicks, Frank Roberts,
Keith Townley, Chris Renfro, Will
Simmons, and Lee Sisk. The welded
sculpture champions included John
Allen, Steven Westbrooks, Erica
Heckman, Zachary Watson, Derek
Wittenburg, and Paul Light.
District 8 Conference
June 14
Activity: Joshua Burgess, Dist. 8 di-
rector, conducted the event in Chat-
tanooga, Tenn. Attending were David
Porter, Jonaaron Jones, Gary
Gammill, Robin Dykes, Robin Shull,
Joe Smith, Joe Livesay, Roger Miller,
Sam Davis, Conrad Young, and AWS
staff representative Efram Abrams.
PITTSBURGH Chair John Menhart
(right) is shown with incoming chair
George Kirk.
PITTSBURGH Executive committee members are (from left) Don Stoll, Carl Ott, Carl Spaeder, Jim Sekely, John Foley, Tom White,
Chair John Menhart, Ray Knobbs, and incoming Chair George Kirk.
CHATTANOOGA From left are Dist. 8 Director Joshua Burgess, Brent Cameron,
Logan Hensley, Teddy Riola, and Joe Livesay, a past Dist. 8 director.
SECTION NEWS
SECTION NEWS
this last meeting of the season, held
at The Original Oyster House in
Spanish Fort, Ala.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
MAHONING VALLEY
June 26
Activity: Chair Chuck Moore and
Treasurer Kenny Jones shared a
booth with Diamond Steel construc-
tion Co. personnel at the Safety and
Wellness Expo held at Vallourec Pipe
Mill. The Section provided visitors
with several brochures on safety in
welding and cutting.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rwilcox1@ford.com
CENTRAL MICHIGAN
May 29
Activity: The Section held its
students night program at Capitol
Area Career Center in Mason, Mich.
The presenter was Jeff Grossman
with the center. Christine Kellerman
and Trevor Sullivan each received a
$500 scholarship.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(920) 241-1542
daniel.roland@airgas.com
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 606-7970
rlrichwine2@aol.com
ST. LOUIS
June 16
Activity: The annual golf outing was
held at Tapawingo National Golf Club
in St. Louis, Mo. The winning
foursome was Bret Broadway, Dale
Knife, Larry Miller, and Zach Witt.
June 21
Activity: St. Louis Section members
Mike Kamp, Rick Suria, Tully Parker,
Mike Roach, Andrew Swyers, Pat
Cody, and Mike Matthews worked
with 12 Boy Scouts to help them earn
their welding merit badges. The
event was held at Cee Kay Supply,
Inc., in St. Louis, Mo.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
NORTHWEST
June 9
Activity: The 35th annual golf outing
raised $5000 for Section
scholarships. Sponsors were Abicor
Binzel, Advantage Marketing, Chart
Industries, Fronius, Mace Harris,
Mike Hanson, Miller Electric,
Minneapolis Oxygen, Oxygen Service
Co., Production Engineering Corp.,
South St. Paul Steel Supply, Toll Gas
& Welding, United Surface Prep, and
Weld Safe Midwest. Chuck Allard
from Toll Gas & Welding, aced the
8th hole of the Signature Course.
CHATTANOOGA From left are Dist. 8 Director Joshua Burgess, Chris Renfro, Chris Bialczak, Austin Harris, Will Simmons, Timothy
Allen, and Lee Sisk.
District 8 Conference From left are David Porter, Jonaaron Jones, Gary Gammill, Robin Dykes, Robin Shull, Efram Abrams, Dist. 8 Di-
rector Joshua Burgess, Joe Smith, Joe Livesay, Roger Miller, Sam Davis, and Conrad Young.
SECTION NEWS
District 16
Karl Fogleman, director
(402) 677-2490
kfogleman@olssonassociates.com
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 224-6455
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorindustrial.com
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
MOBILE Speaker Mike Skiles (left),
Dist. 9 director-elect, is shown with Clay
Byron.
NORTHWEST Chair Dana Sorenson is
shown at the 35th annual golf outing.
MAHONING VALLEY Chair Chuck
Moore (left) and Kenny Jones manned a
booth at the Safety and Wellness Expo.
CENTRAL MICHIGAN From left are presenter Jeff Grossman, Christine Kellerman,
Catherine Lindquist, Jeff Seelye, Jeff Haynes, Bill Eggleston, and Scott Poe.
ST. LOUIS Some of the participants are shown at the Boy Scout welding merit badge
training session in June.
ST. LOUIS The winning golf team members are (from left) Bret Broadway, Dale Knife,
Larry Miller, and Zach Witt.
AWS PRESIDENT
Dean Wilson . . . deanwilsonaws@gmail.com
Welldean Enterprises
151 Oak Tree Cir., Glendora, CA 91741
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Chief Information Officer
Emilio Del Riego..edelriego@aws.org . . . . . . .(247)
Associate Director of Board and
Executive Director Services
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
HUMAN RESOURCES
Director
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . . .(266)
Associate Director
Patrick Henry..phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .( 211)
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and inter-
national societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.
(202) 785-9500; F: (202) 835-0243.
Monitors federal issues of importance to the
industry.
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA INTERNATIONAL THERMAL
SPRAY ASSOCIATION
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa....kathydusa@thermalspray.org . .(232)
RWMA RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTUR
ING ALLIANCE
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . .(444)
WEMCO ASSOCIATION OF WELDING MANU
FACTURERS
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . .(444)
BRAZING AND SOLDERING
MANUFACTURERS COMMITTEE
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA GASES AND WELDING
DISTRIBUTORS ASSOCIATION
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director of North American Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities;
certification, publications, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . . . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Lorena Cora.. lcora@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(417)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and
AWS headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Application processing, renewals, and exams.
Director, Accreditation Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certifica-
tion programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test
Facilities, and AWS Certified Welding
Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy Sue Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and
Counselor nominations.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American
Council of the International Institute of Welding
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee, Welding
Qualification
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining
of Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facili-
ties Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals
and Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Hand-
book, Definitions and Symbols, Structural Sub-
committees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel,
and Reinforcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, Interna-
tional Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment,
Arc Welding and Cutting Processes, Computeri-
zation of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Con-
struction, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery
and Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and
Cutting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics
Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Sheet Metal Welding, U.S. TAG for ISO/TC
44/WG4, Welding and Brazing in Aerospace, Ti
and Zr Filler Metals, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Weld-
ing Iron Castings, Welding Qualification
AWS FOUNDATION, INC.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
Associate Director of Scholarships
Vicki Pinsky.. vpinsky@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (212)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
charitable organization established to provide support for
the educational and scientific endeavors of the American
Welding Society. Promote the Foundations work with
your financial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
8669 NW 36th St., #130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559
Phone extensions are in parentheses.
Guide to American Welding Society Services

Check out these AWS programs at the show.
So Youre the New Welding Engineer Tues. (Nov. 11) & Wed. (Nov. 12)
How to get up to speed quickly. How to ask the right questions. How to get the results needed, save money, and
stay out of trouble! Two-day program for managers, engineers, designers, and others with welding
responsibility but limited exposure/background in welding.
Thermal Spray Technology: High Performance Surfaces Wed. (Nov. 12)
The International Thermal Spray Association, a standing committee of AWS, has organized this coatings conference
to introduce and highlight various advantages of the thermal spray process. This conference will benefit both
potential users and those actively involved with thermal spray coatings, as it will focus on actual applications and
new developments in thermal spray technology.
Resistance Welding School Wed. (Nov. 12) & Thurs. (Nov. 13)
The Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance, a standing committee of AWS, offers a two-day program conducted
by industry specialists with extensive resistance welding experience. The basics of resistance welding and real-
life application of the process are covered. Each participant may learn at their own pace, and discuss specific
welding concerns with the instructors. You are invited to bring your own samples for discussion.
Additive Manufacturing Conference Thurs. (Nov. 13)
Additive manufacturing represents the realization of the ideal of on-demand manufacturing. Without molds or dies,
additive manufacturing enables production of parts and prototypes on demand. Design improvements can be made
and tested rapidly without tooling and machining constraints. Come and learn from the experts about additive
manufacturing processes such as powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directed energy deposition, material
jetting, and more.
plus dozens of other educational sessions .
Atlanta Nov. 1113
Explore all the educational opportunities and register at www.fabtechexpo.com
Earn PDHs toward your AWS recertification or renewal when you attend these programs!
CM Industries Announces VP
Sales and Marketing
Ken Pratt has
joined CM
Industries, Lake
Zurich, Ill., as VP
sales and
marketing, respon-
sible for the sales
team and robotic
torch sales
throughout the
United States,
Canada, and
Mexico. Pratt
previously served
Tregaskiss for more than 30 years,
most recently as VP of sales and
marketing for its robotic torch
product line.
Messer Cutting Systems
President Retires
Messer Cutting Systems, Inc.,
Menomonee Falls, Wis., announced
Gary Norville retired as president and
CEO August 29, succeeded by Bill
Heller. Norville joined the company in
1980. He worked in various positions
until becoming president and CEO in
2007. For the past five years, Heller
has served as technology products
sales manager for laser machines.
Senior VP Fluid Power Selected
at Kaman Corp.
Kaman Corp., Bloomfield, Conn.,
has named Tribby Warfield senior vice
president and general manager for the
fluid power platform of the Kaman
Distribution segment. Most recently,
Warfield served as president, North
America commercial, for Gates Corp.
Arcos Names General Manager
Arcos Industries,
LLC, Mount
Carmel, Pa., a sup-
plier of stainless
steel and high-
nickel alloy wires
and electrodes, has
appointed Harry
Wehr general man-
ager. With the com-
pany for 35 years,
Wehr most recently
served as technical
director. Wehr also
serves as chair of the AWS A5
Committee on Filler Metals and Allied
Materials.
Fronius Identifies National
Application Engineer
Fronius USA
LLC, Portage, Ind.,
has named Remer
Reis an application
engineer in the
technology center
to support
customers nation-
wide. Reis, who is
an IIW inter-
national welding
engineer specializ-
ing in automation,
transferred from
the companys Fronius Brazil
operation in July, where he has
worked since 2007.
Lemartec Designates Building
Systems Manager
Lemartec, Miami, Fla., an
industrial design-build firm and
authorized builder for VP (Varco-Pru-
den) Buildings, has named Randall
Lindstrom manager of its Building
Systems division. Lindstrom brings 30
years experience in the building sys-
tems industry to the position, includ-
ing 20 years with VP Buildings where
he served as national director of mar-
keting and estimating.
PERSONNEL
F
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Gary Norville
Harry Wehr
Remer Reis
Bill Heller
Intelligrated Appoints Western
Operations Sales Manager
Intelligrated,
Cincinnati, Ohio,
an automated ma-
terial-handling so-
lutions provider,
has appointed Car-
los Vega senior
sales manager for
its western regional
operations, based
in Roseville, Calif.
Vega, with nearly
30 years experi-
ence in the field,
previously worked for Warner Bros.,
Time Warner Entertainment,
Edgepark Medical Supplies, and
Dematic.
APC Hires Two Engineers
American Photonics Co. (APC),
Sarasota, Fla., has hired engineers
Dennis Kessler and James Lee for its
design team. The company is a manu-
facturer of precision infrared optics
and specialty coatings for welding,
CO
2
laser cutting, and marking optics.
Wall Colmonoy Taps European
Sales Manager
Wall Colmonoy,
Swansea, Wales,
UK, a supplier of
surfacing and braz-
ing products, cast-
ings, and engi-
neered compo-
nents, has named
Mike Thompson
general sales man-
ager for its Euro-
pean headquarters.
Prior to joining the
company, Thomp-
son worked for British Steel and Rolls-
Royce as a senior technologist.
Manufacturing Renaissance
Appoints VP Operations
Manufacturing Renaissance,
Chicago, Ill., a nonpartisan, nonprofit
organization that
promotes advanced
manufacturing as a
springboard for
sustainable devel-
opment, has
appointed Dennis
Arouca vice
president
operations. Previ-
ously, Arouca
served as VP in
labor and employee
relations positions
for Cliffs Natural Resources, an inter-
national mining company, and
ArcelorMittal, a steel producer, Ameri-
cas region.
Coldwater Machine Names
New President
Coldwater Machine Co., Coldwater,
Ohio, a supplier of specialized equip-
ment for the automotive, aviation,
and energy industries, has appointed
Tim McCaughey president, succeeding
Jerry Meyer who served as president
PERSONNEL
www.tokinarc.com
Robotic Contact Tip Specialist
visit our web site

visit our web site
www.tokinarc.com
e-mail: trading@tokinar

www.tokinarc.com
ading@tokinarc.co.jp

Coating Thickness

Material Analysis

Microhardness

Material Testing
Outstanding features
Fast, non-destructive measurement
of ferrite content on-site or in the
lab
Ferrite measurable either in Ferrite-
percentage %Fe or Ferritenumber
FN
Measurement range 0.1 to 80% Fe
or 0.1 to 110 FN
Evaluation capabilities to the
platform FISCHER Data Center
Software
User-friendly operation menu
www.fischer-technology.com
Handheld instrument for the measurement of the ferrite content
in Austenitic and Duplex Steel
Ferrite Content with the FERITSCOPE
FMP30
fast, precise and non-destructive
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Mike Thompson
Dennis Arouca
Are you outside your comfort zone
in dealing with welding in your operations?
A group of highly experienced welding engineers will hold a two-day AWS conference
for manufacturing professionals who have to make decisions about welding that are
outside their comfort zone.
If you find yourself facing questions in the welding area that relate to...
Cost control
Quality issues and defects
Automation options and capital equipment
Requirements of codes and standards
...this conference will prepare you to approach the unique challenges of welding,
and provide you with essential take-home reference books.
How to get up to speed quickly. How to ask the right questions.
How to get the results you need, save money, and stay out of trouble!
This two-day conference is for managers, engineers, designers, and others with welding responsibility but limited
exposure to or background in welding. The conference focuses on arc welding applications, but the principles have
universal applicability. Presentations and discussion are based on the Application Analysis Worksheet, which was
developed to teach a senior college course to engineers about to enter industry, with the objective of helping them
develop a path to understand and deal with the welding challenges they were about to face.
Details at www.aws.org/conferences
YOURE NOW THE NEW
WELDING ENGINEER
AWS Conference:
November 11-12
Georgia World Congress
Center in Atlanta
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for 31 years. Prior
to joining the com-
pany, McCaughey
was president and
CEO of Schuler,
Inc. Meyer will re-
main on the board
of directors and as
a co-owner of the
company.
Obituaries
Alexander Lesnewich
Alexander Alex
Lesnewich, 91, died
August 1. An AWS
Fellow and AWS
president
19781979, he
served as an officer
during WW II in
the U.S. Army Air
Corps. After earn-
ing a PhD in metal-
lurgy at Rensselaer
Polytechnic
Institute, he joined
the Airco research staff where he
worked until 1985 as director of
research. He continued working as a
consultant and expert witness to the
welding industry until age 87, when
he retired to Tinton Falls, N.J. Dr.
Lesnewich was awarded ten welding-
related patents and received
numerous awards during his career in-
cluding the AWS Comfort A. Adams
Lecture, National Meritorious, and Sil-
ver Quill Award; Airco Safety and
Health; and Lincoln Gold Medal. He
enjoyed his work, sailing and tending
to his boats, and creating wood items
ranging from furniture to toys
for kids.
Charles Chuck Daily
Charles Edward Chuck Daily, 88,
died July 18. An AWS Life Member, he
was active with the
Puget Sound
Section where he
established several
Student Chapters
and scholarships,
coordinated many
training and CWI
seminars in the
Washington state
area, and
participated on
local welding school
advisory
committees for decades. He received
the District 19 Meritorious Award in
2006. Daily worked in the Kirkland,
Wash., shipyards during WW II and
concurrently took courses in baking
and cooking. He served in the
Merchant Marines as a baker and cook.
Later, he worked as a welder, instruc-
tor, and inspector at Bechtel Corp.
Lowell Watkins Mott
Lowell Watkins
Lefty Mott, 91,
an AWS Counselor,
died July 15 in
Columbus, Ohio.
He joined Hobart
Brothers in Troy,
Ohio, in 1941, as
an electrode packer.
He worked there
until he retired as
director of research
and development in
1989. He continued
work as a consultant until 2004,
researching mild-steel all-purpose
welding wires that led to a patent. He
acquired his Lefty nickname as a
baseball player on local teams. He
served 30 months in the 7th Army
44th Div., 63rd Combat Engineering
Battalion during WW II mine
sweeping and building bridges in the
European theater. Active in 4-H activi-
ties, he was an avid spare-time farmer.
Charles E. Padden
Charles E. Chuck Padden, 83, died
July 9 in Livonia, Mich. An AWS Life
Member, he served as Detroit Section
chair for the 19941995 term. Padden
graduated from General Motors Insti-
tute then worked for Harrison Radia-
tor and American Motors. He worked
as a welding engi-
neer at the Ford
Motor Co.
Louisville
Assembly Plant,
and as a feasibility
engineer for Fords
Automotive Assem-
bly division and
Body Engineering
group. For many
years, until 2000,
he served on
numerous AWS
technical committees including A5A,
A5M, A5O, D8, D8C, D8F, D8G, and
C1G. In 1978, he chaired the D8 Com-
mittee on Automotive Welding. He
also served on the Welding Handbook
Chapter Committee on Safety and
Health and on the AWS Technical Ac-
tivities Committee from 1978 to
1986. His passion for 40 years was
serving as an assistant football coach,
the last 20 years of which was with the
Brother Rice Catholic High School
team in Detroit.
Loren C. Smith
Loren Charles
Smith, 88, died
June 25 in
Gainesville, Ga.
Smith, whose engi-
neering career
spanned 60 years,
served as a senior
project engineer at
The Harris
Products Group, a
Lincoln Electric
company, in
Gainesville, from
1991 to 2012. At Harris, he was
awarded six U.S. patents. He played a
key role in developing the companys
signature Perfect Flame
TM
gas-regula-
tion system for brazing. Earlier, Smith
served 20 years with the Compressed
Gas Association (CGA) where he con-
tributed to the development of CGA
E-4, Standard for Gas Pressure Regula-
tors. After attending the General Mo-
tors Institute and University of Michi-
gan, he worked in engineering
positions at Wyandotte Chemicals,
Airco, and Concoa.
WJ
PERSONNEL
Tim McCaughey
A. Lesnewich
Charles Padden
Loren Smith
Charles Daily
Lowell Mott
The Emmet A. Craig
RESISTANCE WELDING SCHOOL
November 12-13, 2014
Georgia World Congress Center
Atlanta, GA
To register go to www.fabtechexpo.com
Space is limited.
This program
sold out
in 2013

This program
ace is limite p S

This program
. d ace is limite

orld Congress Center W Georgia

orld Congress Center

orld Congress Center

sold out

in 2013
sold out

o register go to TTo
Atlanta, GA

.fabtechex ww. ww o register go to
Atlanta, GA

.fabtechexpo.com

S
tudents from Ivy Tech
Community College,
Evansville, Ind.,
recently used their welding
skills outside of the
classroom when they volun-
teered to work on the LST-
325, a decomissioned U.S.
Navy tank landing ship.
John Durbin
(jdurbin@ivytech.edu), pro-
gram chair for Industrial
Technology at Ivy Tech and
a welding instructor at the
school for 27 years, was tak-
ing a tour of the historic
ship when the opportunity
arose.
While on board, the
tour guide said they are al-
ways looking for volunteers
to help maintain the ship. He said they
had a lot of welding to do. I told him I
thought I could be a big help and gave
him my business card. A few days
later, the director of the ship gave me a
call, Durbin said.
Hands-on Work
Students in Durbins welding
classes were given the chance to work
on the ship. Of the approximately 30
students who participated, most were
from his SMAW 2 class. For three
weeks, they attended 2-3 half days
each week. Altogether, about 200240
hours of labor were volunteered
Fig. 1.
Student Nicole Tatum said, We re-
inforced some decking that has started
to rust out. We laid metal down and
stick welded it out. Another of the
student volunteers, Ethan
Lubbehusen, added, I welded 3-ft
poles onto 1-ft
2
plates so they could
hang chains on them for security for
the exhibits that were displayed below
the top deck. I also welded plates of
flat bar steel for certain spots on the
ship that needed to be patched.
Most of the repairs on the LST are
being done with shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), along with some
self-shielded flux cored arc welding.
Durbin and his volunteers used the
ships Miller Bobcat and Lincoln 225
welding machines. A Lincoln LN-25
was used for the self-shielded FCAW
and oxyfuel was used for cutting.
The ship is 71 years old, and as
you can imagine, there is a lot of rust.
Most of the work we have been
doing is on the upper deck. We
have been patching holes in the
deck where the steel has rusted
through Fig. 2. There are
more repairs to do on escape
hatches and hand rails, said
Durbin.
John Engstrom
(325office@lstmemorial.org), vice
president, board of directors,
USS LST Ship Memorial, said the
students performed welding and
fabrication on the LSTs
elevator, which was used to
transport vehicles from the main
deck down to the tank deck so
they could be offloaded and vice
versa. He said with the work
they did on it, it should last for
years to come.
A Learning Experience
For most of the students, it was
their first time welding outside the lab
a very different experience from
standing at a table in a lab. They expe-
rienced welding in cold wind coming off
the Ohio River. They also had to kneel
or lie down for some of the welding.
I learned that you have to be flexi-
ble and creative when executing a job.
Every job is different different
atmospheres, equipment, positions,
and applications. I learned that you do
what it takes to get the job done.
Thats what youre there for, said
Tatum.
Ive learned different techniques
and how to work around problems in
Volunteers Repair Historic
Navy Warship
Ivy Tech students welded on the
LST-325 and gained some valuable
experience outside of the lab
BY MELISSA GOMEZ
THE AMERICAN WELDER THE AMERICAN WELDER
Presently docked in Evansville, Ind., the LST-325, one of the
only two World War II LSTs to be preserved in the United
States., has become a museum and memorial ship.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 1 Ivy Tech students volunteered 200240 hours of labor welding on the LST-325. Kneeling (from left) are Davey Brantley and
Breihan Fletcher. Standing in the middle row (from left) are Zack Cullison, CJ Brewer, David Elliott, and Nicole Tatum. Posing in the
back row (from left) are Ethan Lubbehusen, Miles Ingle, and Brad Burke.
Fig. 2 Student Breihan Fletcher uses SMAW to patch holes on the deck where steel has rusted through.
tight situations, added Lubbehusen.
Ive learned to work with my
surroundings. You may not have
everything you need, like you would in
the classroom, so you work with what
you have out in the field.
The students also experienced the
importance of following safe practices.
The ships tours kept on going while
we were working. Ocassionally, we
would have to stop welding and grind-
ing to allow the tour guide to speak to
the group safely as they passed,
explained Durbin.
Future Volunteering
Those who participated received
extra credit in their class and gave very
positive feedback about the project
Fig. 3. The students are loving this.
Many students signed up as members
of the LST-325 group. They can volun-
teer anytime they want, without me.
They liked being outside the lab and
they also commented on how they like
participating in the preservation of
history. It was a real-life experience for
them, as well as a feel good
experience.
It was such an educational experi-
ence, and there is still so much
welding to be done on the ship, that
Durbin has decided to add volunteer-
ing on the LST-325 as a mandatory
class activity going forward. We are
trying, as a college, to be more
involved in service learning.
Other trade schools or technical in-
stitutes interested in either volunteer-
ing or donating equipment to keep
this one-of-a-kind ship afloat can con-
tact 325office@lstmemorial.org. Accord-
ing to Engstrom, Mr. Durbin and his
students provided an invaluable serv-
ice to the ship and their continued
participation in the upkeep and
preservation of this historic naval arti-
fact would be greatly appreciated.
The students also agree that future
classes would greatly benefit from the
experience. I strongly suggest having
future welding classes weld on the
LST. It was the best learning
experience at Ivy Tech preparing
you for real-life jobs and situations,
said Lubbehusen. Tatum added, I be-
lieve it will build confidence, give stu-
dents a feeling of importance, and
teach them to take pride in their
work.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
A History Lesson
on the LST-325
Landing Ship, Tanks (LSTs)
were designed in 1942 to carry
battle tanks, vehicles, soldiers,
and supplies directly onto enemy
beaches. More than 1000 of these
ships were built for use during
World War II. Many were also
used in the Korean and Vietnam
Wars.
On October 27, 1942, the USS
LST-325 was launched, and com-
missioned on February 1, 1943.
The LST was sent as part of Oper-
ation HUSKY, the invasion of
Sicily, in 1943. It sailed as support
for the invasion of Salerno, Italy,
later that year. Among other oper-
ations, the ship participated in D-
Day at Omaha Beach, Normandy,
on June 6, 1944.
The ship has been part of 70
years of history and survived as
the last fully operational WWII
LST. Decomissioned for the third
time in December 1999, the ship
has been ported in Evansville,
Ind., since 2005.
Fig. 3 Ivy Tech Welding Instructor John Durbin and LST Ship Memorial VP John Engstrom pose with student volunteers. Kneeling
(from left) are Derek Baker, David Burch, and Rebecca Cleek. Standing (from left) are Durbin, Aaron Bayless, Roger Hughs, Rick
Miller, Paul McCammon, and John Engstrom.
MELISSA GOMEZ (mgomez@aws.org)
is editorial assistant of the Welding
Journal.
WJ
R
ust on a stainless steel pipe sur-
face presents a serious concern
for oil and gas companies oper-
ating piping infrastructures in an oil-
field marine environment, including
adjacent coastal areas.
When rust appears on the inside or
outside surface of a stainless steel
pipe, corrosion inspection teams
notice, and questions arise as to why it
occurred.
To obtain high-integrity weldments
meeting demanding oilfield service
conditions, the Engineering Authority
responsible for designing, fabricating,
and installing weldments in oilfield
applications outsources due diligence
for selecting, developing, and support-
ing subcontracting fabricators.
This article focuses on the
occurrence of widespread rust result-
ing from outsourcing fabrication of
Type 316L stainless steel pipe spools
during a wet gas project.
Fabrication Synopsis
The criticality of ensuring manufac-
turing readiness for a subcontracted
fabricator is best handled through an-
alyzing consequences experienced by
an Engineering Authority for failing to
perform outsourcing due diligence.
Type 316L austenitic stainless steel
pipe spools pipe sizes 2- to 20-in.
outside diameter (OD), schedules 10
and 40 were subcontracted for fab-
rication in accordance with ASME
B31.3, Process Piping.
All pipe welds were visually and ra-
diographically inspected. Upon fabri-
cation completion, all pipe spools were
hydrostatically tested then
transported to a remote, seaside con-
struction site and stored outdoors, un-
protected, for two to four weeks.
As the pipe spools lay in storage
awaiting installation, widespread rust
developed at weld joints and along
pipe lengths Fig. 1.
Subsequently, all pipe spools were
visually inspected, and many were
deemed unacceptable for installation.
Pipe spool installation was delayed
and an $800,000 cost was endured by
the Engineering Authority to expedite
corrective measures, such as chemical
treatment and fabrication rework, for
obtaining rust-free pipe spools.
This event also triggered a root
cause investigation encompassing the
respective fabricator the company
subcontracted by the Engineering Au-
thority to fabricate the projects stain-
less steel pipe spools along with the
Engineering Authority.
Root Cause Investigation
Six Sigma was employed as a root-
cause analysis tool in determining why
widespread rusting of the 316L stain-
less steel pipe spools had occurred.
The investigation encompassed an
on-site review of the fabricators pro-
duction facility, shop floor
discussions, and metallurgical charac-
terization of stainless steel material/
rust specimens.
The following factors were
identified to be the root causes involv-
Preventing Rust on
Stainless Steel Pipes
Focusing on storage and shipping methods, plus adher-
ing to a governing specification, are important for not
only operating efficiently but to avoid costly rework
BY WILLIAM C. LAPLANTE
THE AMERICAN WELDER THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 1 A Type 316L stainless steel pipe spool with prominent rust signs.
Corrosion concerns: Free iron surface contamination leads to the develop-
ment of rust on a stainless steel surface and pipe surface degradation. Pit-
ting and crevice corrosion are the two most prevalent forms of localized
corrosion. Pipe surface rust sites serve as potential areas for pitting and
crevice corrosion development, which can lead to pipe wall perforations
and the loss of containment.
ing both the fabricator and Engineer-
ing Authority.
Rusting occurred for two reasons:
an anodic reaction resulting from expo-
sure of surface iron (Fe) contamination
to a marine environment and iron con-
tamination from an incorrect weld filler
metal (a carbon-steel weld filler metal).
Note: Selected specimens were eval-
uated for sensitization-induced inter-
granular attack per ASTM A262, Stan-
dard Practices for Detecting Susceptibil-
ity to Intergranular Attack in Austenitic
Stainless Steels, Practice A (10% oxalic
acid etch), in which there were no met-
allurgical signs of occurrence. Unless
otherwise noted, the term iron is re-
ferred to as a surface contaminant and
shall denote free iron.
Iron Contamination
Mechanisms
The dissemination of pertinent
project documentation is an Engineer-
ing Authority responsibility for welded
product outsourcing. However, there
was no governing stainless steel mate-
rial handling and control specification
for the project.
Material Handling Issues
Stainless steel pipes were shipped
by the pipe manufacturer to the fabri-
cator, with carbon-steel banding
straps placed in direct contact with
pipe material, so rust strips developed
where carbon-steel banding straps had
scraped and gouged the pipe Fig. 2.
The specification would have stipu-
lated the use of noncontaminating
banding straps. Surface rust manifes-
tation is not easily and/or always suc-
cessfully removed by mechanical tech-
niques such as grinding, whereas
chemical treatment with cleaning,
descaling, and passivation is a more
thorough and less invasive process.
As a corrective measure to eradicate
exogenous iron contamination from
interior and exterior surfaces, project
pipe spools were subjected to chemical
treatment in accordance with ASTM
A380, Standard Practice for Cleaning,
Descaling, and Passivation of Stainless
Steel Parts, Equipment, and Systems.
Fabrication Practices
In addition, there was no presiding
stainless steel welding specification
provided by the Engineering Authority
for the fabricator to comply with. A
welding specification addresses
mandatory requirements, specific pro-
hibitions, and recommended guidance
for fabrication activities to ensure that
the intended design service and
performance characteristics of the
pipe spools are met.
In manufacturing stainless steel
weldments, a requisite is to physically
isolate stainless steel manufacturing
from carbon-steel welding operations
to avoid iron contamination. However,
within the fabricators job shop, stain-
less steel pipe spools for the project
were fabricated near to carbon-steel
fabrication activities.
Shop and pipe spool cleanliness
during production was not adequately
maintained such that carbon-steel
welding, grinding, and cutting particu-
late that had accumulated inside the
stainless steel pipe spools corroded
after being subjected to water from hy-
drostatic testing Fig. 3.
Wire Wheel Brush Significance
To further prevent iron contamina-
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 2 Iron contamination via poor shipping practices. A A carbon-steel banding strap
in direct contact with a 316L stainless steel pipe; B the result a rust strip.
A
B
tion, carbon-steel production tooling
and equipment must be prevented
from directly contacting stainless steel
material during fabrication.
Extensive iron contamination of
stainless steel pipe spools was
introduced by the fabricator through
using carbon-steel wire wheel brushes
installed on pneumatic rotary tools to
clean and finish pipe welds in prepara-
tion for nondestructive examination
Figs. 1, 4.
A recommended manufacturing
practice is to color code wire wheel ar-
bors based upon the bristle alloy and
to verify your selection prior to use.
Also, for piping weldments, not to em-
ploy power wire wheel brushing for
the final weld face and internal clean-
ing of the root side and surface, but
only manual hand brushing.
Use of power wire wheel brushes
must be carefully scrutinized for each
stainless steel piping application. A
soft wire bristle will smear surface
contaminants and residues while a
stiff wire bristle will embed metal
particulate as well as form micro/
macrogrooves, which facilitate
crevice corrosion.
Filler Metal Impact
Stainless steel weldment perform-
ance properties are compromised
when an incorrect weld filler metal is
used.
During production, an error
occurred in which a carbon-steel filler
metal was employed as opposed to a
stainless steel filler metal in welding
two stainless steel 10-in.-OD pipe
supports Fig. 5.
Fortunately, only four weld joints
were affected, but potential
consequences could have been far
greater.
Recommended manufacturing prac-
tices encompass rigorous weld filler
metal control methods, thorough
welder training, and maintaining shop
floor vigilance by trained supervision
and welding inspectors.
Deficient In-Process
Weld Inspection
Visual in-process weld inspection is
a prudent, cost- and time-effective
function to perform throughout weld-
ment production. This is used to elimi-
nate the potential for costly rework
and repair activities resulting from
process malpractices, structural
discrepancies, and/or weld defects dis-
covered during final inspection or
weldment service.
A pivotal root cause question was,
Where were the welding inspectors
during pipe-spool production?
Regrettably, in-process weld
inspection by the fabricator was
lacking.
Production errors involving inade-
quate pipe-spool cleanliness prior to
hydrostatic testing, using an incorrect
wire-wheel brush to clean welds, and
welding with an incorrect weld filler
metal all went undetected.
It has been this authors experience
that without in-process weld
inspection, weldment integrity
decreases, and product along with
workmanship liability increases.
Failing to Perform
Outsourcing Due Diligence
In outsourcing the stainless steel
pipe spools for fabrication, the onus
was on the Engineering Authority to
proactively perform outsourcing due
diligence to ensure that the manufac-
turing readiness of the fabricator prior
to and throughout pipe-spool produc-
tion was acceptable.
The foundation for a fabrication
failure was laid when Engineering Au-
thority methods to accomplish due
diligence were not performed.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Rust regions at root
weld reinforcement
locations.
Shop care: Stainless
steel surfaces must be
kept smooth, clean, and
protected.
Fig. 3 Iron contamination via exposure of project stainless steel pipe spools to carbon-steel fabrication ac-
tivities. Deposits of a corroded carbon-steel particulate are shown inside a hydrostatically tested, 316L stain-
less steel pipe spool.
Following are recommendations
that would have been beneficial to fol-
low at the start of the project.
Conduct an on-site weld audit
at the fabricators facility to
determine the manufacturing readi-
ness of the fabricator prior to pipe-
spool production.
An audit would have identified defi-
ciencies entailing weld inspection,
shop cleanliness, weld cleaning meth-
ods, the production floor, and material
handling adeptness. On-site weld au-
dits serve as the backbone in achieving
weldment conformance such that the
fabricator would have been responsi-
ble to complete all assignable
corrective actions to substantiate an
Engineering Authority-approved sup-
plier and vendor list inclusion, plus
production initiation (Ref. 1).
Provide on-site technical and
quality support, oversight, and train-
ing at the fabricators facility prior to
and throughout pipe-spool production
to ensure workmanship quality com-
pliance as well as weldment confor-
mance to contract, drawing, and weld
code requirements.
Engineering Authority on-site lead-
ership, expertise, and oversight are
vital to mitigate project risks (Ref. 2).
An on-site presence would have
protected its own best interest by
facilitating production problem resolu-
tion and assisting the fabricator in
identifying production deficiencies
along with errors to safeguard pipe
spool integrity.
Present a stainless steel mate-
rial handling and control
specification to the fabricator.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 4 Iron contamination via poor weld
cleaning practices. Rust at the weld joints
results from using carbon-steel wire wheel
brushes to clean 316L stainless steel pipe
welds.
It could detail, for example, using
rigorous weld filler metal control
methods; tooling control and identifi-
cation practices; protective pipe end
covers and caps; noncontaminating
banding straps for material shipping;
protective stainless steel sheets to pre-
vent direct contact of weldment mate-
rial with carbon steel production tool-
ing and equipment; and clean timber
and wooden pallets to avoid direct
contact of project material with a con-
taminating and/or damaging storage
surface Fig. 1.
Give a stainless steel welding
specification to the fabricator.
This authoritative document
outlines engineering, fabrication, and
quality criteria to ensure that the
intended design service and perform-
ance characteristics of the pipe spools
are met. It would have provided key
information to the fabricator.
Likewise, it would have provided qual-
ity personnel a tool to administer
stated requirements for upholding
fabricator compliance throughout
weldment production and during final
inspection.
Lessons Learned
Widespread rusting of these Type
316L stainless steel pipe spools was a
direct result of the Engineering
Authority failing to perform outsourc-
ing due diligence. Doing so would have
ensured manufacturing readiness of
the fabricator prior to and throughout
pipe-spool production.
Also, if outsourcing due diligence
had been performed, both the
Engineering Authority and fabricator
would have been prepared for produc-
tion activities. The $800,000 cost en-
dured by the Engineering Authority to
expedite corrective measures for recti-
fying pervasive iron contamination
would have been avoided.
It was a sobering lesson everyone
had to learn that to obtain high-
integrity weldments, welded product
outsourcing is not a cursory
commitment.
References
1. LaPlante, W. C. 2011. How to
assure quality in outsourced welded
products. Welding Journal 90(10):
4246.
2. LaPlante, W. C. 2012. On-site
fabrication support is vital to weld
quality. Welding Journal 91(10): 5458.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Multipass FCAW
carbon steel fillet
weld beads.
Fig. 5 Pipe support weld/spatter rust via iron contamination from an incorrect
welding filler metal. A carbon steel flux cored arc welding (E81T1-Ni1) filler metal
was utilized to weld 316L stainless steel pipe/plate.
WILLIAM C. LaPLANTE
(william.laplante@bp.com) is a welding engi-
neer and AWS CWI, CWE with BPXA,
Anchorage/Prudhoe Bay, Alaska.
WJ
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Georgia Trade School (GTS), Ken-
nesaw, Ga., in the greater Atlanta met-
ropolitan area, acknowledges that its
greatest assets are its dynamic train-
ing program that captures the stu-
dents interest from the start, its staf
of professional instructors who skill-
fully employ their industrial know-
how to motivate their students, and
class sizes kept to 12 members per in-
structor to ensure the students gets
the personal attention they need
Fig. 1.
The students begin welding imme-
diately following their orientation and
safety training. Classroom time in-
cludes a focus on welding fundamen-
tals including safety, equipment,
electrical principles, blueprint reading,
shop drawings, weld symbols, and the
essential math. Plate and pipe welding
processes are covered in depth using a
combination of textbooks, multime-
dia, and visual aids.
The program designates 83% of the
500-h course time for hands-on work
and students weld on their first day.
The course can be taken either full-
time for 14 weeks or as a 24-week pro-
gram working part time.
Adding value to the booth assign-
ments and classroom training, stu-
dents have an opportunity to use their
new skills to fabricate useful products
for the community. Two recent proj-
ects were building water tanks for a
local distillery and a staircase for a
Smithsonian-affiliated museum. These
real-world projects give students a feel
for urgency to meet a contract dead-
line and experience working as a team
member to produce a useful product
for a customer.
Lab Specifics
The job-oriented lab training in-
cludes torch cutting, fabrication tech-
niques, tolerances, measurements,
machine operation, and routine main-
tenance procedures. Students become
proficient with shielded metal arc, gas
tungsten arc, gas metal arc, and flux
cored arc welding processes, including
techniques such as uphill, downhill,
open butt, groove, and fillet welds,
and walking the cup. The pipe posi-
tions include 1G, 2G, 5G, and 6G and
plate positions 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G.
Welding is performed on 2-, 4-, 6-,
and 8-in. pipe, plate steel from
1
8 to
in., and thin metals between gauges 22
and 11. The students train on equip-
ment currently used in industry man-
ufactured by Lincoln Electric, Miller
Electric, Harris, Thermal Dynamics,
H&M, Metabo, Phoenix International,
Koike, and others. The school makes
sure its facility is always a nice place to
visit Fig. 2. Workplace cleanliness is
stressed at all times and twice each
week staff and students conduct a
thorough shop cleanup. It enhances
the pride the students take in their
craft and their workplace.
Following Graduation
Upon successful completion of the
course and thequalification test, stu-
dents can receive up to five welder
qualification records reflecting the pa-
rameters for which they are qualified
to weld. Students have the opportu-
nity at the end of their training to test
in accordance with the appropriate in-
dustrial codes of the American Weld-
ing Society and American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
To date, Georgia Trade School has
graduated 94 students, with 91 cur-
rently working in the field. Ryan
Blythe, executive director of the
school, said, Those working as ship-
builders earn an average of $60,000 a
year, which is two thousand dollars
more than the average Harvard Col-
lege graduate a statistic that sur-
prises skeptical high school guidance
counselors.
LEARNING TRACK THE AMERICAN WELDER
Georgia Trade School Produces
Readyto Work Grads
Energetic instructors with professional industrial knowledge
make every welding class a joboriented training experience
HOWARD M. WOODWARD is associate
editor for the Welding Journal.
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
Fig. 1 Georgia Trade School welding students are (from left) Mateus Maia, Amir
Alvarez, Jonathan Bervoets, Vincent Vecchio, John Scroggins, Seth Campbell, Harry
Cochran, Tyler Replogle, Tyler Blalock, and Zachary Darrow.
The Welding Staff
Elaine Waters (Fig. 3) is the senior
welding instructor at the school. She
has probably taught more welders in
the Atlanta area over the past 25 years
than anyone else. A 1986 graduate of
the Quality School of Pipe Welding,
she began teaching at her alma mater
just two years later. She said she is
gratified that so many of her students
progressed to become successful fabri-
cation shop owners, rig and pipeline
welders, pipefitters, and journeymen.
At GTS, Waters leads the welding
program and also offers private in-
struction for individuals and compa-
nies, including the Army Corps of
Engineers.
Instructor Sean Quinton (Fig. 4) is
vice president of the school, an AWS
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI),
and serves as technical chair for the
Georgia SkillsUSA Welding and Fabri-
cation Competition. Previously, he
served as director of operations for the
Center of Industry and Technology
(CIT). Quinton has also completed
contract inspection and welding work
for Rockdale Pipeline, McKinney
Drilling, Work Installation Design
Services, and HEMI Systems.
The third member of the training
team is James Spinner (Fig. 4), who
has extensive experience as a pipefit-
ter, welder, and fabricator for clients
including Kemira, Sherwin Williams,
and Owens Corning. His most recent
field experience was for Performance
Energy, working in the Gulf Coast per-
forming pipe and structural welding
for Shell and Enterprise Oil. He is
qualified in all plate welding positions
and has a combo 6G pipe qualification.
At the 2014 SkillsUSA Georgia Weld-
ing and Fabrication competition, Spin-
ner cochaired alongside executive
chair Sean Quinton.
Financials and Services
Blythe noted, In an effort to pro-
duce the strongest all-around em-
ployee for our employment partners
and to attract students with a true
passion for welding, Georgia Trade
School elected not to participate in
government financial-aid programs.
The tuition for the complete 500-h
course is $8000, which includes $500
in protective safety equipment.
Prospective students may put the
$500 equipment fee down to secure a
spot for when a booth becomes avail-
able. Veterans and public safety work-
ers receive a 10% discount on all GTS
services. The classes can be arranged
for morning, afternoon, or evenings
for students convenience. In addition
to the career program, GTS allows pro-
fessionals, artists, and do-it-your-
selfers to buy lab time Monday
through Thursday afternoons to work
on their projects. This has been a pop-
ular offering for companies training
welders to learn a new process or posi-
tion. Sean Quinton is available to
teach destructive bend weld testing
techniques either at the school or at
the companys location.
Blythe added, Georgia Trade
School is dedicated to promoting the
skill of welding to an otherwise col-
lege-bound population. For 23 consec-
utive months, the school has been sold
out and retains a waiting list of up to
six months for entrance.
Jobs and Commentaries
Blythe said, One of first companies
to show an interest in GTS was the
largest shipbuilder for the Navy, Coast
Guard, and Marines, Huntington In-
galls Industries. It was with great pride
that Georgia Trade School graduates
routinely performed at a high level of
proficiency in their positions. Ingalls
Talent Acquisition Manager Carlos
Lett said, It has been our sincere
pleasure to partner with GTS and hire
its graduates.
Georgia Labor Commissioner Mark
Butler said, It was obvious from my
time at GTS that it has an outstanding
program.
The school has formed employment
partnerships with Huntington Ingalls
and Caterpillar, serves as a training
center for the Army Corps of Engi-
neers, and partners with Jackson
Safety.
Course graduate Kyle Crowe said he
came to Georgia Trade School after
graduating from high school. Within
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 2 The GTS welding booth area is a model of efficiency and cleanliness.
Fig. 3 Senior Instructor Elaine Waters
is an expert teacher and pipe welder.
six months of enrolling he got the op-
portunity to begin his career at Cater-
pillar. Now, he said, I am financially
independent at age 19, work for a
Fortune 500 company where the sky
is the limit in terms of advancement,
and have the means to build my
future.
Well known in the community, GTS
regularly participates in charity proj-
ects, most recently welding benches
for Must Ministries and guard rails
around the floor scales and the sort ta-
bles for the Atlanta Community Food
Bank. In another project, GTS stu-
dents filmed a segment for the popu-
lar ChuckE2009 YouTube welding
series with Lanse Edwards Fig. 5.
Jackson Safety co-brands with GTS,
providing students with logo-marked
bags, welding helmets, and personal
protective equipment. Jackson filmed
a commercial for its Balder technology
at the school and has plans to film an-
other in the near future. Also, the
company has commissioned a local
artist to design a mural highlighting
its partnership with the school.
Jobs Are Hot down South
Georgia Trade Schools location in
north Atlanta promises many poten-
tial job opportunities. Between 2014
and 2017, two major sports stadiums
will be constructed within a few miles
of the school, one for the Atlanta Fal-
cons and the other for the Atlanta
Braves. Caterpillar, a major employer,
has opened a big plant in Athens, Ga.,
and and Trinity Rail plans to hire
1100 welders with the reopening of its
nearby railcar manufacturing facility.
To date, 60% of graduates work in
Georgia with the others taking their
talents across the country.
Come See for Yourself
Georgia Trade School is open for
tours by appointment Monday
through Friday for prospective stu-
dents to see the classroom and weld-
ing shop facilities and meet its
instructors and talk to current stu-
dents. As an introduction, first visit
the schools websites www.georgia-
tradeschool.com and its video site
www.georgiatradeschool.tv.
Georgia Trade School
2260 Moon Station Ct., Ste. 110
Kennesaw, GA 30144
Welding Program Contact
Ryan Blythe
Executive Director
(770) 590-9353
rblythe@georgiatradeschool.com
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 4 Instructors James Spinner (left) and Sean Quinton bring
a variety of professional skills and experience to their classes.
Fig. 5 From left are GTS graduates Zach Burgess and Quinton
Cychosz, Instructor James Spinner, YouTube cameraman Lanse
Edwards, and graduate Garrison Foster.
WJ
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Presented by the AWS D10 Committee on Piping and Tubing
October 8
th
- 9
th
, 2014 / AWS Headquarters, Doral, FL
The Welding Summit Workshop purpose is to provide an interactive open forum environment for
professionals from various areas of the welding industry to discuss issues and propose solutions.

Each topic of the two day workshop will start with an introduction and a short
description of recommended topics.

Attendees will be split into groups to discuss the topics and provide feedback.

Feedback will be moderated to recognized issues and solutions. The feedback
moderation should provide much data, commonalities, and spark considerable
discussion.

Results of the workshop will be published in the WELDING JOURNAL for the good of
the industry.
Mission Statement:
Create awareness of welding industry issues and find pro-active solutions
while maintaining safety and quality as values.
See the topics and find out more at www.aws.org/conferences
Register Today
www.aws.org/conferences
WELDING SUMMIT
WORKSHOP

Register T

oday ter TTo

WELDING SUMMIT

Register T
WORKSHOP
WELDING SUMMIT
.org/conferences .aws www

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WORKSHOP
WELDING SUMMIT
.org/conferences

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2014 / ,
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- 9
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October 8
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discussion.
moderation should provide much data,
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description of recommended topics


discussion.
moderation should provide much data,
eedback will be moderated to recognized issues and solutions
description of recommended topics

and spark considerable , commonalities moderation should provide much data,
eedback will be moderated to recognized issues and solutions
. description of recommended topics
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and spark considerable
The feedback . eedback will be moderated to recognized issues and solutions
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. y to discuss issues and propose solutions

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discussion.

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Results of the workshop will be published in the
discussion.

.aws.or e at www See the topics and find out mor
WELDING JOURNAL Results of the workshop will be published in the

ences g/confer .aws.or
for the good of WELDING JOURNAL

Porosity is a cavity-like discontinuity that forms when
gas is entrapped in solidifying weld metal or in a thermal
spray deposit. The discontinuity is generally spherical, but it
may be elongated. Porosity occurs on the surface or in the
subsurface of the weld. The following, along with Table 1,
discuss the types of porosity.
Scattered porosity. This type of porosity may be distrib-
uted throughout single-pass welds, contained in one pass of a
multipass weld, or spread throughout several passes of multi-
ple-pass welds. Faulty welding technique, contaminated or in-
correct shielding gases, contaminants on the surface of the
workpiece, or defective materials are the usual causes.
Cluster porosity. This type manifests itself as a
localized grouping of pores with a random geometric distri-
bution. It frequently results from improper initiation or ter-
mination of the welding arc. The same conditions that cause
arc blow can contribute to the formation of cluster porosity.
Piping porosity. The term piping porosity denotes a
form of porosity that has a length greater than its width and
lies approximately perpendicular to the weld face. In fillet
welds, elongated porosity normally extends from the root of
the weld toward the face. When one or two pores are seen in
the surface of the weld, it is likely that many subsurface pip-
ing pores are interspersed among the exposed pores. Much
of the piping porosity found in welds does not extend to the
surface. In electroslag welds, piping porosity is generally
characterized by relatively long pores. Piping porosity is typ-
ically caused by rapid solidification.
Aligned porosity. Sometimes called linear porosity,
aligned porosity consists of a localized array of spherical or
elongated pores oriented in a line. It may be aligned along a
weld interface, at the root of a weld, or at a boundary
between weld beads. Gas evolution from contaminants at
the location where the discontinuity has formed is the cause
of aligned porosity.
Elongated porosity. This type of porosity resembles
piping porosity in that it has a length greater than its width.
However, in contrast to piping porosity, elongated porosity
lies approximately parallel to the weld axis.
Causes. The typical causes of porosity in weld metal are
related to the welding process and the welding procedure,
and in some instances, to the type and chemistry of the base
metal. The welding process, welding procedure, and type of
base metal (including the manufacturing method) directly
affect the quantities and types of gases present in the
molten weld pool. The welding process and welding
procedure control the solidification rate, which then affects
the amount of weld metal porosity. Proper welding
procedures for a given combination of welding process and
base metal should produce welds that are essentially free of
porosity.
Dissolved gases are usually present in molten weld metal.
Porosity forms as the weld metal solidifies if the dissolved
gases are present in amounts greater than their solid solubil-
ity limits. Gases that may be present in the molten weld
pool include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, argon, and
helium. Of these, only hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are
soluble to any significant extent in a molten weld pool, and
the solubility of these gases in solidified metal is
significantly less than in liquid metal.
Hydrogen is the major cause of porosity. It may enter
the molten weld pool from many sources such as the gas
atmosphere surrounding the arc zone or in hydrogen-
forming constituents, the dissociation of water. Hydrogen
dissolved in the base metal itself or in surface oxides may
remain in the weld metal. Filler metals may also contain
dissolved hydrogen.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
WJ
Understanding Porosity
FACT SHEET
Table 1 Porosity Common Causes and Remedies
Causes Remedies
Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen in the welding atmosphere Use low-hydrogen welding process and filler metals high in
deoxidizers; increase shielding gas flow
High solidification rate Use preheat or increase heat input
Dirty base metal Clean joint faces and adjacent surfaces
Dirty welding wire Use specially cleaned and packaged welding wire and store it in
clean area
Improper arc length, welding current, or electrode manipulation Change welding conditions and techniques
Volatilization of zinc from brass Use copper-silicon filler metal; reduce heat input
Galvanized steel Remove zinc before welding; use E6010 electrodes and manipulate
the arc heat to volatilize the zinc ahead of the molten weld pool
Excessive moisture in the electrode covering or on joint surfaces Use recommended procedures for baking and storing electrodes;
preheat the base metal
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Vol. 1, 9th edition.
demonstration unit, limited-time pricing, and drawings for
free welding helmets through 2014. For more details, con-
tact Don Hamer at donh@microaironline.com.
Bates Technical College, Tacoma, Wash., will receive
$411,771 from the State Board for Community and Techni-
cal Colleges to expand its welding and machinist programs.
In particular, $203,771 will be allocated to increase the
welding program by 30 full-time equivalent students. The
expansion will begin fall quarter, and new courses will be
offered in the evening to accommodate working adults.
Fine Tubes, UK, has earned additional NORSOK approval
enabling it to supply UNS S31254 seamless tubes. The
company secured this by aligning its manufacturing
process with NORSOK M-650 requirements, plus providing
compliance through an audit by Parker Hannifin and
Statoil.
O. E. Meyer Co., Sandusky, Ohio, has been recognized as
The Top North American Independent Distributor by Hy-
pertherm. This award includes a $500 donation to a
nonprofit organization.
The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, has been granted
an exclusive worldwide license to The NanoSteel Co.s pro-
prietary steel coatings technology for weld overlay and ther-
mal spray applications.
Josh Chiprich, tank fabrication market manager, and
Chris Cable, director of global sales and marketing, recently
visited Bug-Os girth welding partner in Shanghai, China,
for training. Also, they visited a tank farm in Tianjin where
single-sided girth welding machines for horizontal joints,
electrogas welding machines for vertical joints, and the LT7
Buggie for the outside bottom of the tanks were used.
CRC-Evans Pipeline International, Inc., Houston, Tex., re-
cently announced a distribution partnership with LaValley
Industries, Bemidji, Minn., to become the exclusive global
distributor of its Deckhand pipe handling product line.
The Ingersoll Rand Foundation, Davidson, N.C., has
donated $135,000 to The Manufacturing Institute to help a
leadership development program that addresses the indus-
trys need to increase the number of women leaders in U.S.
manufacturing. The grant will be used to create a more
comprehensive leadership program in 2015.
Randy Darby and Ray Michelena from T. J. Snow Co.,
Chattanooga, Tenn., recently flew a Mooney airplane used
for service calls to the Mooney factory in Kerrville, Tex.
The purpose of the trip was to upgrade electronic controls
on a resistance spot welding machine used in
manufacturing the single-engine Mooneys.
Lynnes Welding Training, Inc., recently announced the
Bismarck, N.Dak., school is now an accredited branch of
the Fargo, N.Dak., division, offering the same accredited
programs (120-h GMAW, 120-h SMAW, 120-h GTAW,
200-h pipe, and 480-h combination welder I).
The Hobart brand campaign, Its the tie that binds, is
celebrating the tie that binds science and people. From the
filler metals customers use to the relationships developed
on the journey to find the right system, it reflects the com-
mitment to helping make projects a reality. Visit the site at
HobartBrothers.com/tiethatbinds.
The Nicolet College Foundation, Rhinelander, Wis.,
presented its 2014 Friends and Partners Award to the Old-
enburg Group for its partnership with the college and its
welding program. The company has been working with
Nicolet for more than 20 years, regularly donating steel,
wire, and other material.
The Commonwealth Center for Advanced Manufacturing,
Prince George County, Va., recently announced Airbus
joined its consortium at the Farnborough International Air-
show 2014 during a signing event. Also, in related news, the
center announced Aerojet Rocketdyne is expanding its role.
As an organizing industry member, the company will
perform proprietary research at the centers facility and re-
tain intellectual property ownership of the developments.
A welding merit badge workshop recently hosted by Cee
Kay Supply, Inc., St. Louis, Mo., and the American Welding
Society St. Louis Section sparked the interest of 12 local
Boy Scouts. After trying virtual welding, each boy was
required to weld their initials on a small metal coupon as
well as tack plates together and complete a square groove
butt joint, T-joint, and lap joint weld.
WJ

CUSTOH
RPRINTS T N I R P R
H O T S U C

S T
H

sales@fosterprinting.com
Call 866.879.9144 or

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
CLASSIFIEDS
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
FOR SALE OR RENT
SENIOR METALS TECHNICIAN
AMEC, a leading engineering &
construction management consulting
business, is seeking a Senior Metals
Technician in Durham, NC to perform
visual & nondestructive testing on
various construction projects. Requires
10+ yrs related experience & current
AWS QC1 Welding Inspector
Certification (CWI). Additional
information can be obtained from our
website at www.amec.com. Apply
online at www.amec.com/careers
(search keyword 18524). Contact
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EOE AA M/F/Vet/Disability
CWI WITH MACHINING
INSPECTION EXPERIENCE WANTED
West Coast Utility needs a couple of
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offer a competitive hourly wage for this
contract position. Travel in U.S.,
Canada, Europe, and Brazil likelyflex-
ible assignments. Good oral and writ-
ten communications skills required.
Must be willing and capable of owning
product compliance and quality.
Call Randy Roberts (415) 973-2768.
CWI, CPWI AND NACE INSPECTORS
Professional Staffing Services, Inc., is
seeking experienced CWI, CPWI, and
NACE inspectors with significant
pipeline experience for a project in
North Dakota.
Inspectors must be familiar with
pipeline safety, welding inspection,
hydrostatic testing, excavations,
overseeing contractor daily
performance, and have very good
computer and communication skills.
Contact Eddie Jacob: (832) 284-4410
or (281) 798-5109.
WELDING INSTRUCTOR
Texas State Technical College, Waco,
TX, is in search of a Welding Instructor
with experience in SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW and GTAW welding processes,
oxyfuel cutting and welding, layout and
fabrication, and pipe welding plus non-
destructive testing processes. Requires
Associates degree in Welding Technol-
ogy and demonstrated competency in
welding field. Starting annual salary is
$40,812 or higher. DOE.
Apply online: www.tstc.jobs
WELD INSPECTOR
AMEC, a leading engineering &
construction management consulting
business, is seeking a Weld Inspector in
Orlando, FL to perform weld
inspections in field/manufacturing
facilities. Requires 2+ yrs related
experience & current AWS Certified
Welding Inspector Certification (CWI).
Additional information can be
obtained from our website at
www.amec.com. Apply online at
www.amec.com/careers (search
keyword 20489). Contact
molly.mapes@amec.com with any
questions.
EOE AA M/F/Vet/Disability
SERVICES
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FOR SALE OR RENT (CONTINUED)
CERTIFICATION & TRAINING
JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
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Phone: (979) 277-8343
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2014
Professionals Sought for
IIW Training Courses
The American Welding Society, the
Gesellschaft fr Schweisstechnik
International (German Welding
Institute, GSI), and the National
Center for Welding Education and
Training (Weld-Ed) are seeking
candidates interested in obtaining the
IIW International Welding
Engineer or International Welding
Technologist diploma. Courses are
being planned that will blend
Internet-delivered training with class-
room training conducted in the United
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The 440-hour course will be offered
during the next two summers and
is designed to promote career
development for busy welding
professionals.
Please contact Jeff Hufsey at:
hufsey@aws.org for more details.
5% Nital Soluton
Show steel weld profle &
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CHRISTMAS CARDS
Over 35 Whimsical Welding
cards available at
pauloxmanpublishing.com/welding
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Abicor Binzel 27
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American Torch Tip 49
www.AmericanTorchTip.com (800) 3428477
Arabia ESSEN Welding & Cutting Show 66
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ArcOne 33
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Arcos Industries, LLC Inside Back Cover
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AT & F Headquarters 59
www.atfco.com (216) 2521500
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. 38
www.atlaswelding.com (800) 9629353
AWS Education Services 22, 74, 93, 99, 109
www.aws.org/education/ (800) 4439353, ext. 455
AWS Membership Services 91, 105
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AWS Publications 6061
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Bluco Corp. 35
www.bluco.com (800) 5350135
Bradford Derustit 68
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Camfil Air Pollution Control 2
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Carell Corp. 62
www.carellcorp.com (251) 9370948
CDA Technical Institute 35
www.commercialdivingacademy.com (888) 9742232
Champion Welding Alloys 104
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CML USA, Inc. Ercolina 64
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CorMet 28, 37
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Detroit Section of AWS 71
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Diamond Ground Products, Inc. 11, 13
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Fischer Technology 92
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Fronius USA, LLC 30
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Genstar Technologies Company, Inc. 14
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Greiner Industries 19
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Gullco International, Inc. U.S.A. 63
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H&M Pipe Beveling Machine Co., Inc. 29
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HBD/Thermoid, Inc. 63
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Hobart Inst. of Welding Technology 58
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Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. 9
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Interactive Safety Products, Inc. 69
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Intercon Enterprises, Inc. 36
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J. P. Nissen Co. 47
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Lincoln Electric Co. Outside Back Cover
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Magnatech LLC 32
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Mathey Dearman 21
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Maverick Testing Laboratories 67
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Mercer Abrasives 65
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Midalloy 28
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Miller Electric Mfg. Co. 34
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Nelson Stud Welding 68
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OTC Daihen, Inc. 5
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RedDArc Welderentals 37
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RWMA/Resistance Welding Mfg. Alliance 95
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Schaefer Ventilation Equipment 62
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Select Arc, Inc. Inside Front Cover
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SK Brazing USA, LLC 64
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Sumner Mfg. Co., Inc. 26
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Tecnar 20
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Thermatool 1
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Tokin Corp. 92
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Triangle Engineering, Inc. 68
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Uniweld Products, Inc. 38
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voestalpine Bohler Welding USA Inc. 23
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Walhonde Tools, Inc. 67
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Watts Specialties, Inc. 46
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Weld Aid 31
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Weld Engineering 7
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Welder Training & Testing Institute 67
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West Chester Protective Gear 39
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ADVERTISER INDEX
Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/adindex
Introduction
As has been reviewed in the frst
part of this paper (Ref. 1) and previous
studies, the detaching peak current in
conventional pulsed gas metal arc
welding (GMAW-P) needs to be higher
than the spray transition current to
produce desired one drop per pulse
(ODPP) transfer. Further, the ODPP
transfer in conventional GMAW-P
lacks controllability and robustness
(Refs. 25). Te original version of the
active metal transfer control method is
thus proposed, in which the liquid
droplet is efectively excited into oscil-
lation by reducing the welding current
from a peak level, referred to as the ex-
citing peak, to the base. By applying
another peak current referred to as the
detaching peak at the moment when
the droplet is moving toward the weld
pool, the electromagnetic force and
the downward momentum of the oscil-
lating droplet are efectively matched
in phase and the droplet can be
detached by their combined action. As
a result, the needed detaching current
is reduced, and unexpected droplet de-
tachment or mass accumulation can be
avoided such that the metal transfer
robustness is improved (Refs. 6, 7).
As an evolution to the original active
control process, the enhanced active
droplet oscillation is proposed in Ref. 8
by using the current waveform shown
in Fig. 1 and denoted as Wave1. Te
droplet growing and exciting pulses are
now divided by a base period, while they
are coupled together in the original ac-
tive metal transfer control. It is this
modifcation that signifcantly increases
the amplitude of the excited droplet os-
cillation (Ref. 8). Active metal transfer
control, which utilizes such enhanced
oscillation, referred to as the enhanced
active metal transfer control, has been
experimentally studied in the frst part
of this investigation (Ref. 1) by using
Wave2, which inherits from Wave1 by
inserting a relatively low detaching
pulse with a phase delay to the exciting
pulse, as shown in Fig. 2. Te enhanced
droplet oscillation enables the needed
WELDING RESEARCH
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 321-s
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER 2014
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
Droplet Oscillation Part II: Modeling and Analysis
The model suggests that the exciting phase delay and exciting peak duration can be fixed
as long as the droplet size is controlled to be relatively small
BY J. XIAO, G. J. ZHANG, W. J. ZHANG, AND Y. M. ZHANG
ABSTRACT
Enhanced active metal transfer control is experimentally studied in the first part
of this investigation. Differing from the original active control, the enhanced active
metal transfer control uses a modified current waveform, which increases the ampli
tude of the excited droplet oscillation and the needed detaching current is thus much
more reduced. The experimental study reveals that strongest droplet oscillation and
maximum enhancement on the droplet detachment require optimal selections of
three waveform parameters: the exciting peak duration and exciting/detaching phase
delay. In this study, a numerical model on the dynamic droplet oscillation and detach
ment is developed based on the massspring system. The spring constant and damp
ing coefficient in the model are experimentally calibrated. Analysis on the effects of
the key waveform parameters on the droplet oscillation/detachment gives a compre
hensive understanding on the mechanism of the droplet excitation and detachment.
Given other waveform parameters, the optimal value of the three key parameters
can be calculated from the model. The accuracy of the model is verified by compar
ing the modeling results with the corresponding experimental ones. The modeling re
sults suggest that the exciting phase delay and exciting peak duration can be fixed as
long as the droplet size is controlled to be relatively small as desired by the drop
spray transfer. In addition, an analytical model has been established through approxi
mations, and its adequate accuracy in predicting the optimal detaching phase delay
has also been verified.
KEYWORDS
Enhanced Active Control Metal Transfer Droplet Oscillation
Theoretical Model MassSpring System
J. XIAO is with the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, China, and the Institute for Sustainable Manufactur
ing, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. G. J. ZHANG is with the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, China.
W. J. ZHANG and Y. M. ZHANG (yuming.zhang@uky.edu) are with the Institute for Sustainable Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and Computer En
gineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
detaching current to be further reduced.
Te lower limit of the detaching current
is determined to be not only much
lower than the spray transition current,
but also signifcantly lower than that of
the original active metal transfer
control. Te experimental study also in-
dicates that the enhanced active metal
transfer control process is sufciently
robust (Ref. 1).
Figure 3 demonstrates a typical
droplet excitation and detachment in
the enhanced active metal transfer
control where Wave2 is used: I
g
= 80 A,
T
g
= 20 ms, I
b
= 30 A, T
p1
= 2 ms, I
e
=
120 A, T
e
= 3 ms, T
p2
= 3.2 ms, I
d
= 125
A, and T
d
= 4 ms, T
b
= 20 ms, I
fd
= 175
A, T
fd
= 5 ms. It can be seen that the
droplet is frst elongated by the excit-
ing pulse (Frames 24) and goes into
oscillation in the base period called de-
taching phase delay (Frames 57), and
then the droplet is accelerated and de-
tached by the detaching pulse of only
125 A/4 ms (Frames 813).
To better depict the excited droplet
oscillation, the following concepts
defned in the experimental study are
repeated here. 1) Te moment at which
the excited droplet reaches its
maximum elongation is referred to as
the elongation peak moment. 2) Te
moment at which the droplet changes
its moving direction from upward
(toward the wire) into downward (away
from the wire) during the preoscillation
or the main oscillation is referred to as
the oscillation reversing moment. As
can be seen from Fig. 2, the following
current waveform parameters need to
be properly selected to frst maximize
the droplet oscillation amplitude and
then maximize the consequent
enhancement on the droplet
detachment in the enhanced active
metal transfer control.
1. Exciting phase delay T
p1
, i.e., the
base duration between the growing
and exciting pulse. As has been
verifed in Ref. 8, the droplet may be
excited to a preoscillation during T
p1
as long as the growing current is high
enough to preelongate the droplet. If
the exciting pulse is synchronized with
the downward momentum during the
preoscillation, the main oscillation
after the exciting pulse can be further
enhanced. If the growing current is
sufciently low, for example,
80 A used in the experimental study,
the selection of T
p1
will not afect the
main droplet oscillation signifcantly.
In this sense, this parameter was not
discussed in the experimental study,
but it will be analyzed in this theoreti-
cal study.
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014, VOL. 93 322-s
Fig. 1 Current waveform for enhanced droplet oscillation. Fig. 2 Current waveform for enhanced active metal transfer
control.
Fig 3 Typical metal transfer of enhanced actve control, 1 ms per frame. ER70S6/0.8
mm wire, 15L/min argon gas ow, 6mm arc length, 6mm wire extension, beadon
plate welding.
Fig. 4 Illustration of massspring model of
droplet oscillation.
2. Exciting peak duration T
e
.
Experimental study on the enhanced
droplet oscillation demonstrates that
there is an optimal exciting peak dura-
tion for achieving strongest droplet os-
cillation when the exciting peak current
is the same (Ref. 8). Exciting peak dura-
tion greater than the optimal value is
not recommended because it not only
reduces the oscillation amplitude but
also increases the heat input.
3. Detaching phase delay T
p2
, i.e., the
base duration between the exciting and
detaching pulse. Tis is the most impor-
tant parameter for the enhanced active
metal transfer control, because it deter-
mines if the droplet oscillation can be
efectively utilized. In particular, if the
detaching pulse starts exactly at the os-
cillation reversing moment, the result-
ant detaching
phase delay is called feature detaching
phase delay, denoted as T*
p2
. It has
been verifed that the feature detach-
ing phase delay is the optimal
selection for full utilization of the
droplet oscillation.
Experimental determination of the
optimal value of these parameters is
time-consuming and costly such that
it will not be preferred in manufactur-
ing. Hence, a theoretical model on the
dynamic droplet oscillation/
detachment is needed. Such a model
would be highly appreciated since it
enables to predict the critical
waveform parameters in a cost-efec-
tive way. Further, the model will give a
deeper scientifc understanding on the
mechanism of the droplet oscillation
and detachment. Together with the ex-
perimental work conducted in the frst
part of this investigation, the theoreti-
cal modeling and analysis complete a
full study on the enhanced active
metal transfer control.
Objective and Method
Te task now is to establish a theo-
retical model on the dynamic droplet
oscillation and detachment under the
current waveform shown in Fig. 2. Te
model will be used to predict the criti-
cal waveform parameters in the
enhanced active metal transfer control
when other waveform parameters are
given:
1. Optimal exciting phase delay T*
p1
,
which is the time interval between the
reversing moment of the
preoscillation and the end moment of
the growing pulse.
2. Optimal exciting peak duration
T*
e
, under which the end moment of
the exciting pulse is exactly the
elongation peak moment.
3. Optimal detaching phase delay
T*
p2
, which is the time interval
between the reversing moment of the
excited droplet oscillation and the end
moment of the exciting pulse.
Mass-spring system has been widely
used to model the pendant droplet os-
cillation in GMAW under diferent cur-
rent conditions (Refs. 912). It is also
used in this study to model the
enhanced droplet oscillation and
detachment under the waveform as Fig.
2 shows. Te modeling is facilitated by
the following assumptions: 1) the
droplet shape is symmetric; 2) the
droplet motion in the wire redial direc-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Variation of l as the function of
half angle.
Fig. 6 Illustration of damping coefficient
measurement.
Fig. 7 Damping coefficient measured
from experiments 14.
Fig. 9 Structure of the Simulink program. Fig. 8 Correlation between spring constant and droplet mass.
tion is negligible; and 3) the physical
property of the liquid metal is constant.
Figure 4 shows the mass-spring
model for pendant droplet oscillation
in GMAW. Te surface tension acts as
the spring force F
s
. Since the droplet
volume increases continuously until
its detachment, the oscillation system
varies with time and follows the gov-
erning equations:
(1)
F(t) = F
em
+ F
d
+ F
g
(2)
where x represents the droplet mass
center displacement to the wire tip in
the wire axial direction; m, b, and k are
the mass, damping coefcient, and
spring constant, respectively. F is the
axial force exerted on the droplet, in-
cluding the electromagnetic force F
em
,
the plasma drag force F
d
, and the
droplet gravitational force F
g
.
Te droplet mass is proportional to
the wire melting speed (Ref. 13):
m(t) = v
m
(t)dt (3)
where represents the mass density
of the wire, v
m
the wire melting speed,
which is the function of the welding
current and wire extension (Ref. 13)
v
m
= C
1
I(t)+C
2
p
r
l
e
(t)I
2
(t) (4)
where I represents the welding current,
l
e
the wire extension,
r
the wire resis- mx bx kx F t ( ) + + =
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 10 Modeling results of the dynamic droplet oscillation and detachment. A Droplet displacement; B resultant detaching force;
C droplet gravitational force; D electromagnetic force; E inertia force; F droplet radius.
A B
C
D
E F
tivity, plus C
1
and C
2
the melting
constants. Te frst term in the right
side of Equation 4 represents the arc
anode heat while the second term repre-
sents the wire resistive heat. Hence,
given the current waveform, the droplet
mass can be obtained.
Te droplet gravitational force F
g
is
given by
F
g
(t) = m(t)g =
4
3 r
d
(t)
3
rg (5)
where r
d
is the droplet radius, and r
represents the density of liquid droplet.
Te electromagnetic force F
em
is
given by (Ref. 14)
(6)
(7)
where m
0
is the magnetic permittivity,
I is the welding current, r
w
the wire ra-
dius, and is the half angle subtended
by the arc root at the center of the
droplet. Figure 5s graphical
illustration of Equation 7 shows that l
does not change signifcantly when the
half angle ranges from 90 to 150 deg,
so that the selection of the half angle
would not signifcantly infuence the
modeling results, and the half angle
is fxed at 120 deg in this study. Refer-
ences 15 and 16 also use constant half
angle to calculate the electromagnetic
force for the same reason.
The plasma drag force is given by
(Ref. 15)
(8)
(9)
where C
d
is the aerodynamic drag coef-
fcient, A
p
is the area of the drop seen
from above, and r
p
and v
p
are the den-
sity and velocity of the arc plasma.
Since the plasma velocity in GMAW
is not available, the plasma velocity
was assumed to be 100 m/s, which is
the same as that in GTAW, and the
value of C
d
was calculated to be 0.44
(Ref. 15). For a less-developed plasma
jet, 10 m/s plasma velocity was used,
and the value of C
d
was also calculated
to be 0.44. The calculation in Ref. 15
shows that the equilibrium droplet
size of a steel electrode with plasma
velocity of 10 m/s and 100 m/s are al-
most the same. Thus, in this study,
100 m/s plasma velocity is used, and
the drag coefficient is thus 0.44.
According to the dynamic force bal-
ance theory on the metal transfer (Ref.
9), the droplet will be detached when
the following criteria are satisfed:
F
em
+ F
d
+ F
g
+ F
in
> F
s
(10)
where F
in
is the inertia force generated
by the oscillation, F
in
= ma, and a rep-
resents the droplet acceleration. F
s
is
the surface tension, given by
F
s
= 2r
w
g (11)
where g is the surface tension
coefcient.
Calibration of Model
Coefficients
To solve Equation 1, the spring con-
stant k and damping coefcient b need
to be determined frst. It is the major
difculty in our modeling efort
because the spring constant and
damping coefcient may change with
the droplet mass even if the wire (ma-
terial, diameter) and shielding gas are
given. Te theoretical models on the
spring constant and damping
coefcient are briefy reviewed here.
Te spring force and spring constant
in the axial direction are expressed
using the potential energy generated
by the surface tension and surface area
of a droplet in Ref. 9
dU = gdS = F
s
dx, k = dF
s
/dx
where U is the potential energy, F
s
the
spring force, g the surface tension co-
efcient and S the drop surface area.
Given the droplet mass/volume, the
spring constant can be calculated. Un-
fortunately, the accuracy of this model
is not satisfactory (minimum 11%
error and 38% maximum in the
droplet oscillation frequency), and it is
thus not used in this paper. However,
it indicates that the droplet spring
constant is related to the droplet
mass/volume. Reference 9 also gives
( )
( )
( )
=

F t
I t
4
ln
r t
r
em
0
2
d
w
( )
( )
=

+

+
1n sin
1
4
1
1 cos
2
1 cos
ln
2
1 cos
2
F
1
2
C A
d d p p p
2
=
A r r
p
d
2
w
2
( )
=
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 11 T *
p1
under different T
g
. Fig. 12 Droplet dynamic response to exciting pulse.
the damping coefcient as
b = 3m V/x
2
where m is the viscosity coefcient, V is
the droplet volume, and x the droplet
displacement. Using this model, the
damping coefcient is calculated to be
only at the order of 10
5
10
4
N/m,
which does not match the real damping
observed in the experiments. Hence,
this model for calculating the damping
coefcient is also not used in this study.
Tereby, the two key variables need to
be experimentally calibrated.
Calibration Method
Te calibration proceeds with the as-
sumption that the droplet mass during
the frst free oscillation period after the
exciting pulse is constant, since the wire
melting rate at the base current is suf-
ciently low and the concerned period,
the frst oscillation cycle after the excit-
ing pulse, is only a few milliseconds. As
a result, the droplet mass during the
frst oscillation cycle can be considered
equal to the droplet mass m
0
measured
at the end moment of the exciting
pulse. In this case, the droplet mass m,
the damping factor b, the spring coef-
cient k, and the axial force F during the
frst oscillation cycle all become
constant m
0
, b
0
, k
0
, and F
0
, respectively.
Terefore, Equation 1 is simplifed into
a constant coefcient ordinary
diferential equation
(12)
Tis constant coefcient equation
has an analytical solution as follows:
(13)
and A along with are coefcients de-
termined by the initial droplet
displacement and velocity depending
on the exciting parameters. Based on
Equation 13, the damping coefcient
and spring constant can be calculated
since the droplet mass, oscillation pe-
riod, and amplitude all can be
measured from the experiments. By
adjusting the initial droplet mass m
0
,
the correlation between b/k and mcan
be determined.
To perform the calibration,
experiments 1 4 are conducted by using
Wave1. Te experimental system and
conditions are the same with that
described in the frst part of this investi-
gation: 0.8-mm ER70S-6 welding wire,
15 L/min pure argon shielding gas, 6-
mm wire extension, and bead-on-plate
welding of mild steel (Ref. 1). Te initial
droplet mass/size is controlled by
adjusting the growing duration T
g
. Te
experimental parameters are listed in
Table 1. Te remaining parameters are
fxed at I
g
= 80 A, I
b
= 30 A, T
p1
= 3 ms,
I
e
= 120 A, T
e
= 3 ms, T
b
= 30 ms, I
fd
=
175 A, T
fd
= 5 ms.
Damping Coefficient
According to Equation 13, the
damping coefcient can be calculated
as follows:
+ + = m x b x k x F
0 0 0 0

( ) = + +
= =
where
x
F
k
Ae sin t
b
2m
k
m
0
0
t
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 13 Droplet oscillation under different T
e
. A T
e
= 2 ms; B T
e
= 3 ms; C T
e
= 4 ms; D T
e
= 5 ms.
A
B
C D
(14)
where T
1
is the oscillation period of
the frst oscillation cycle after the ex-
citing pulse.
As shown in Fig. 6, A
1
and A
2
are
the oscillation amplitude of the frst
and second oscillation cycle,
respectively. Te droplet oscillation pe-
riod T
1
and the initial droplet mass m
0
are measured from the recorded high-
speed image sequences. Using
Equation 14, the damping coefcient
in experiments 14 are calculated. Te
results are shown in Fig. 7. It can be
seen that the damping coefcient is
approximately at the same level when
the droplet mass is increasing.
Tereby, the damping coefcient is
fxed at 0.0012 Ns/m in this study,
which is the average of the measured
values from experiments 14.
Spring Constant
Based on Equation 13, the droplet
oscillation period of the frst
oscillation cycle T
1
is given by
(15)
since the damping coefcient is only at
10
3
Ns/m, Equation 15 can be
simplifed to
(16)
the initial droplet mass m
0
and the
droplet oscillation period of the frst
cycle T
1
are measured from
experiments 14 and then the
corresponding spring constant can be
calculated, as shown in Fig. 8.
It can be seen that the droplet spring
constant is approximately linearly
increasing with the droplet mass such
that the spring constant calculation
model can be established by linearly ft-
ting the experimental values using the
Least Square method as follows:
k = 7.74 + 127961.29m (17)
Modeling Results and
Discussion
A simulation program based on the
model is developed in Matlab/
Simulink to compute the dynamic
droplet oscillation and detachment. Te
program structure is shown in Fig. 9. It
can be seen that the dynamic droplet
mass, radius, displacement, the spring
constant, and the total detaching force
can all be obtained from this numerical
model. Forth-order Runge-Kutta
algorithm is used to solve Equation 1.
Te physical constants used are listed in
Table 2 (Refs. 13, 17, 18).
Optimal Exciting Phase Delay
In order to fully utilize the preoscil-
lation before the exciting pulse, the
optimal exciting phase delay under
given growing parameters needs to be
predicted frst. According to the exper-
imental study in the frst part of this
investigation, the optimal phase delay
corresponds to the reversing moment
of the droplet oscillation (Ref. 1).
Given the current waveform parame-
ters, the dynamic droplet
displacement and forces can be calcu-
lated based on the above equations. By
reading the time coordinate of the pre-
oscillation reversing moment and the
exciting end moment from the wave-
form and droplet displacement curves
in Matlab, the optimal exciting phase
delay T*
p1
at given waveform parame-
ters can be determined. In order to
guarantee the demonstration of the
reversing moment, relatively large T
p1
needs to be used. Te calculation of
the optimal exciting peak duration and
optimal detaching phase delay will
proceed in similar ways to guarantee
=

T
2 4 m
4k m b
1
0
0
0 0 0
2
= T 2 m / k
1 0 0
= b
2m
T
ln
A
A
0
0
1
1
2
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 1 Growing Duraton in Experiments 14
No. T
g
(ms)
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
Table 2 Physical Constant Used in the Model
Symbol Value Unit Descripton
C
1
2.885e10 m
3
/(A s) Meltng constant
C
2
5.22e10 m
3
/(A W s) Meltng constant
r
w
0.0004 m Wire radius
l
e
0.006 m Wire extension
r
r
0.7836 W/m Resistvity of Wire
r' 6800 kg/m
3
Density of liquid drop
r 7860 kg/m
3
Density of solid wire
m
o
1.25664e6 kg m/A
2
s
2
Permeability of free space
g 1.2 N/m Surface tension coecient
Fig. 14 T*
e
under different T
g
. Fig. 16 Effect of T
p2
on the droplet os
cillation/detachment.
Fig. 15 Example for predicting T *
p2
.
the demonstration of the exciting peak
moment and reversing moment of the
main excited oscillation.
A simulation using Wave2 as the
input to the model is frst performed as
a preliminary verifcation on the model
with the following current waveform
parameters: I
g
= 80 A, T
g
= 20 ms, I
b
= 30
A, T
p1
= 5 ms, I
e
= 120 A, T
e
= 3 ms, T
p2
= 3 ms, I
d
= 140 A, T
d
= 5 ms, T
b
= 20
ms, I
fd
= 175 A, and T
fd
= 5 ms. Te
time step for computation is 0.001 ms.
Te time cost for the computation on a
common Desktop PC is only a few sec-
onds. Figure 10A shows the droplet os-
cillation and detachment under the
given current waveform parameters.
Te corresponding dynamic detaching
force, droplet gravitational force, inertia
force, electromagnetic force, and the
droplet radius are shown in Fig. 10BF,
respectively. Te calculated dynamic
forces all correspond to the current
waveform shown in Fig. 10A. One can
see from Fig. 10C that the droplet gravi-
tational force increases linearly in each
substage, and a larger increasing rate as-
sociates with higher current. Since the
wire diameter and the half angle are
fxed, the electromagnetic force is deter-
mined by the current and droplet. It can
be seen from Fig. 10D that the electro-
magnetic force is primarily determined
by the welding current. Higher current
produces larger electromagnetic force.
While even the current is constant in
each substage, the electromagnetic force
still grows gradually, because the
droplet radius is increasing. Figure 10E
shows the dynamic inertia force. Te
step changes in Fig. 10E correspond to
the rising or falling edges of the pulses
in the current waveform which make
sudden changes on the electromagnetic
force and thus sudden changes on the
droplet acceleration. Te inertia force
doesnt show direct correlation to the
welding current. It is determined by the
droplet displacement and velocity.
Because the detaching pulse is applied
when the droplet starts to move away
from the wire tip, the droplet changes
from being compressed to being
elongated in the detaching peak time,
and the direction of the inertia force is
thus also changed. It can be seen that
the excited droplet oscillation produces
considerable inertia force, which is syn-
chronized with the electromagnetic
force produced by the detaching pulse
and the total detaching force is thus sig-
nifcantly increased, as shown in Fig.
10B. Hence, the droplet is successfully
detached under only 140 A detaching
current. Te detached droplet radius
approximately equals that measured in
the experiment using the same wave-
form parameters.
From Fig. 10A, one can see that
the droplet is excited into a slight
pre-oscillation under 80 A growing
current. T
p1
is intentionally set at 5
ms to demonstrate the reversing mo-
ment of the preoscillation, marked in
Fig. 10A. By reading the time of the
exciting end moment and the
preoscillation reversing moment from
the computed curves in Matlab, the
corresponding T *
p1
can be obtained.
In the case as Fig. 10A shows, T*
p1
is
determined to be 2.8 ms. Using the
same method, T*
p1
under different
droplet mass (controlled by the grow-
ing duration) can be obtained. The
modeling and corresponding experi-
mental results are shown in Fig. 11. It
can be seen that the droplet growing
time changes in 1040 ms; thus, the
droplet diameter is within 11.6 mm,
wide enough for discussing drop
spray transfer characterized by
relatively small droplet size. It can be
calculated that the absolute modeling
error on T*p1 is only 0.07 ms, which
indicates satisfactory modeling accu-
racy. When the initial droplet mass
changes significantly in the wide
range, T *
p1
does not change
significantly, but are all within 24
ms. If the initial droplet size is
controlled no larger than 1.25 mm
corresponding to 80 A/20 ms growing
pulse, T
p
1
can be roughly fixed at 2 or
3 ms as a quick set, while the utiliza-
tion of the preoscillation is almost
not compromised.
Optimal Exciting Peak Duration
Also using Wave2 as the input of
the model, the exciting peak duration
is first set at 30 ms, which is long
enough to demonstrate the droplet
dynamic response to the exciting
pulse and gives a better understand-
ing of its effect on the excited droplet
oscillation. The model calculation re-
sult is shown in Fig. 12.
It can be seen that the droplet is
first excited into a peak elongation
and then goes into a forced oscillation
during the long exciting peak period.
As a contrast, the droplet oscillation
during the base period after the excit-
ing pulse can be considered as a free
oscillation since the electromagnetic
force under the base current is negli-
gible. Figure 12 clearly demonstrates
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 17 Comparison between modeling and experimental
result on T*
p2
.
Fig. 18 Prediction of T*
p2
using the analytical model.
that the droplet displacement and ve-
locity at the end moment of the excit-
ing pulse is exactly the initial condi-
tion of the consequent free
oscillation. Since the forced
oscillation during the exciting peak
duration is damping, the maximum
amplitude of the free oscillation after
the exciting pulse can only be
achieved if the exciting pulse ends at
the elongation peak moment, i.e., the
optimal exciting peak duration T*
e
corresponds to the elongation peak
moment. Figure 13 demonstrates the
effect of the exciting peak duration
on the magnitude of the free oscilla-
tion. The growing current is fixed at
80 A with 20 ms duration. The excit-
ing peak current is fixed at 120 A,
while the exciting peak duration
changes from 25 ms. It can be seen
that the droplet oscillation
magnitudes under 3 and 4 ms
exciting peak durations are
approximately even at the maximum
level. The droplet oscillation under 2
ms exciting peak duration is a little
weaker, while that under 5 ms excit-
ing peak duration is significantly
weaker. These results agree with
those of the experimental
examination in Ref. 8.
Trough the model based on Equa-
tion 1, T*
e
can be obtained by
intentionally setting relatively long ex-
citing peak duration. Figure 14 shows a
comparison between the experiment-
tested and model-predicted results
under diferent droplet masses
(controlled by the growing duration).
Te fgure demonstrates that the exper-
imental results are all slightly larger
than the corresponding model-
predicted ones. Te maximum absolute
error is up to 0.17 ms. Tis is caused by
the limited rising speed of the real
welding current when it is changed
from the base to peak. In general, the
rising time is approximately 1 ms such
that the oscillation peak time becomes
a little longer than that calculated from
the model. However, such a level of dif-
ference on the exciting peak duration
will not signifcantly afect the
amplitude of the free oscillation after
the exciting pulse. Here, the exciting
peak duration can also be fxed at 3 ms
as a quick set, as long as the growing
parameters are properly selected to
control the droplet size not exceeding
1.25 mm.
Optimal Detaching Phase Delay
The detaching phase delay is the
most important parameter because it
determines the synchronization
between the detaching pulse and
droplet downward momentum. The
first part of this investigation (Ref. 1)
has confirmed that the feature
detaching phase delay corresponds to
the reversing moment of the excited
free droplet oscillation is the optimal
detaching phase delay. Tis conclusion
is verifed here based on the model
using I
g
= 80 A, T
g
= 20 ms, I
b
= 30 A, T
p1
= 3 ms, I
e
= 120 A, and T
e
= 3 ms. Figure
15 shows the model-predicted T *
p2
is
3.08 ms. Using Wave2 as the input of
the model, a group of T
p2
around this
feature value are used to perform simu-
lations to verify the optimality of the
feature detaching phase delay. Here I
d
is
set at 110 A. Tus, it will elongate the
droplet, but the elongation is not strong
enough to detach the droplet. Hence,
the peak droplet displacement during
the detaching pulse under diferent T
p2
denoted as x
p
can be collected to evalu-
ate the efect of T
p2
. Te results are
shown in Fig. 16. It can be seen that the
maximum x
p
is achieved when T
p2
equals the predicted T*
p2
, 3.08 ms.
Overall, the simulation results support
that the feature phase delay correspon-
ding to the oscillation reversing
moment is the optimal for maximum
enhancement on the droplet
detachment.
Figure 17 shows a comparison be-
tween the modeling and the
experimental results of T*
p2
under
different initial droplet masses
controlled the growing duration. It
can be calculated that the maximum
error is only 0.1 ms, and the average
error calculated from the four
samples is only 0.058 ms. Such a low
level of prediction error indicates sat-
isfactory accuracy of the model. Here,
T*
p2
under different growing parame-
ters cannot be simply fixed at a
certain value as a quick set, because
the utilization of the droplet
downward momentum is sensitive to
the selection of T
p2
. The tolerance
range of T
p2
for maximum utilization
of the downward momentum was ex-
perimentally estimated to be [T*
p2
0.2, T*
p2
+ 0.4] ms in the first part of
this investigation (Ref. 1).
Analytical Model on
Droplet Oscillation
Model Derivation
From the above results and analy-
sis, one can see that the established
model gives a comprehensive
understanding on the dynamic droplet
oscillation and detachment in the en-
hanced active metal transfer control.
Te dynamic droplet size/mass,
droplet motion, and the forces exerted
on the droplet can be computed, and
the computation time is only several
seconds. However, if possible, a
simpler analytical model with accept-
able accuracy would be more appreci-
ated. Since the numerical modeling re-
sults imply that T*
p1
and T*
e
can both
be quickly set as long as the initial
droplet size is controlled within 11.3
mm, the analytical model will only aim
at the prediction of T*
p2
,which deter-
mines the optimal synchronization of
the detaching pulse and the droplet
downward momentum. To this end,
the following approximations are ap-
plied to simplify the original model
and thus to avoid numerical computa-
tions as follows:
1. Set the damping coefcient b to
zero. Since the viscous damping in
droplet oscillation was found to have a
negligible efect on calculating the
droplet oscillation frequency
compared with other factors such as
surface tension and gravity (Ref. 9),
the damping coefcient can be set to
zero in predicting T*
p2
.
2. Use a constant droplet mass to
replace the time-varying droplet mass
during a short period. As the same as-
sumption used for the coefficient cal-
ibration, the droplet mass during the
exciting peak period and the first free
oscillation cycle is considered to be
constant and equals the value meas-
ured at the end of exciting pulse, de-
noted as m
0
. Based on Equations 3
and 4, m
0
can be calculated by
(18)
m
C I C l I T
C I C l I T
C I C l I T
C I C l I T
0
1 g 2 r e g
2
g
1 b1 2 r e
b1
2
b1
1 e 2 r e e
2
e
1 d 2 r e
d
2
re
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
WELDING RESEARCH
where T
re
represents the residual peak
duration of the forced detaching pulse.
For 5 ms forced detaching peak dura-
tion, T
re
equals 0.5 ms approximately.
Finally, the model depicting the
droplets dynamic response to the ex-
citing pulse can be expressed as:
(19)
(20)
(21)
From Equation 21, T*
p2
under given
growing and exciting parameters is de-
rived to be
(22)
Te comparison between the analyti-
cal modeling and experimental results is
shown in Fig. 18. It can be seen that the
analytical model also shows satisfactory
accuracy in predicting T*
p2
since the
maximum absolute error is only 0.1 ms.
Conclusions
1. A theoretical model on the
dynamic droplet oscillation and detach-
ment in the enhanced active metal
transfer control is established based on
the mass-spring system. Te critical co-
efcients, i.e., the spring constant and
damping coefcient, are experimentally
calibrated. It is found that the damping
coefcient is approximately independ-
ent of the droplet mass, but the spring
constant increases with the droplet
mass linearly.
2. Te model is numerically
computed. Te efects of the critical
waveform parameters on the droplet
oscillation/detachment are analyzed
based on the model. Te optimal excit-
ing /detaching phase delay
corresponds to the reversing moment
of the droplet oscillation. Te optimal
exciting peak duration corresponds to
the elongation peak moment. Tese
results agree with those from the
experimental study in the frst part of
this paper.
3. Te numerical model enables one
to predict the critical waveform
parameters at adequate speed and ac-
curacy, and can be used to efectively
determine the waveform parameters
for the enhanced active metal transfer
control. Te exciting phase delay and
exciting peak duration can both be
fxed as quick set as long as the grow-
ing parameters are properly selected
such that the droplet size be relatively
small as desired with the needed drop
spray transfer.
4. An analytical model on the excited
droplet oscillation has also been estab-
lished through acceptable
approximations such that the most im-
portant parameter, i.e., the optimal de-
taching phase delay, can be analytically
calculated with adequate accuracy.
Tis work is fnancially supported by
the State Key Laboratory of Advanced
Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute
of Technology, Harbin, China and the
National Science Foundation under
grant CMMI-0825956. J. Xiao greatly
appreciates the scholarship from China
Scholarship Council (CSC) that funded
his visit to the University of Kentucky
to conduct this research.
1. Xiao, J., Zhang, G. J., Zhang, W. J.,
and Zhang, Y. M. 2014. Active metal trans-
fer control by utilizing enhanced droplet
oscillation Part 1: Experimental study.
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2. Tomsen, J. S. 2006. Control of
pulsed gas metal arc welding. International
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vic, R. 1998. Active metal transfer control
by monitoring excited droplet oscillation.
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9. Choi, J. H., Lee, J., and Yoo, C. D.
2001. Dynamic force balance model for
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J. H. 1998. A dynamic model of drops de-
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m x k x F t
0 0
( ) + =
( ) ( )
( ) =

F t
F I - F I 0 t T
0 t T
Define w k / m , thus the analytical
solution of Equation 19 is derived to be
em e em b e
e
0 0 0
[ ]
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) =
<
x t
F I F I
k
1 cos t , 0 t T
F I F I
k
cos t T cos t , t T
em e em b
0
0 e
em e em b
0
0 e 0 e
T
3
4
T
1
2
T ,
T 2 m / k
p2 1 e
1 0 0
=
=
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014 , VOL. 93 330-s
References
Acknowledgments
WELDING RESEARCH
Introduction
Zinc-coated steels provide excellent
corrosion resistance for automotive
body structural and closure
components. In addition, zinc-coated
steels also enhance the production
stamping performance. These features
genuinely drive increased usage of
zinc-coated steels in the automotive
industry. However, one of the most
significant challenges for implement-
ing zinc-coated steels is to weld the
zinc-coated steels, especially in a lap-
joint configuration, without producing
weld discrepancies. Compared to the
melting point of steel (over 1500C),
zinc has a significantly lower boiling
point, 906C. During the laser welding
process, a highly pressured zinc vapor
is readily produced, which often leads
to the formation of various discrepan-
cies, including weld spatter and
porosities. Because of the
aforementioned weld discrepancies,
mechanical performance of the welds
is dramatically reduced. Therefore,
steps must be taken with regard to the
welding process in order to suppress
the zinc vapor. Unfortunately, this in-
creases the manufacturing complexity
and reduces productivity.
With respect to productivity and
flexibility, laser welding has many ad-
vantages compared to other welding
processes. In the past several decades,
different laser welding techniques
have been proposed to weld zinc-
coated steels in a lap-joint configura-
tion. These laser welding techniques
can be categorized by the following:
1. Setting a prescribed root opening
size of 0.10.2 mm at the faying inter-
face of metal sheets prior to the weld-
ing process (Refs. 1, 2).
The root opening can be created by
a stamping process, mechanical meth-
ods, as well as a laser beam. The root
opening created provides a lateral
channel for the highly pressurized zinc
vapor to escape from the interface be-
fore the steel around the interface is
melted. Consequently, the formation
of spatter can be avoided. However, an
inconsistent root opening could lead
to the formation of weld discrepancies
such as undercutting and porosity. Re-
cently, a remote laser-welding process
has been used to weld three zinc-
coated steel sheets in a lap-joint con-
figuration (Ref. 3). Experimental
results demonstrated that with an op-
timized root opening size, acceptable
welds could be achieved in a three-
sheet stackup of zinc-coated steel
sheets although porosity was still gen-
erated within the welds (Ref. 3).
2. Enlarging the molten pool and
thereby extending the solidification
time with the use of a second heat
source, providing sufficient time for
the zinc vapor to escape from the
SemiCuttingAssisted Laser Welding of
ZincCoated Steels in a Zero Root Opening,
LapJoint Configuration
Highquality, zero root opening laser welds (4.8 m/min) in zinccoated steels in a lapjoint
configuration were achieved
BY S. YANG, Z. CHEN, W. TAO, C. WANG, J. WANG, AND B. E. CARLSON
ABSTRACT
Because of their excellent corrosion resistance, zinccoated steels have been
widely used in the automotive industry. However, the generation of highly pressur
ized zinc vapor during the laser beam welding process presents unique challenges
for body manufacturing. In this study, a semicuttingassisted laser welding process
was developed to weld zinccoated steels in a zero root opening, lapjoint configu
ration using a specially designed nozzle for delivery of the shielding gas. Effects of
welding speed on the weld quality were investigated, resulting in highquality welds
being achieved at a relatively high welding speed of 4.8 m/min. The success in
achieving highquality, zinccoated steel welds by semicutting laser welding is
attributed to an improved drag force. This, in turn, is a result of the increased
shielding gas flow rate, which enlarges and stabilizes the keyhole, enabling the zinc
vapor to escape from the faying interface of the two metal sheets. Tensile shear and
microhardness tests were conducted to evaluate mechanical properties of the
welds. Optical microscopy was also used to examine the microstructure of the
welds. It was demonstrated the weld strength was comparable to the base metal.
KEYWORDS
Zinc-Coated Steels Lap-Joint Configuration with Zero Root Opening
High-Speed Welding Shielding Gas Flow Rate Weld Discrepancies
Keyhole
S. YANG (david.s.yang@gm.com) is a senior researcher, W. TAO is an associate researcher, and J. WANG is a lab group manager with China Science Lab, General
Motors Global Research & Development Center, China. Z. CHEN is a master student and C. WANG is a professor with Huazhong University of Science and Tech
nology, China. B. e. Carlson is lab group manager with General Motors research & Development Center, Warren, Mich.
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING JOURNAL /SEPTEMBER 2014, VOL. 93 332-s
molten pool and keyhole (Refs. 4 7).
The molten pool can be enlarged by
combining a laser beam with an arc or
second laser beam that share a
common molten pool. With a longer
solidification time, the zinc vapor has
a greater possibility to escape through
the molten pool. The main constraints
of these techniques are imposed by the
limited space available in the produc-
tion welding cell in addition to the rel-
atively high capital investment needed
for two heat sources as well as complex
operation.
3. Cutting a slot by a laser beam
along the weld interface prior to laser
welding (Refs. 811).
Another possibility is to cut a slot
by a precursor laser beam in order to
provide an exit path for the zinc vapor
and the welding process is carried out
by a second laser beam (Ref. 9). The
slot size used in this method is a func-
tion of the welding speed and the
metal sheet stack-up thickness. The
narrow bonded area at the faying
interface of the metal sheets could re-
duce the weld strength.
4. Modification of the zinc compo-
sition by addition of a second alloying
element such as copper or aluminum
(Refs. 12, 13) or replacement of the
zinc coating at the faying surface by a
nickel-based coating (Refs. 14, 15).
The compounds of zinc-copper and
zinc-aluminum as well as nickel have
melting points higher than the boiling
point of zinc. Therefore, use of these
materials would reduce or avoid the
generation of zinc vapor resulting in a
more stable welding process. The neg-
ative aspect of these
methods is that they add
extra process steps and
the material
compositions could act
to reduce the weld
mechanical properties
caused by excessive dis-
solution of aluminum or
copper into the welds.
5. Laser welding as-
sisted by arc or laser pre-
heating (Refs. 1618).
Use of a preheat
source causes the zinc
coating on the top surface of the work-
pieces to be vaporized and a portion of
the zinc coating at the faying interface
is converted into zinc oxide. The
advantage of zinc oxides is that they
have a significantly higher melting
point than the boiling point of zinc
(1975 vs. 906C). Therefore, when the
following laser beam comes into posi-
tion for welding, there is significantly
less zinc available to generate the dele-
terious zinc vapor, stabilizing the
molten pool and keyhole, which
further helps any remaining zinc vapor
escape, thereby achieving defect-free
welds.
6. Optimization of shielding gas
(Refs. 19, 20). The laser-induced plasma
can be suppressed and the interaction
between zinc vapor and laser beam can
be reduced through optimization of the
shielding gas for improved coupling of
the laser beam energy. Furthermore,
the addition of oxygen into the shield-
ing gas can increase weld penetration
and stabilize the keyhole, which results
in an improved weld quality of zinc-
coated steels (Ref. 19).
7. Pulsed laser welding (Ref. 21).
A stable keyhole can be achieved by
optimizing pulsed laser welding
parameters, including the peak power,
duty cycle, travel speed, pulse
repetition rate, and pulse energy. The
optimization is focused on allowing
the zinc vapor to be mitigated and
achieving visually sound welds. How-
ever, typically a large amount of poros-
ity is retained within the weld using
this method. Another limitation for
this method is the relatively low weld-
ing speed, which limits its application.
8. Laser welding assisted by vacuum
(Ref. 22).
This relatively new process uses a
suction device to create a negative pres-
sure zone (relative to ambient) directly
above the molten pool. The purpose of
this negative pressure zone is twofold.
Firstly, a drag force is generated due to
the external suction device, which can
counterbalance the shear force induced
by the erupting zinc vapor. Secondly,
the negative pressure zone facilitates
the zinc vapor to escape along the suc-
tion direction. As a result, the molten
pool becomes more stable and the key-
hole will remain open and allow the es-
cape of zinc vapor. Defect-free, zinc-
coated welds were achieved using this
method, but it requires ancillary
vacuum equipment to be introduced
into the production cell.
Although the methods mentioned
above achieve technically acceptable
weld quality, there are constraints asso-
ciated with each of these methods,
which inhibits the full implementation
in production. Furthermore, laser weld-
ing speeds of more than 3 m/min are
needed in order to meet typical produc-
tivity requirements. Currently, there is
limited published literature in the area
of laser welding of zinc-coated steels at
speeds greater than 3 m/min.
In this study, a semi-cutting-assisted
laser welding process was developed
(Patent Reference Number: GMC-338-
A-CN) to weld zinc-coated steels in a
zero root opening, lap-joint configura-
tion. Here, the semi-cutting-assisted
laser welding is referred to as a defined
laser welding process where a gas jet
with relatively higher gas flow velocity
than that in the conventional laser
welding process is used to increase the
fluid flow transfer rate in the molten
pool. Instead of using a conventional
shielding gas with a relatively large
diameter equal to or larger than 6 mm,
a smaller shielding gas nozzle of 2 mm
diameter was used. To better
understand the effect of welding speed
on the weld quality, experiments were
carried out at welding speeds of 3, 4.2,
Fig. 1 Schematic of experimental setup with semicut
tingassisted laser welding.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of LowCarbon Steel (wt%)
Steel C Mn P Si S Al Cr Ca Ti
0.006 0.2 0.025 _ 0.02 0.015 _ _ 0.03/0.08
WELDING RESEARCH
and 5.4 m/min. High-quality welds were
achieved by using this new laser welding
technique. In addition, tensile shear and
hardness tests were performed to evalu-
ate mechanical properties of the welds.
Experimental Procedures
Materials
Zinc-coated, low-carbon steel was
chosen for this research. The specimen
dimensions of the workpiece were 120
85 0.8 mm. The zinc coating was
hot-dip galvanized at a level of 60
g/m
2
per side. Prior to welding, the
surfaces of the steel plates were
cleaned with alcohol in order to
remove any dirt on the surface of the
workpiece that may interfere with
clamping of the workpieces.
Table 1 lists the chemical composi-
tion of the low-carbon steel used in
this study.
Laser Welding Procedure
The laser beam welding
experiments were conducted using an
IPG YLS-4000 fiber laser (wavelength:
1070 nm; focal length: 250 mm; focal
spot diameter: 0.3 mm). Pure argon
was used as the side shielding gas. The
two steel plates were tightly clamped
together prior to laser welding, and it
is assumed that no root opening
existed between the two metal plates.
A 2-mm-diameter shielding gas noz-
zle of made of a copper alloy was
designed and applied in this study,
schematically shown in Fig. 1. As shown
in Fig. 1, the stand-off distance of the
shielding gas nozzle was 10 mm, which
is an order of magnitude larger than
that typically used for laser cutting. For
conventional laser cutting, the laser cut-
ting header is perpendicular to the
workpiece, and the stand-off distance
between the nozzle and the workpiece is
selected in the range between 0.5 and
1.5 mm (Ref. 23). Furthermore, the
nozzle was set at an inclination angle of
52 deg with respect to the upper work-
piece top surface. During the laser weld-
ing process, the shielding gas nozzle is
positioned such that it is in front of the
laser beam. The laser beam itself has an
inclination angle of 5 deg with respect
to the vertical direction, i.e., normal to
the upper workpiece surface, in order to
avoid backreflection from the laser
light. The gas flow velocity at the exit of
the shielding gas nozzle can be
calculated by the equation: flow
rate/cross-sectional area of the shield-
ing gas nozzle. Assuming that the
shielding gas flow rate from the storage
container to the exit of the shielding gas
nozzle is kept constant, the gas-flow ve-
locity used in this study is about 66m/s
.
During the laser welding process, the
gas pressure is kept constant and the
temperature of the shielding gas is as-
sumed to be at room temperature.
Metallography and Microhardness
Test
The laser-welded lap joint was
sectioned perpendicular to the weld
joint direction. This cross section was
then cut, mounted, ground, polished,
and etched as a precursor to microhard-
ness measurements. Vickers microhard-
ness tests were conducted using a load
of 100 g and a dwell time of 10 s. In ad-
dition, optical microscopy was applied
for microstructural examination.
Tensile Shear Test
Tensile shear test samples were pre-
pared according to the sheet type of
ASTM-E8/E8 M-08 standard (gauge
length: 50 mm). Tensile shear tests
were conducted in uniaxial tension
using a 3-kN load cell. The model
v
flow rate
cross tional area of used nozzle
m h
sec
/ 0.75
1
3
2
Fig. 2 Typical characteristics of the welds obtained by a conventional laser welding process. A Top view; B bottom view; C
crosssectional view of porosity; D porosity produced inside the weld.
A
B
C D
WELDING RESEARCH
number of the tensile testing machine
is QJ-211. All tests were run at ambi-
ent temperature and a constant
crosshead velocity of 2 mm/min.
Three replicates were conducted for
each welding condition, and the aver-
age peak load was calculated.
Results and Discussion
SemiCuttingAssisted Laser Welding
A highly pressurized zinc vapor is
readily produced at the faying surface
during laser welding of zinc-coated
steels in a zero root opening, lap-joint
configuration. The zinc vapor quickly
expands inside the molten pool and
disrupts both the molten pool and
keyhole Fig. 3A. This disruption is,
in part, rippling of the molten pool
surface where different types of
rippling having various magnitudes
are observed during the laser welding
process. The rippling fluctuates in the
form of waves at high frequency and
magnitude, and reflects most of the
laser beam energy from the surface of
the molten pool (Ref. 22). As a conse-
quence, the coupling of the laser-beam
energy into the workpiece is dramati-
cally reduced and the weld penetration
depth becomes shallow. Furthermore,
in the worse situation, the liquid metal
in the molten pool moves along the
welding direction and collapses the
keyhole. The collapsed keyhole entraps
the zinc vapor, which quickly expands
inside the molten pool. Under these
welding conditions, liquid metal is
ejected out of the molten pool in the
rear of the keyhole as the zinc vapor
reaches the molten pool surface.
The ejected liquid metal condenses
in the air and deposits on the top sur-
face of the workpieces, resulting in the
formation of spatter Fig. 2A. If the
liquid metal cannot fill in the cavity
caused by the loss of the ejected liquid
metal in a timely manner, then poros-
ity is produced in the welds (Ref. 7)
Fig. 2A, C. This phenomenon was ob-
served to occur intermittently. After
the highly pressurized zinc vapor is re-
leased, the molten pool becomes rela-
tively stable. However, when the zinc
vapor pressure level builds to some
threshold, the molten pool again
becomes unstable. The presence of
these weld discrepancies dramatically
reduces the weld strength.
Figure 2A shows typical weld
features obtained by conventional
laser welding. As shown in Fig. 2B, in-
consistent weld penetration is usually
observed in the welds.
In order to suppress the zinc vapor,
a new laser welding process was
proposed to weld zinc-coated steels in
a zero root opening, lap-joint configu-
ration where an innovative nozzle was
designed to simultaneously create a
semi-cutting action in addition to a
laser welding process. This newly
developed method is hence forth
referred to as the semi-cutting-
assisted laser welding process. As
shown in Fig. 3B, a much smaller 2-
mm-diameter shielding gas nozzle was
used instead of the regular shielding
gas nozzle with a diameter with equal
to or greater than 8 mm. Compared to
conventional laser welding, the
narrower nozzle size used in the semi-
cutting-assisted laser welding process
reduces the coverage area of shielding
gas on the workpiece, thus increasing
the possibility of the weld oxidation.
However, oxidation of a laser weld
with a width of about 16 mm can be
prevented by the divergence of shield-
ing gas even when using a smaller noz-
zle with a diameter of about 26 mm.
In this study, the weld size is about
1.0 mm in Fig. 4 and can be fully
covered by the smaller nozzle. Because
of the reduced cross-sectional area of
the nozzle, the velocity of the shielding
gas was dramatically increased. When
the nozzle diameter is reduced from 8 to
2 mm, the velocity of the shielding gas
is increased by 16 times since the veloc-
ity of shielding gas is inversely propor-
tional to the square of the nozzle diame-
ter. This way, a straight and nonturbu-
lent gas jet having greater momentum is
created that when applied during the
laser welding process creates a higher
drag force exerting on the molten pool
and keyhole. As a consequence, the
mass transfer rate of the molten liquid
from the front of the keyhole to the
molten pool behind the keyhole is
increased due to the increased pressure
from the higher velocity gas jet used in
the semi-cutting-assisted laser welding.
Furthermore, the surface tension force
that tends to close the keyhole is
encountered.
The drag force (F
d
) exerted on top of
the molten pool and the keyhole can
be determined by Newtons equation
for drag force:
where r is the density of the gas (kg
F C
d
v
d d
g
4 2
(1)
2
Fig. 3 Schematic comparison. A Conventional laser welding; B semicuttingassisted laser welding.
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
m
3
), d is the keyhole diameter, is the
gas flow velocity, and C
d
is the drag co-
efficient. The drag coefficient depends
on Reynolds number.
Here, the slot Reynolds number is de-
termined by the following equation
(Refs. 24, 25):
where mis the dynamic viscosity of the
gases (kg ms
1
) and is the gas flow
velocity. The relationship between the
drag coefficient and Reynolds number
can be found in the handbooks of Fluid
Mechanics for objects of several differ-
ent shapes. In addition, the drag coef-
ficient also can be experimentally
measured. Here, we will not give a de-
tailed discussion. For a given flow
rate, the welding process using a
smaller shielding gas nozzle cross sec-
tion has a higher shielding gas
velocity. According to Equation 1, a
higher drag force is created by increas-
ing the shielding gas flow rate, which
not only drives the molten metal in
the front of the keyhole to quickly
flow back to the rear of the keyhole
but also enables a portion of the zinc
vapor to quickly escape from the bot-
tom of the keyhole. In addition, the
laser-induced plasma plume within
and above the keyhole is suppressed
by the side shielding gas. This factor
helps to provide a consistent coupling
between the laser-beam energy and
the workpieces. As a consequence, the
keyhole is enlarged and stabilized,
through which the zinc vapor is
continuously released without
interrupting the molten pool.
Figure 4 shows the experimental re-
sults obtained by the recently
developed method, which shows that a
defect-free, lap joint with complete
penetration was obtained. No spatter
or porosity was observed in the welds.
The surface of the weld is very smooth
and complete joint penetration was
achieved. As can be seen in the
polished cross section of the weld pre-
sented in Fig. 4C,
the grain size
within both the
weld zone and
heat-affected zone
(HAZ) is larger
than those in the
base material, as
would be
expected.
Compared to
the stand-off distance of traditional
laser cutting, up to 1.0 mm, the 10
mm stand-off distance of the nozzle in
the cutting-assisted laser welding
process is relatively large but is neces-
sary in order to avoid direct removal of
the liquid metal by the high pressure
flow of the gas. An important point is
that the gas flow rate should be
controlled depending on the size of
the nozzle, welding speed, and laser
power. For the nozzle used in this
study, the preferred shielding gas flow
rate is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 m
3
/h,
which is dramatically lower than that
used in conventional laser welding.
When the flow rate of shielding gas is
greater than 1.5 m
3
/h, the 0.8-mm-
thick workpieces are typically cut into
two. However, if the flow rate of the
shielding gas is lower than 0.5 m
3
/h,
the drag force from the nozzle is not
sufficient to enlarge and stabilize the
keyhole resulting in the welding
process once again becoming unstable.
Effect of Welding Speed
Welding speed plays a significant
role on the weld quality of zinc-coated
steels. There is very little published on
successfully achieving high-quality
welds in zinc-coated steels at welding
speeds greater than 4 m/min.
Therefore, in order to study the effect
of welding speed upon weld quality,
welds were made using the semi-
cutting-assisted laser welding process
with a range of welding speeds (3.0 to
5.4 m/min) and variable laser power
settings (3.0, 3.6, and 4.0 kW).
Figure 5 is a collection of photos
showing the quality of the experimen-
tal results. As can be seen, defect-free
welds were obtained at the welding
speeds of 3 and 4.8 m/min. However,
when the welding speed was increased
to 5.4 m/min, spatter adjacent to the
weld and porosity in the weld were ob-
served. In addition, the weld surface
was irregular. At the low welding
speed, the molten pool is relatively
large and the solidification time is long
allowing sufficient time for the zinc
vapor to escape. As the welding speed
is increased, the molten pool becomes
smaller and a shorter solidification
time is available for the zinc vapor to
escape. Furthermore, at the higher
welding speed, the direction of laser-
induced plasma and plume, and the
swelling in the molten pool fluctuate
temporally and spatially at higher fre-
quency than that at the lower welding
speed (Ref. 22). Therefore, the zinc
vapor has a greater probability to dis-
turb the molten pool and the keyhole
has a higher probability of collapsing.
Furthermore, increasing the welding
speed decreases the collapse time of
the keyhole and transforms the
keyhole from a cylindrical shape to a
tapered shape (Ref. 26). The reduced
size of the keyhole around the
interface of the two metal sheets facil-
itates the entrapment and expansion
of the zinc vapor inside the molten
pool. Therefore, the molten pool
becomes turbulent and results in the
formation of severe spatter and poros-
ity in the welds.
( ) = (2) pvd Re /
Fig. 4 Typical welds obtained by the semicuttingassisted laser
welding process (laser power 3.6 kW; welding speed 4.8 m/min).
A Top view; B bottom view; C crosssectional view.
A B
C
WELDING RESEARCH
Microhardness Test
The microhardness was analyzed
along a profile from base metal through
the weld back to base metal at
increments of 0.1 mm and at a depth of
0.3 and 1.3 mm below the top surface of
the weld. Figure 6A, B are graphical rep-
resentations of typical microhardness
distributions through the welds
produced at welding speeds of 3 and 4.8
m/min, respectively. As can be seen in
Fig. 6A, B, the base metal had a
hardenss of approximately 100 HV and
a maximum hardness of approximately
180 HV, which is located in the weld and
is explained by the formation of
martensite within the weld caused by
the melting and rapid cooling after laser
welding. No softening was found in the
HAZ, and no effect of increasing weld
speed was observed on the peak
hardness value.
For low-carbon steels used in this
study, there exist different types of fer-
rite in base metal, HAZ, and the weld
zone, which have various morphologies.
The variation in the ferrites morphol-
ogy results in different hardnesses at
different zones. Base metal mainly con-
tains the equiaxed ferrite. However,
weld zones and HAZ mainly contain
polygonal ferrite and the elongated
columnar ferrite, respectively.
Compared to equiaxed ferrite, there ex-
ists higher dislocation density and a
large amount of subboundaries within
the polygonal ferrite, thus exhibiting
higher hardness value in the weld zone
than that in the base metal (Refs. 27,
28). Also, the higher residual stress in
HAZ leads to higher hardness (Ref. 28).
Tensile Test
Figure 7A is a plot of tensile proper-
ties from representative welds obtained
at a welding speed of 3 and 4.8 m/min,
respectively. It can be observed from
Fig. 7C that the semi-cutting-assisted
laser welded tensile samples fracture in
the base metal and not in the weld zone
or HAZ. However, the weld itself is very
hard and constrains the total amount of
deformation along the gauge length, re-
sulting in comparable fracture strengths
but lower total strains Fig. 7A.
Conclusions and Future Work
The ability to laser weld zinc-coated
steels in a zero root opening, lap-joint
configuration with the assistance of a
semi-cutting jet of shielding gas was
studied in this work. Furthermore, the
effects of welding speed on weld quality
were investigated. Under the
experimental conditions used, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The shielding gas nozzle applied
directly to the top of the keyhole and
the molten pool is redesigned. The criti-
cal modification is a reduced shielding
gas nozzle cross-sectional area in order
to increase the shielding gas velocity. It
is found that for a gas at a given
pressure level and temperature, the re-
sulting drag force exerted on the molten
pool and the keyhole stability is signifi-
cantly enhanced by increasing the flow
rate of the shielding gas used.
2. When the keyhole is enlarged
and stabilized due to the increased
drag force, the release of zinc vapor is
improved. This improvement led to
defect-free welds being achieved in a
zero root opening, lap-joint configura-
tion by use of the semi-cutting-
assisted laser welding process at a
welding speed of up to 4.8 m/min and
a shielding gas nozzle cross section of
2 mm diameter.
3. The welding speed plays a signifi-
cant role on the weldability of zinc-
coated steels. The higher the welding
speed, the more the instability of the
welding process. It is demonstrated
that the laser-induced plasma and
plume direction changes significantly
with the increased welding speed. The
depth of penetration decreased with
an increase in travel speed.
Fig. 5 Comparison of weld quality at different welding speeds (top views of the ob
tained welds). A 3.0 m/min; B 4.8 m/min; C 5.4 m/min.
Fig. 6 Microhardness profile of welds
obtained at the following welding speed:
A 3 m/min; B 4.8 m/min. (16U: the
hardness profile at the 0.3 mm depth
from the top surface of sample 16; 16D:
the hardness profile at the 1.3 mm depth
from the top surface of sample 16; 16U:
from the top surface of sample 8; 16D:
from the top surface of sample 8.)
A A
B
B
C
4. The welds obtained by semi-
cutting-assisted laser welding exhibit a
greater weld strength, i.e. hardness, and
negligible HAZ as compared to the base
metal. Thus, under tensile shear
loading, the base metal fractured before
any fracture of the weld or HAZ.
5. The semi-cutting-assisted laser
welding process is easy to operate in the
production environment and meets the
productivity requirements of the auto-
motive industry.
As for future work, a correlation is
needed between the laser power and the
nozzle angle as well as the workpiece
thickness. Furthermore, a high-speed
camera with an illumination light will
be used to monitor in real-time the dy-
namic behavior of the molten pool, the
keyhole, and the laser-induced plasma
and plume.
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WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 Tensile test results. A Relationship between engineer
ing stresses and engineering strain; B fracture location of
base materials; C fracture location of typical welds.
References
A B
C
WELDING RESEARCH
Introduction
Titanium (Ti) clad steels are widely
used for large pressure vessels and
other equipment in different
industries to take advantage of the
corrosion resistance of Ti, but at a
lower cost than solid Ti construction.
Ti-clad steels are produced by roll
bonding (usually with an interlayer),
direct explosive bonding (usually with-
out an interlayer) (Ref. 1), or by a com-
bination of explosive bonding and roll
bonding (Ref. 2). Interlayers are used
to improve the bond strength of the
clad steel or to overcome metal plastic-
ity compatibility restrictions encoun-
tered in roll bonding. Industrial-grade
pure iron (Fe); ultralow-carbon steel;
and niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta), cop-
per (Cu), and nickel (Ni) alloys have
been used as interlayers in the
cladding process (Refs. 36). Ti is also
used in lightweight applications due to
its high strength-to-weight ratio. This
has led to the use of Ti and its alloys in
a wide range of applications in
aerospace, marine/submarine,
automobiles, and as a bio-implant
material.
Sometimes there is the need to re-
pair corrosion-resistant Ti-clad steels
during production or during service.
Additionally, poor wear/erosion resist-
ance is a serious drawback for more
universal applications of titanium or
titanium alloys. Corrosion and wear
are essentially surface-related
phenomena. Therefore, suitable modi-
fication of surface composition and/or
microstructure is a logical and
economical approach to provide corro-
sion or wear resistance of structural el-
ements. Therefore, development of Ti-
rich overlays to weld corrosion-
resistant Ti-clad steels or to provide
erosion/wear resistance to lightweight
Ti structures is needed. However, Ti
Characterization of CSCGMAW
TitaniumRich Weld Overlays
Several FeXTi weld overlay systems were deposited and their microstructure,
composition, and microhardness were characterized
BY J. E. RAMIREZ
ABSTRACT
Different Fe-X-Ti weld overlays were deposited using the controlled
short-circuit gas metal arc welding (CSC-GMAW) process alone or in combi-
nation with the pulsed gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW-P) process. The
overlays were characterized before and after postweld heat treatment
(PWHT) using optical and scanning electron microscopy, electron probe mi-
croanalysis, and microhardness testing. Commercially pure nickel (CPNi),
nickel-copper alloy (NiCu), nickel-chromium alloy (NiCr), vanadium, and
CPCu were selected as interlayers for the Fe-X-Ti overlays. The Fe-Ni-Ti, Fe-
NiCu-Ti, and Fe-NiCr-Ti systems welded with the CSC-GMAW process
showed a high degree of intermixing resulting in wide X-Ti interfaces, the
presence of second phases at the X-Ti interface and in the first Ti layer, and
the formation of Widmansttten-a microstructure in the first two Ti layers.
Composition profiles indicate three Ti layers are required to achieve a CPTi
composition in the overlay surface. The maximum hardness in the Fe-Ni-Ti,
Fe-NiCu-Ti, and Fe-NiCr-Ti overlays were 607, 568, and 554 HV
0.5
,
respectively. On the other hand, the Fe-V-Ti and Fe-Cu-Ti overlays presented
a lower degree of intermixing resulting in narrow X-Ti interfaces, presence
of second phases only at the interface, and Ti weld deposits with microstruc-
tures similar to commercially pure a-Ti. Depending on the welding process,
one to three Ti layers are needed in the Fe-Cu-Ti overlay for Ti-clad steel ap-
plications. The maximum hardness in this overlay ranged from 300 to 350
HV
0.5.
and dropped to around 200 HV
0.5
after PWHT. The primary second
phases identified in the Ti-rich weld overlays included Ni
3
Ti, NiTi, NiTi
2
,
CuNiTi, CuTi
2
, Cr
2
Ti, CuTi
2
, Cu
3
Ti, and b-Ti.
KEYWORDS
Ti-Clad Steels Surfacing Cladding Welding Metallurgy Overlays
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
J. E. RAMIREZ (jose.ramirez@dnvgl.com) was a principal engineer with EWI, Columbus, Ohio, at the time this work was completed. Currently, he is a principal
engineer at DNV.GL, Columbus, Ohio.
WELDING RESEARCH
has not been successfully fusion
welded directly to steel or other com-
mon alloy systems because Ti has lim-
ited solubility for them. Brittle inter-
metallic compounds and carbides form
when the solubility limit is exceeded,
as in fusion welding (Refs. 7, 8).
Cracks often form in these brittle
phases due to the thermal stresses in-
duced during cooling of the welded
joint. In order to identify potential Ti-
rich overlay systems for welding or re-
pairing Ti-clad steel plates or to
provide wear/erosion resistance for
lightweight Ti structures, different Fe-
X-Ti weld overlay systems were
deposited and characterized, with or
without postweld heat treatment
(PWHT), in this experimental work.
Selection of Interlayer Materi-
als: An extensive literature search was
conducted to identify the different
technical approaches that have been
evaluated to date to avoid or control
the embrittlement normally found in
steel-to-Ti joints. The metallurgical
characteristics of different potential
interlayer materials as they relate to
the compatibility with the Ti-Fe
system were reviewed. Five interlayer
materials were selected for use in the
Fe-X-Ti weld overlays.
Efforts involving combinations of
joining processes and interlayer mate-
rials between the Ti and steel to con-
trol or completely avoid the intermix-
ing of steel and Ti have resulted in lim-
ited success. These efforts include re-
sistance welding with vanadium (V),
molybdenum (Mo), aluminum (Al), or
silver (Ag) interlayers (Ref. 10); arc
welding after the steel has been metal-
lized or plasma sprayed with a layer of
Mo, tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), or
refractory carbides (Refs. 1113); dif-
fusion bonding with a Ni interlayer or
controlling the carbon level in the
steel plate (Refs. 14, 15); friction weld-
ing with and without a friction-
weldable interlayer (Refs. 16, 17); in-
stantaneous liquid phase bonding
(Ref. 18); and electron beam welding
using Ag insert metal (Ref. 19). Addi-
tionally, data on dissimilar-metal
joints involving a combination of Ti,
steel, and other alloys and their associ-
ated mechanical properties are
limited. Finally, despite previous
efforts, there is not a clear
understanding of the relative embrit-
tlement effect of carbides and the dif-
ferent intermetallic compounds that
may form when Ti is joined to Fe, Ni,
or Cu.
Data available on theory of
alloying, binary and ternary phase dia-
grams, and the quasi-equilibrium be-
havior of these alloy systems during
solid-state bonding or roll bonding do
not include the effect of
nonequilibrium conditions induced
during weld thermal cycles. However,
they provided insight and were used as
general guidelines to select the poten-
tial interlayer materials for the Ti-rich
weld overlay systems, as described as
follows.
V Interlayer: The Fe-Ti phase dia-
gram shows limited mutual solubility
and the presence of intermetallic com-
pounds (Fe
2
Ti and FeTi). Additionally,
carbon in the steel may react with Ti
to form brittle carbides (TiC). Alloying
is an important means of reducing the
negative effect of brittle intermetallic
compound formation on weldability.
The stabilization of thermo
dynamically ideal solid solutions could
reduce the tendency for intermetallics
to form. The equilibrium phases Fe
2
Ti
and FeTi form at specific
electron/atom (e/a) ratios. Any
ternary alloying element affecting the
e/a ratio likely affects the stability of
these intermetallic phases.
Based on the theory of alloying, it
has been indicated that size difference
between solute and solvent atoms is
important in determining the stability
of solid solutions (Ref. 20). If the
atomic radii of the solute and the
solvent differ by more than 15%, exten-
sive solubility is unlikely. If the solute
and the solvent radii are similar, a large
mutual solubility is predicted unless
solute and solvent are transition met-
als. Additionally, an electronegativity
factor was introduced later on to com-
plement the size factor rule (Ref. 21). A
large electronegativity difference can
provide a large driving force for the for-
mation of compounds. Conversely, a
small difference of electronegativity be-
tween solute and solvent atoms (less
than 0.4 units) should promote a large
solid solubility. These criteria have
shown to be valid for a large number of
systems but the predictive accuracy is
poor in systems with solvents that are
transition metals. However, this is still
considered to be an effective tool to
predict mutual solubility of alloying ele-
ments. In a graphical representation or
Darken-Gurry type map for Fe and Ti
(Ref. 22), each of these elements repre-
sents the center of an ellipse with prin-
cipal radii corresponding to 15% of
atomic radius and 0.4 electronegativity
units. As a result, V and other elements
(including manganese and chromium)
located inside both these ellipses are,
according to these criteria, potential
Fig. 1 Schematic plot of current, voltage, and WFS waveform of a typical CSCGMAW
weld over 0.5 s.
WELDING RESEARCH
candidates for joining Fe to Ti.
Few reliable theories have been de-
veloped to determine the solid solubil-
ity of alloys in which both solute and
solvent are transition metals; however,
an empirical diagram has been
proposed that maps elements as a
function of their electron density and
chemical potential (Fermi energy)
(Refs. 2224). It was discovered that
the absolute value of the ratio of these
two quantities characterized well the
sign of heat of mixing, and could be
used as a general rule for alloying. This
type of diagram for the transition met-
als and selected nontransition
elements shows that V lies almost ex-
actly between Ti and Fe (Ref. 22). The
addition of V causes the Fermi energy
of Fe to decrease at a rate
approximately equal to that of the in-
crease in Fermi energy of Ti. Thus, the
addition of V causes the lattice
mismatch between BCC-Fe and b-Ti to
decrease.
Because the primary selection of al-
loying elements for the weld overlays
is restricted to those potentially form-
ing simultaneously continuous series
of solid solution with Fe and Ti, the
primary choice is V. Other elements
that may be considered as a secondary
choice and that are part of
commercially available welding wires
include Ni and chromium (Cr).
Ni and Ni-Cu Interlayers: There
are additional reasons to use Ni as an
interlayer material. The addition of Ni
suppresses the formation of Ti-Fe in-
termetallic compounds. Studies of
properties of diffusion joints between
Ti and mild steels also indicate that
using a Ni interlayer results in the for-
mation of intermetallic compounds
rich in Ti and Ni but with better prop-
erties than those where Ti was joined
directly to the steel (Ref. 14). Further-
more, Ni and Fe form continuous
series of solid solution at high temper-
ature. Finally, it is difficult to form car-
bides in Ni alloys. Experimental
results have shown that the
coexistence of TiFe and TiFe
2
with TiC
will have more detrimental effects on
the properties of the joint than if only
one compound is formed (Ref. 15).
Ni-Cr Interlayer: Studies of hot
rolling Ti-clad steels between 850 and
1010C with a Ni-Cr interlayer showed
that when Cr content is below 32.5 wt-
%, a brittle Ti(Ni, Cr)
3
is formed at the
boundary between the cladding and
the insert material, which decreases
the cladding strength (Ref. 6). When
the Cr content exceeds 40 wt-%, a brit-
tle d-phase is formed at the boundary
of the steel base material and the
insert material. Chromium content be-
tween 32.5 and 35.0 wt-% is preferred.
Additionally, when Ni content is below
55.0 wt-%, a brittle TiCr
2
is formed at
the boundary of the cladding material.
When the Ni content exceeds 65%, the
brittle Ti(Ni, Cr)
3
is formed as in the
case where the Cr content is below
32.5 wt-%. Both of these situations
decrease the strength of the cladding.
Since nonequilibrium welding con-
ditions may limit the formation of the
detrimental intermetallic compounds
described previously, a commercially
available Ni-Cr based filler metal
(5544 wt-%) with a chemical compo-
sition close to the identified optimum
concentration levels was selected as
potential interlayer for the Ti-rich
weld overlays.
Cu Interlayer: Rapid conduction
of heat from the molten weld pool by a
base metal with high thermal conduc-
Fig. 2 A, B General view of Ticlad steel wide groove joint de
sign; C Tirich weld overlays deposited with the CSCGMAW
process; D weld overlays deposited with a combination of the
CSCGMAW and GTAWP processes.
A B
C
D
WELDING RESEARCH
tivity affects the energy available to lo-
cally melt the base metal. Reducing the
amount of melting of the base metal
reduces the amount of dilution of the
deposited weld metal. Cu has a
thermal conductivity that is about
eight times higher than steel and a
high preheat is normally required to
melt it into the weld joint. Therefore,
the use of a Cu interlayer may result in
an undiluted Ti weld deposit, which is
necessary to maintain the corrosion
resistance required for the different
applications of Ti-clad steels.
Additionally, the high ductility of
copper may accommodate the large
strain induced in the weld overlays
during cooling. Therefore,
commercially pure (CP) Cu was also se-
lected as a potential interlayer for the
weld overlays.
In summary, based on a comprehen-
sive literature review, potential
interlayer materials for the Ti-rich over-
lays were identified based on their met-
allurgical characteristics and compatibil-
ity with the Ti-Fe system. The selected
interlayer materials included:
Vanadium (V): This interlayer mate-
rial was selected since it is
potentially compatible with, and has
a higher melting temperature than,
both Ti and Fe.
Copper (Cu): This interlayer material
was selected because it has a lower
melting temperature and a higher
thermal conductivity than both Ti
and steel. Therefore, it is expected to
minimize the amount of dilution and
interaction between them.
Nickel (Ni) based interlayers: These
interlayer materials were selected to
try to control the type of phases
formed at the interface and the
resulting degree of embrittlement of
the joint.
Welding Conditions: Different
joining processes were considered for
the deposition of the different weld
overlay systems (Ref. 9). The selection
criteria included that the material
overlay-joining process combination
should be easily deployed in the field,
require a low equipment investment,
and use commercially available
consumables. Therefore, arc welding
processes were considered the primary
processes of choice. The controlled
short-circuit gas metal arc welding
(CSC-GMAW) process offers
significantly reduced heat input and
dilution when compared to other arc
welding processes. Therefore, the CSC-
GMAW process was chosen to deposit
most of the selected interlayer materi-
als and Ti layers. The CSC-GMAW
process is an advanced version of the
short-circuiting GMAW process, which
uses a reciprocating wire feed to
Fig. 3 General microstructure observed in the FeNiTi weld overlay system. A Macro, B Microstucture at the NiTi interface. C
Microstructure of the 2nd Ti layer, D Microstructure of the 3rd Ti layer.
A B
C
D
WELDING RESEARCH
promote consistent
droplet transfer at
low currents (Refs.
2529).
Welding
parameters of the
CSC-GMAW process
include up-wire feed
speed (Up WFS)
(m/min), down-WFS (m/min), arc
length (mm), arc current sequence,
and short circuit current sequence.
Each current sequence has three levels
to set (start, pulse, and end). These
three current levels are used to control
the bead shape and size. The start and
pulse levels have a time associated
with them. For the end current level,
Fig. 4 General microstructure observed in the FeVTi weld
overlay system. A Macro, B Microsturcture at the VFe inter
face, C Microstructure at the TiV interface.
Table 1 Welding Conditions for Deposition of Different Layers of Materials in the Weld Overlays Using the CSCGMAW Process
Arc Current Sequence Short Circuit Current Sequence
Weld Layer Shielding Gas Start Start Pulse Pulse End Start Start Pulse Pulse End
Current Current Current Current Current Current Current Current Current Current
(A) Time (ms) (A) Time (ms) (A) (A) Time (ms) (A) Time (ms) (A)
Ni on Steel 100% He 100 NA 100 NA 100 50 NA 50 NA 50
Ti on Ni 100% He 80 5 60 5 40 40 2.5 60 NA 60
NiCu on Steel 100% He 100 NA 100 NA 100 50 NA 50 NA 50
Ti on NiCu 100% He 80 5 60 5 40 40 2.5 60 NA 60
NiCr on Steel 50% Ar/50% He 100 NA 100 NA 100 50 NA 50 NA 50
Ti on NiCr 100% He 80 5 60 5 40 40 2.5 60 NA 60
CPCu on Steel 100% He 130 NA 130 NA 130 50 NA 50 NA 50
CPCu on Steel 100% He 150 NA 150 NA 150 50 NA 50 NA 50
Ti on CpCu 100% He 120 5 100 5 80 40 2.5 60 NA 60
Ti on Ti 100% He 80 5 60 5 40 40 2.5 60 NA 60
Wire Feed Speed Weaving Parameters
Up WFS Down WFS Initial Oscillation Speed Dwell Time Oscillation Forward Travel
(m/min) (m/min) Arc Length (in./min) (s) Amplitude Speed
(mm) (in.) (in./min)
10 15 0.0 17.4 0.2 0.78 65.1
8 10 1.0 28.4 0.3 0.90 27.9
10 15 0.0 22.3 0.2 0.80 65.1
8 10 0.5 28.4 0.3 0.93 27.9
15 15 0.0 17.4 0.2 0.83 74.4
8 10 0.5 28.4 0.3 0.88 27.9
15 15 0.0 34.5 0.3 0.70 26.0
10 10 0.0 46.8 0.3 0.65 26.0
8 10 0.0 28.4 0.3 0.83 29.7
8 10 0.5 28.4 0.3 0.93 27.9
C
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
the current is maintained until the
next sequence is initiated. During the
arc phase, the end of the electrode is
melted and a droplet is formed. At the
same time, the electrode is feeding for-
ward toward the weld pool. The
forward WFS is set higher than the
burn-off rate so that the arc will short
out. Upon shorting, the droplet at the
end of the electrode is pulled into the
weld pool by the liquid pools surface
tension. The control system senses the
voltage drop and prevents the current
from spiking severely. A current
sequence is implemented to allow re-
sistive heating. The heat allows for a
smooth arc ignition. At the same time,
the wire feeders reverse direction so
that the electrode is being pulled away
from the weld pool. This makes the
short circuit break mechanically. This
differs from any other short circuiting
process, which relies on the electrode
exploding to reestablish the arc. Some
of the Ti-rich weld overlays were
deposited with a combination of CSC-
GMAW and pulsed gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW-P) processes.
Figure 1 shows a schematic plot of
the current, voltage, and wire feed
speed (WFS) of a typical CSC-GMAW
weld over 0.5 s. Table 1 lists the CSC-
GMAW welding parameters used for
depositing each interlayer material
and the subsequent Ti layers in the
weld overlays.
The deposition of the different inter-
layer materials and corresponding Ti
layers was done in 150 200-mm (6
8-in.) explosion Ti-clad steel samples.
The explosion-clad metals consisted of
SA-516-70 carbon steel with a nominal
thickness of 27.5 to 38.0 mm (1.1 to 1.5
in.) and SB-265-1 Ti clad with a nominal
Fig. 5 General microstructure observed in the FeCuTi overlay system: A Macro; B Microstructure at the CuTi interface, C Mi
crostructure of the 1
st
Ti layer, D Microstructure of the 3
rd
Ti layer.
Table 2 General Characteristics of the Welding Consumables Used to Deposit the TiRich Weld
Overlays
Weld Overlay Interlayer Filler Metal Welding
System
(a)
Material Designation Wire Size (in.) Process
1. NiTi Nickel ERNi1 0.062 CSCGMAW
2. NiCuTi Nickelcopper ERNiCu7 0.062 CSCGMAW
3. NiCrTi Nickelchromium ERNiCr4 0.062 CSCGMAW
4. VTi Vanadium 0.062/0.045 PGTAW
5. CuTi Copper ERCu 0.062 CSCGMAW
6. Ti Titanium fill passes ERTi1 0.062/0.035 CSCGMAW PGTAW
(a) The designation of the weld overlay system indicates the sequence of deposition of the interlayer material and Ti
in the joint.
A B
C D
WELDING RESEARCH
thickness between 4.8 and 8.0 mm
(0.188 and 0.313 in.). The samples have
a wide groove prepared by the strip-
back method. The joint design of the
wide-groove included a root that was
between 19.0 and 25.0 mm (0.75 and
1.0 in.) wide and a 22-deg bevel angle.
Additionally, the groove was machined
to a depth of about 2.50 mm (0.10 in.)
into the steel substrate, as shown in Fig.
2A, B.
The general description of the weld-
ing consumables used for the different
Ti-rich weld overlay systems is
included in Table 2. The designation of
the weld overlay system indicates the
sequence of deposition of the
interlayer material and Ti in the weld
overlay. For all the weld overlays
deposited with the CSC-GMAW
process, a 1.6-mm- (0.062-in.-) diame-
ter electrode was used.
Figure 2C, D shows a general view
of some of the weld overlay samples.
The specimen in Fig. 2C shows a step-
wise configuration at the ends. The
three levels of the stepwise configura-
tion from the end
toward the center of
the sample
correspond to the
surface of the weld
deposit of the inter-
layer material, the
surface of the first
Ti deposit layer, and
the surface of two
additional layers of
Ti. This
arrangement allowed the characteriza-
tion of deposits of the interlayer mate-
rial in the as-welded condition and an
evaluation of the effects of thermal cy-
cles induced during the deposition of
one and three layers of Ti on the prop-
erties of the interlayer materials and
the weld overlay as a whole. These
welded joints were subjected to
radiographic examination to evaluate
the soundness of the joints and to de-
termine the location of different speci-
mens required for the
characterization.
Postweld Heat Treatment: The
PWHT of the Ti-rich overlays was con-
ducted following the guidelines of Sec-
tion VIII of the ASME, Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code, for carbon steel
welded constructions. The holding
temperature was between 1125 and
1150F, and the holding time ranged
from 1 h, 15 min to 1 h, 52 min
depending on the thickness of the full-
size joint. Heating rates above 800F
were controlled to be equal or less
than 400F/h/in. Cooling rates above
800F were equal or less than
500F/h/in.
Microstructural Evaluation: The
characterization of the Ti-rich weld
overlays was conducted in the as-
welded and postweld heat treated con-
ditions. Transverse and longitudinal
specimens were cut from the Ti-rich
weld overlay samples for
microstructural evaluation, which was
conducted using optical and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), electron
probe microanalysis (EPMA), and mi-
crohardness testing.
The samples were initially ground
and polished using 80 to 2400 grit SiC
abrasive paper. Final polishing of the
samples for light microscopy and SEM
was done with a 0.05-mm colloidal sil-
ica suspension. The general
microstructures of the weld overlay
deposits were revealed for analysis in
the light microscope by using a specific
combination of etchants. For the Ni-
Ti, NiCu-Ti, NiCr-Ti, and Cu-Ti inter-
layer systems a two-step combination
of Kroll (100 mL H
2
O + 26 mL nitric
acid 65% + 13 mL hydrofluoric acid
40%) and ferric chloride (3 g Fe
3
Cl + 5
mL HCl + 100 mL H
2
O) etchants were
applied by immersion or swabbing. For
the V-Ti interlayer system, an
electrolytic etching (75 mL methanol
99.8% + 10 mL sulfuric acid 9597% +
25 mL hydrochloric acid 32%) was
used. The samples prepared for evalua-
tion in the SEM were in the as-
Fig. 6 General microstructure observed in the FeCuTi weld
overlay deposited with a combination of CSCGMAW and
GTAWP processes. A Macro, B Microstructure at the Cu
Ti interface, C Microstructure of the 2
nd
Ti layer.
C
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
polished (unetched) condition.
The different phases present in each
Fe-X-Ti weld overlay system were identi-
fied using the SEM in the backscattered
electron mode. The chemical composi-
tion of each phase was determined
using the EPMA. The combined SEM-
backscattered mode and EPMA analysis
were run at zones located at increasing
distances from the steel-interlayer
interface. The chemical composition
profile of major alloying elements in the
through-thickness direction of the dif-
ferent Ti-rich weld overlays was
determined as well.
Microhardness profiles were deter-
mined in the through-thickness direc-
tion of the deposited weld overlays
starting from the steel substrate
toward the surface of the last layer of
Ti weld deposit. The microhardness
profiles of the weld overlays were de-
termined in deposits with one and
three Ti layers, respectively, and in the
as-welded and PWHT conditions. The
hardness readings were determined
using a hardness Vickers scale with a
load of 500 g (HV
0.5
).
Results and Discussions
Light Microscopy Evaluation:
Figures 36 show examples of the mi-
crostructures observed in the different
overlay systems. For sake of clarity,
the base materials (steel and Ti-clad)
and the different deposited weld layers
(interlayer material, first Ti layer, sec-
ond Ti layer, and third Ti layer) are la-
beled in the figures showing a macro-
section of the overlays (Figs. 3A, 4A,
5A, and 6A).
A high degree of intermixing
between the interlayer material and Ti
was observed in the Ni-Ti, NiCu-Ti,
and NiCr-Ti overlays. As a result, each
layer of the deposited weld overlay
etched distinctly, as shown in Fig. 3A.
These systems present a continuous,
wide, and poorly defined interface be-
tween the interlayer material and the
first Ti layer, as shown in Fig. 3B. Ad-
ditionally, second phases were
observed at the interlayer-Ti interface
and in the first Ti layer. In the NiCr-Ti
system, the presence of second phases
was observed even in the third Ti
layer. The formation of second phases
may have resulted from dilution of Ni,
Cu, or Cr in the Ti weld deposit above
the solubility limit of the
corresponding alloying system.
The dilution of Ni, Cu, or Cr from
the interlayer material in the second
layer of Ti weld metal induced the for-
mation of acicular- or Widmansttten-
a microstructure (Fig. 3C) that is char-
acteristic in a-b Ti alloys. Ni, Cu, and
Cr are b stabilizers in Ti alloys. As ex-
pected, the stabilization of b phase de-
creases with a decrease in the alloying
Fig. 7 Backscattered electron images showing fraction and distribution of phases (light regions are NiCrrich phases and dark regions
are Tirich phases) observed in the NiCrTi interface (A) and in the first, second, and third Ti layers (BD) of the weld overlay.
A B
C D
WELDING RESEARCH
content in the weld deposit. As a
result, the microstructure observed in
the third Ti layer, Fig. 3D, resembles
more the microstructure characteristic
of commercially pure or -Ti alloys.
Conversely, the V-Ti and Cu-Ti over-
lay systems welded with the GTAW and
the CSC-GMAW, respectively, presented
a lower degree of intermixing between
the interlayer material and Ti, as shown
in Figs. 4A and 5A. As a result, a narrow
and well-defined interface ranging in
thickness from 50 to 250 mm between
the Cu interlayer and Ti was observed,
as shown in Fig. 5B. In these overlays,
the presence of second phases was
mainly limited to the Fe-V interface or
the Cu-Ti interface, as shown in Figs. 4B
and 5B. The interface between V and Ti
was free from formation of second
phases as shown in Fig. 4C. This can be
explained using the Ti-V binary phase
diagram, which indicates complete solid
solubility between those two elements.
Due to the low dilution of alloying
elements from the interlayer material
in the Ti weld deposits in these
overlays, the microstructure of the Ti
weld deposit, including the first layer,
corresponds to those normally found
in commercially pure -Ti alloys as
shown in Fig. 5C, D.
In the Cu-Ti weld overlay deposited
with a combination of CSC-GMAW and
the GTAW-P processes, a high degree of
intermixing was observed. As a result,
each weld deposit layer etched
distinctly, as shown in Fig. 6A.
Additionally, the Cu-Ti interface became
wider than in those made with only the
CSC-GMAW process. The thickness of
the interface was about 1 mm as shown
in Fig. 6B. Finally, the higher level of Cu
concentration in the Ti weld deposit re-
sulted in a microstructure that is similar
to those of -b Ti weld metal alloys as
shown in Fig. 6C. Cu stabilizes b-phase
in Ti alloys. The thicker interface
between Cu and Ti and the higher level
of Cu dilution in the Ti weld deposit
may be explained by the higher heat
input and higher level of stirring of the
weld pool induced by the GTAW-P
process as compared to that of the CSC-
Table 3 General Microstructural Characteristics Observed in the TiRich Overlay Systems
Weld Overlay System
FeNiTi FeVTi FeCuTi
Characteristics FeNiCuTi FeCuTi (CSCGMAW +
FeNiCrTi GTAWP Processes)
Degree of Intermixing High Low High
InterlayerTi Interface Continuous Continuous Continuous
Wide Narrow (<250 m) Wide (1.0mm)
Presence of 2nd Presence of 2nd Presence of 2nd
phases phases (FeCuTi system) phases
1st Ti Layer Presence of 2nd Ti alloy Acicular (+ ) Ti
phases microstructure alloy microstructure
Acicular ( + ) Ti
alloy microstructure
2nd Ti Layer Second phases Ti alloy Acicular (+ ) Ti
(FeNiCrTi system) microstructure alloy microstructure
Acicular (+ ) Ti
alloy microstructure
3rd Ti Layer Second phases Ti alloy microstructure NA
(FeNiCrTi system)
Ti alloy microstructure
Fig. 8 Concentration profile of Fe, Ni, Cu, and Ti in a Fe
NiCuTi weld overlay.
Fig. 9 Concentration profile of Fe, Cu, and Ti in a FeCuTi
weld overlay.
GMAW process.
Table 3 presents a summary of the
general microstructural characteristics
observed in the different weld overlays
by using light microscopy.
Electron Microscopy Evaluation:
Figure 7 presents, as an example,
backscattered electron images
illustrating the change in area fraction
and distribution of different phases
present in the NiCr-Ti overlay. As ex-
pected, the area fraction or quantity of
phases rich in interlayer alloying
elements (light phases) decreases from
the interface toward the surface of the
Ti-rich weld overlay. Most of the over-
lays presented a dendritic
solidification mode.
Chemical composition data
obtained from EPMA analysis and
phase diagrams related to the weld
overlay systems were used to identify
the potential primary phases present
at the interface and in the first Ti
layer. The potential phases present in
each one of the weld overlay systems
are listed in Table 4. Additional work,
including transmission electron
microscopy or X-ray diffraction, would
be required to confirm the structure
and identification of these phases.
Chemical Composition Profiles:
Composition profiles of major
elements including Fe, Ni, Cu, Cr, and
Ti measured from the steel-interlayer
interface to the surface of some of the
Ti-rich weld overlays are shown in
Figs. 810. The concentration of major
alloying elements in different layers of
the weld overlays is listed in Table 5.
The Fe content in the weld overlay
deposits changed from levels near 100
wt-% in the steel substrate to less than
1% through the thickness of the
deposited interlayer materials (first
layer of the weld overlay). In the case of
the Cu-Ti overlay, the Fe level dropped
to about 0.35 wt-% within 150 mm from
the steel-Cu interface. The Fe content
dropped to zero through the first Ti
weld layer in most of the overlays.
Based on the concentration of Fe in the
weld deposit of different interlayers, the
weld metal dilution ranges from 2 to
16%. Based on the content of major al-
loying elements from the interlayer ma-
terials in the first Ti layer of the weld
overlays, the weld metal dilution ranges
from 2 to 20%. Therefore, these results
show that the CSC-GMAW process is ef-
fective in controlling and minimizing
the dilution of the weld metal, which is
important in maintaining the corrosion
resistance of the Ti-weld deposits.
In the Ni-Ti overlay system, the
level of Ni dissolved in the Ti weld
metal dropped to 1.3% through the
first two Ti layers. In the NiCu-Ti
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 10 Concentration profile of Fe, Cu, and Ti in a FeCuTi
weld overlay deposited with a combination of CSCGMAW and
GTAWP processes.
Fig. 11 Microhardness profile of NiCuTi weld overlays with
one and three Ti layers (1Ti, 3Ti), in the aswelded and PWHT
conditions (CSCGMAW process).
Table 4 Chemical Composition and Designation of Potential Phases Observed in TiRich Weld Over
lays
Chemical Composition, wt% (at.%) Designation of
Ni Cu Cr Ti Main Phases
Phase NiTi Interlayer System
1 72.8 (68.6) 27.1 (31.4) Ni
3
Ti
2 59.2 (54.0) 39.7 (44.3) NiTi
3 34.7 (30.2) 64.4 (68.9) NiTi
2
4 27.0 (23.0) 72.7 (76.3) NiTi
2
5 10.7 (8.9) 89.1 (90.7) Ti
NiCuTi Interlayer System
1 42.7 (38.7) 23.3 (19.6) 30.6 (34.0) CuNiTi / Ni
3
Ti
2 33.2 (28.5) 14.1 (11.2) 47.7 (50.3) NiTi
3 26.5 (23.1) 7.1 (5.7) 64.6 (69.1) NiTi
2
+ CuTi
2
4 9.5 (7.7) 4.2 (3.2) 86.0 (88.4) Ti
5 7.4 (6.2) 7.2 (5.6) 84.5 (87.0) Ti
NiCrTi Interlayer System
1 26.5 (22.8) 4.2 (4.1) 69.3 (73.1) NiTi
2
2 9.1 (7.6) 9.6 (9.0) 81.3 (83.4) NiTi
2
+ Cr
2
Ti
3 25.7 (22.2) 10.1 (9.9) 64.2 (68.0) NiTi
2
4 9.5 (8.0) 15.4 (14.7) 75.0 (77.3) NiTi
2
+ Cr
2
Ti
CuTi Interlayer System
1 74.4 (68.6) 25.6 (31.4) CuTi
2
2 65.8 (55.8) 30.2 (34.0) Cu
3
Ti
3 37.1 (30.8) 62.9 (69.2) CuTi
2
4 17.3 (13.7) 81.9 (86.0) Ti
layer, the levels of Ni and Cu dissolved
in the Ti weld metal dropped to 3.4
and 1.5%, respectively, through the
first two Ti layers, as shown in Fig. 8.
In the weld metal made with the NiCr
interlayer system, the concentration of
both Ni and Cr dissolved in the Ti weld
metal dropped to 2.4% through the
first two Ti layers. No data were avail-
able on the effect of Ni, Cu, or Cr con-
centration on the corrosion resistance
of commercial pure Ti weld metal;
however, these results indicate that at
least three Ti layers may be required to
achieve a commercial pure Ti composi-
tion in the surface of the weld overlay
for the corrosion resistance needed in
some of the Ti-clad applications.
In the Cu-Ti overlay deposited with
the CSC-GMAW process, the Cu concen-
tration approximately 100 mm from the
Cu/Ti interface was about 1% and
remained close to that level through the
first Ti weld metal layer, as shown in
Fig. 9. This indicates that with the Cu-Ti
system deposited with the CSC-GMAW
process, only two Ti layers may be
needed to achieve the corrosion resist-
ance required for most Ti-clad steel ap-
plications. Furthermore, depending on
the effect of about 1% Cu on the corro-
sion resistance of CP Ti weld metals, in
some cases one layer of Ti weld metal
may be enough to achieve the required
corrosion resistance.
In the Cu-Ti overlay deposited with
a combination of CSC-GMAW and
GTAW-P processes, the concentration
of Cu near to the surface of the second
Ti layer is about 0.9%, as shown in Fig.
10. At a distance of 1.5 mm from the
surface of the Ti weld metal deposit,
the concentration of Cu was 1.1%. De-
pending on the potential effect of
about 1% Cu on the corrosion
resistance of Ti, this result indicates
that at least three Ti layers may be re-
quired to achieve the chemical compo-
sition of a CP Ti grade at the surface of
the weld deposit exposed to the serv-
ice medium. The observed microstruc-
ture and chemical composition profiles
observed in this overlay system may
result from a higher degree of
intermixing in the weld pool induced
by the GTAW-P process compared to
the CSC-GMAW process.
Microhardness Profiles: Some of
the microhardness profiles obtained
from the weld overlays are shown in
Figs. 1113. In general, all weld over-
lay systems present the highest hard-
ness level at the interlayer-Ti interface
and across the first Ti layer. This is in
agreement with the results of light-
and electron-microscopy characteriza-
tion of the weld metal deposits that
indicated the presence of second
phases in those regions of the weld
overlays. The maximum hardness in
the Ni-Ti, NiCu-Ti, and NiCr-Ti weld
overlay systems were 607, 568, and
554 HV
0.5
, respectively. In the V-Ti
and Ti-V overlay systems, the
maximum hardness readings obtained
at the Fe-V interface were 307 and 409
HV
0.5
, respectively. The maximum
hardness observed in the Cu-Ti weld
overlay ranges from 300 to 350 HV
0.5.
The different weld overlays
responded differently to thermal cycles
imposed by either welding of additional
layers of Ti weld metal or by PWHT. In
the Ni-Ti system, a larger softening was
caused at the interface and in the first
Ti layer by the thermal cycle associated
with additional layers of Ti weld metal
than by the PWHT. However, as result
of the PWHT, the hardness of the weld
overlay with three Ti-layers shows some
hardening behavior near the interface
between the second- and third-Ti layers.
In the NiCu-Ti and NiCr-Ti weld
overlays, no major softening was
observed as a result of the thermal
cycles induced either during welding or
by PWHT as shown in Fig. 11. The high
hardness and softening behavior of
these three Ti-rich weld overlay systems
make them attractive for wear/erosion
resistant applications.
In the Fe-V-Ti system, extremely
high hardness was not observed across
the weld deposit in spite of the
presence of second phases at the Fe-V
interface; however, the presence of mi-
crocracks at the Fe-V interface may
have influenced the results of the
hardness readings. In the Ti-V-Fe sys-
tem, a high hardness peak was
observed at the V-Fe interface, which
may have resulted from a combination
of Fe and Ti at that interface. The high
degree of solid solubility between V
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 13 Comparison of microhardness profiles of CuTi weld
overlay deposited with the CSCGMAW process and with a combi
nation of CSCGMAW and GTAWP processes.
Fig. 12 Microhardness profile of a CuTi weld metal over
lays with one and three Ti layers (1Ti, 3Ti), in the aswelded
and PWHT conditions.
and Ti may have induced a relatively
high concentration of Ti in the V weld
deposit that could have then been
available for reaction with Fe at the V-
Fe interface. EPMA analysis was not
conducted in weld metal deposits
made with either the Fe-V-Ti system
or the Ti-V-Fe system to confirm this.
As shown in Fig. 12, the Cu-Ti weld
overlay shows the softest deposits, es-
pecially in the PWHT condition. This
system shows a more pronounced soft-
ening behavior due to PWHT than by
additional welding thermal cycles. In
the Cu-Ti system, as a result of the
PWHT, the hardness level through the
weld deposit drops to around 200
HV
0.5
. However, the weld overlay de-
posited with a combination of CSC-
GMAW and GTAW-P processes
presented a wider hard region at the
Cu-Ti interface and a lower degree of
softening induced by the PWHT as
shown in Fig. 13. The observed hard-
ness behavior can be explained based
on a wider Cu-Ti interface in weld
metal deposited with a combination of
CSC-GMAW and GTAW-P processes as
compared to that deposited with the
CSC-GMAW process alone.
Conclusions
Based on their metallurgical char-
acteristics, compatibility with the Fe-
Ti system, and their availability as
commercial welding wires, the
interlayer materials selected as candi-
dates for Ti-rich weld overlays
included commercially pure nickel
(CPNi), nickel-copper alloy (NiCu),
nickel-chromium alloy (NiCr), CP
vanadium (V), and CP copper (Cu).
The Ni-Ti, NiCu-Ti, and NiCr-Ti
weld overlays deposited with the CSC-
GMAW process showed a continuous
and wide interface between the inter-
layer material and the first Ti layer.
Second phases were observed at the
interlayer-Ti interface and in the first
Ti layer. In the NiCr-Ti weld overlay,
second phases were observed even in
the third Ti layer. The first and second
Ti layers in these weld overlays
presented an acicular- or Widmanstt-
ten-a microstructure that is character-
istic in a or a-b Ti alloys.
The Cu-Ti and V-Ti weld overlays
deposited with the CSC-GMAW
process and the GTAW-P process,
respectively, presented a continuous
and well-defined interface between
the interlayer material and the first Ti
layer. The thickness of the interface
ranges from 0 to 250 mm. Second
phases were observed at the Cu-Ti in-
terface. The interface between V and
Ti was free of second phases. The mi-
crostructure of the first Ti layer was
similar to those normally found in CP
a-Ti alloys.
The Cu-Ti weld overlay deposited
using a combination of CSC-GMAW
and GTAW-P processes presented a
continuous and wider interface than
that observed in the weld overlay de-
posited only with the CSC-GMAW
process. The thickness of the interface
was about 1 mm. The first and second
Ti layer presented an acicular- or Wid-
mansttten-a microstructure.
The primary second phases identi-
fied as potentially present in the Ti-
rich weld overlays include Ni
3
Ti, NiTi,
NiTi
2
, CuNiTi, CuTi
2
, Cr
2
Ti, CuTi
2
,
Cu
3
Ti, and b-Ti.
The dilution of the interlayer weld
metals by the steel base metal ranges
from 2 to 16%. The dilution of the
first Ti layer in the weld overlays
ranges from 2 to 20%. Therefore, the
CSC-GMAW process is effective in con-
trolling and minimizing the dilution of
the weld metals, which is important in
achieving the corrosion resistance of
CPTi in the weld overlays with few
(one to three) Ti layers.
In general, the highest hardness in
the weld overlays was observed in the
interlayer-Ti interface and first Ti
layer. The maximum hardness in the
Ni-Ti, NiCu-Ti, and NiCr-Ti weld over-
lays was 607, 568, and 554 HV
0.5
, re-
spectively. Limited degree of softening
was induced in these overlays by weld
thermal cycles or PWHT. Therefore,
these Ti-rich overlay systems could be
attractive for wear/erosion resistant
applications.
The maximum hardness observed
in the Cu-Ti weld overlay ranged from
300 to 350 HV
0.5
. As a result of the
PWHT, the hardness level through the
weld deposit dropped to around 200
HV
0.5.
Therefore, this overlay system
might be more attractive for mainly
corrosion-resistant applications.
This publication was prepared
based on development work supported
by DMC Clad Metal, Materials
Technology Institute, and Eastman
Chemical as part of a group-sponsored
project at EWI.
1. Banker, J. G. 1996. Titanium-steel
explosion clad. Stainless Steel World, pp.
6569 (June).
2. Hardwick, R. 2001. Advances leading
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 5 Dilution of Major Alloying Elements in Different Layers of the TRich Weld Overlays
(Based on EPMA Analysis)
Overlay System Alloying Alloy Content (wt%)
Elements Interlayer 1st Ti Layer 2nd Ti Layer 3rd Ti Layer
FeNiTi Fe 1.6 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ni matrix 19.1 10.5 1.3 0.0 0.0
Ti 3.1 3.6 matrix matrix matrix
FeNiCuTi Fe 6.5 0.8 0.35 0.33 0.0 0.0
Ni matrix 16.3 13.7 0.4 3.4 0.0
Cu matrix 7.5 6.2 1.5 0.0 0.0
FeNiCrTi Fe 16.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ni matrix 13.7 8.1 2.4 0.0 0.0
Cr matrix 13.1 8.1 2.4 0.0 0.0
FeCuTi Fe 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 NA
(CSCGMAW + Cu matrix 13.4 2.3 1.1 0.9 NA
GTAWP) Ti 0.0 matrix matrix NA
FeCuTi Fe 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
(CSCGMAW) Cu matrix 1.3 0.9 0.0 0.0
Ti 0.0 matrix matrix matrix
Acknowledgments
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WELDING RESEARCH
Call for Papers
JOM18
18th Internatonal Conference on Joining Materials
Insttute for the Joining of Materials in associaton with IIW
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Review the brochure for conference topics. E-mail a title and short abstract of your paper before Nov. 2, 2014.
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WELDING RESEARCH
Introduction
Using high-power lasers to weld lap joints has become
more economically viable to create transportation body pan-
els. Laser welding transmits a relatively low heat input and
results in a narrow weld bead compared to resistance spot
welding. The high-cycle fatigue strength of lap joints of thin
metal sheets depends on the joining process, types of alloys,
geometrical features of the component or structure, surface
roughness, and defects such as porosity and cracks.
Although there have been many studies performed in this
area, the high-cycle fatigue assessment of laser-welded lap
joints requires a more in-depth stress analysis and fatigue
tests because high-power lasers, new applications, and ma-
terials such as high-strength steels and aluminum alloys
continue to develop.
The fatigue analysis by Radaj et al. (Ref. 1) was based on
local stress concepts, such as the structural or nominal
stress, local stress concentration
around a notch, and crack initiation
and propagation. Hsu and Albright
(Ref. 2) presented the fatigue analysis
of laser-welded lap joints using Goland
and Reissners local stress equations,
which incorporate the shear and peel-
ing stresses. Zhang (Ref. 3) developed a
method that predicted the maximum
local stress of a laser-welded overlap
weld by measuring the strains of the
outer surface near a joint.
Hobbacher (Ref. 4) separated a
notch stress into membrane stress,
bending stress, and nonlinear stress
peak and suggested formulas of stress
concentration factors for misalignment
between flat panels as a closed form in
terms of misalignment, thicknesses,
and lengths of two plates of a butt
joint. Tovo and Lazzarin (Ref. 5) inves-
tigated the relationship between the
structural stress and the local stress
field by characterizing a notch opening angle and expressing
the stress components as an equation of two notch stress in-
tensity factors. They suggested local stress and structural
stress close to the toe of single fillet weld geometry and dou-
ble fillet weld geometry. Li, Orme, and Yu (Ref. 6)
established an elasticity model of a V-groove butt-joint weld
by solving approximately the in-plane displacement filed
with the Ritz method and obtained a closed form relation
between the overall Youngs modulus and those of
individual zone.
Because of the complexity of local stress fields near or
within a laser weld, the finite element method (FEM) is
widely used to obtain detailed local stresses; however, it is
difficult to estimate the effect of the structural parameters
on the fatigue life using an FEM model. Wang (Ref. 7)
predicted the fatigue resistance of a stitch laser weld using
an FEM model and a J-integral around a root opening,
which was treated as a crack-like notch front. Cho et al. (Ref.
Analysis of the Local Stresses at
LaserWelded Lap Joints
Geometric eccentricity affects the tensile fatigue life of lap welds
BY K. D. LEE, K. I. HO, AND K. Y. PARK
ABSTRACT
Theoretical and numerical stress analyses were performed to understand
local stress effect due to geometric eccentricity to estimate the fatigue life of
laser-welded overlap joints of automotive thin steel sheets. Two thicknesses
and a nonzero root opening were used. The two-dimensional problem of the
stress function within a laser-welded bead was solved in the form of a gener-
alized crosswise Fourier series. The nondimensional local stress factors with
respect to the remote tensile stress for twelve cases were compared at three
locations in a bead. The locations were chosen based on where local
maximum stresses occur; such points can cause failure during a fatigue test.
KEYWORDS
Local Stress Function Laser Welded Lap Joint Geometrical
Eccentricity Crosswise Fourier Series Fatigue Strength
Automotive Steel Sheet
K. D. LEE (kdlee@iae.re.kr) is director, Institute for Advanced Engineering, Younginsi, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea. K. I. HO (kiho@suwon.ac.kr) is professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Suwon University, Hwaseongsi, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea. K. Y. PARK (young@iae.re.kr) is senior researcher, In
stitute for Advanced Engineering, Younginsi, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea.
WELDING RESEARCH
8) predicted the fatigue life curves of a laser-welded lap joint
of steel sheets, where the FEM model included the effect of
the thermal residual stresses due to the laser welding. Ye
and Moan (Ref. 9) predicted the fatigue strength and initia-
tion area of an aluminum box-stiffener lap joint by calculat-
ing the stress concentration factors using FEM.
Anand et al. (Ref. 10) experimentally obtained a fatigue
ratio (the ratio of fatigue limit to tensile strength) of 0.4 for
a laser-welded butt joint that combined 1.5- and 0.9-mm
steel sheets. Moreover, Lee et al. (Ref. 11) experimentally
obtained a fatigue ratio of 0.073 for a laser-welded lap joint
that combined 2.0- and 1.5-mm stainless steel sheets.
Despite the different materials and the different
thicknesses, the large difference between the fatigue ratios
of the butt and lap joints is readily apparent.
To model such a large reduction in the fatigue limit of
laser-welded lap joints, many studies adapted the notch
stress concept, which considers the root opening as a
fictitious root notch. Eibl et al. (Ref. 12) evaluated the notch
stress by replacing the root opening by a fictitious notch
with a 0.05-mm radius to model the extenuation in the
fatigue strength of a laser-welded lap joint with complete
penetration.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 13) predicted the fatigue lives of laser-
welded lap welds using the shell theory and assuming the
root opening to be a fictitious root notch with a 0.05-mm ra-
dius. Using the shell theory, the structural stress at the
outer surface increased to four times greater than the nomi-
nal (average) stress in the thick and thin sheet. The
combined stress concentration factor due to the fictitious
notch effect was then used as the basis of the structural
stress at the outer surface from the shell theory to reduce
the relatively large scattering between the different
thickness combination and the same thickness combination.
In this study, a more detailed theoretical stress analysis on
a laser-welded lap joint was performed, and the local stress
value and the high-cycle fatigue strength are presented. The
high-cycle fatigue strength was calculated because Lee et al.
(Ref. 11) had observed that the local stress effect at the weld
bead of a laser-welded lap joint cannot be neglected, even if
the flexural deformation from the gripping misalignment is
negligible. Both the geometric eccentricity at the lap joint and
the thickness ratio influence the local stress distribution
within or around the weld bead during the tensile-shear
fatigue loading. Numerical calculations were performed to ob-
tain the detailed stress distribution within a weld bead by solv-
ing the two-dimensional problem using crosswise Fourier se-
ries for the stress functions. The boundary conditions of the
weld bead were derived by assuming a linear deformation
caused by a rotation of the lap-jointed weld bead in the form
of an explicit nondimensional equation. The distribution of
the ratios of the local stresses relative to the remote uniform
tensile stress [local stress factor (LSF)] in the weld bead was
obtained for 12 cases, where two parameters, the thickness
ratio and the root opening ratio, were varied (four thickness
ratios and three root opening ratios). The local maximum can-
didates of the LSF at three locations were compared to select
the maximum value of the LSF for each case; at these
locations, a failure was most likely to occur during the fatigue
testing (i.e., candidates for hot spots).
Fig. 1 Tensileshear fatigue specimen.
Fig. 2 Stress distribution at the boundary of a weld bead.
Fig. 3 Freebody diagram depicting loading and three loca
tions of A, B, and C.
Table 1DOE for the Numerical Analysis
t
2
t
1
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
2gt
1
0.0 E1(A,B,C) E2(A,B,C) E3(A,B,C) E4(A,B,C)
Table 2 Comparison of the Fatgue Stresses at 5 10
6
Cycles between a
ButJoint Weld and a LapJoint Weld from Eibl et al. (Ref. 12) and Their
Calculated LSF
Material Joint Thickness Cycles (x10
6
) Stress (MPa) LSF
(mm)
GD AlSi10Mg
T6 butt 3.0/3.0 5.0 38.4 4.3
lap 3.0/3.0 5.0 9.0
AlMg4.5Mn butt 1.5/1.5 5.0 43.1 4.8
lap 1.5/1.5 5.0 9.0
WELDING RESEARCH
Theoretical Analysis
The two-dimensional problem of the stress function was
solved in the form of a crosswise Fourier series within a
weld bead of a fatigue specimen because failure during a fa-
tigue test was typically observed around the weld bead and
the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
Design of Experiment for Analysis
A welded (tensile-shear) fatigue specimen is shown in
Fig. 1. Two sheets with different thicknesses were welded by
a laser into a lap joint. The sheet thicknesses are denoted by
t
1
and t
2
, where t
2
is equal to or greater than t
1
. The root
opening size is denoted by 2g. The weld bead width is
denoted by 2w. In the numerical analysis, 2w was 1 mm and
t
1
was 1.5 mm.
The design of experiment (DOE) for the numerical analy-
sis is given in Table 1, where three parameters were used.
Two of the parameters were t
2
t
1
and 2g t
1
, which are the
nondimensional geometrical parameters of the weld bead.
The third parameter was the location denoted by A, B, or C,
which is shown in Fig. 2. Locations A and B are candidates
for the occurrence of local maximum normal stress in the
boundary of the thin sheet and the thick sheet, respectively.
Location C is at the center of the root opening and the weld
bead width, which is where a local maximum shear stress
will occur. Twelve numerical experiments (E1E12) were
performed, and the LSFs were calculated at the three
locations (A, B, C).
Boundary Conditions
Because the high-cycle fatigue was to be considered, all
local stresses were calculated assuming elastic deformation.
Geometrical defects, including notches and thermal resid-
ual stresses, were not considered in this study. It was
assumed that the mechanical and metallurgical properties
of the base materials and the weld bead were within the
same tolerance. Superposition of the stresses was applica-
ble within the weld bead.
The tensile-shear specimen was loaded in a two-step
process: gripping and tensile-shear loading. When a
specimen with a lap joint is gripped during a fatigue test, a
flexural deformation generally occurs due to the geometrical
eccentricity of the two sheets at the weld bead.
A free-body diagram around the weld bead during tensile-
shear loading with a grip misalignment is shown in Fig. 3,
where F is a remote load activated by a fatigue machine. A
remote load applies a uniform average stress (remote
uniform tensile stress) and a shear stress through the bead
width in the load direction. When the tensile-shear loading
begins, the transverse (vertical) shear force at the end grips
can be removed by adding spacers with the same thickness
at each grip. The relationship between the parameters, such
as the flexural moments, M
g1
and M
g2
, the axial force, F, and
the eccentricities, e
1
and e
2
, measured from the center of the
thickness of each sheet at the end grips, is shown in
Equation 1. The flexural moments, shear forces, and eccen-
tricities at the end grips, such as M
g1
, M
g2
, V
g1
, V
g2
, e
1
, and
e
2
, could be solved in terms of V, F, M
1
, M
2
, and l. However,
because the distance between the end grip and the weld
bead, l (40 mm), is so long that the specimen is flexible to
bend, the Euler beam bending theory can be applied to the
specimen between the end grip and the weld bead.
Therefore, the parameters at the end grips do not need to be
calculated when the stress analysis at the weld bead is
performed and this paper focuses on the solution for the
stresses at the weld bead, where fatigue failure would occur.
Fig. 4 Distribution of S
x
, S
y
, S
xy
in the case of Equation 9. A
S
x
; B S
y
; C S
xy
.
A B
C
WELDING RESEARCH
After the tensile-shear loading begins within the elastic
range without a grip misalignment, the geometric eccentricity
around a weld bead will cause the weld bead to rotate. This ro-
tation, , creates the moments and vertical forces at the weld
bead. The moments due to the rotation of the weld bead gen-
erate the tensile and compressive local stresses in the vertical
sections of the weld bead, as the remote load results in an
axial, nonuniform elongation through the thickness of the
sheets according to the grip movement. The tensile and com-
pressive stresses are superimposed on the uniform remote
stress. From the force and moment equilibrium, Equation 2
can be derived.
M
1
+ M
2
+ 2wV = (0.5(t
1
+ t
2
) + 2g)F (2)
Equation 3 can be obtained using the Euler beam bending
theory. As for the boundary condition, it was assumed that the
sum of the deflection at the left side of the weld bead (Section
2) and the deflection at the right side of the weld bead
(Section 1) is approximately zero because the bead moves up
and down together, and the deflection caused by the rotation
of the weld bead is negligible within the elastic limit.
Equation 4 can be obtained by assuming that the slope
(absolute value) at the left side of the weld bead (Section 2)
is equal to the slope at the right side of the weld bead
(Section 1) because the elastic deformation is in the range of
the fatigue limit.
By solving the three equations, M
1
, M
2
, and V can be ex-
pressed by F and the geometric parameters.
Vl
EI
M
EI
Vl
3EI
M
EI
+ +
3
0 (3)
2
2
1
1
1
2
2 2
(4)
2
2
1
1
1
2
+ +
Vl
EI
M
EI
Vl
EI
M
EI
V V V
M Fe M Vl
M Fe M Vl
M M F
t t
e e
g g
g 1
g
g g
( )

+
+
+
+

_
,
2
(1)
1 2
1 1
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
_
,
+
+
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
V
t
t
2
g
t
12
I
I
I
I
w
l
t
l
F
M
t
t
t t
I
I
I
I
I
I
w
l
F
M
t
t
t t
I
I
I
I
I
I
w
l
F
g
g
(5)
1
2
1
5
6
1
2
1
2
1
2
5
12
1
12
5
6
1
12
2
1
2
1
2
5
12
1
12
5
6
1
12
2
2
1 1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1 1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
1
2
A
B
C D
Fig. 5 The LSFs at three locations: A S
x
; B S
y
; C S
xy
; D S
x
, S
y
, S
xy
at A and C for the root opening ratio 0.2.
WELDING RESEARCH
As for the boundary conditions, the local stresses from
Sections 1 and 2 are given in Equation 6 in an explicit form
from the Euler beam bending theory. The normal stress at the
vertical cross section can be obtained by superimposing the
normal stress from the bending moment due to the geometri-
cal misalignment onto the uniform nominal stress from the
remote axial force. The shear stresses at the vertical cross sec-
tion can be approximated to be uniformly distributed through
the vertical axis. Furthermore, it is assumed in this paper that
these shear stresses are comparatively negligible because they
were within 10% of the normal stresses when the thickness
ratio was less than 1.3.
Analytical Solution within a Weld Bead
The stress distribution around the weld bead was evalu-
ated to identify where the maximum stress was located,
which is where fatigue failure would occur. To evaluate the
stress distribution around the weld bead, the crosswise
Fourier series solutions suggested by Timoshenko (Ref. 14)
was used within the weld bead, whose cross section was as-
sumed to be a rectangular narrow beam, as shown in Fig. 2.
Equations 7 and 8 are the partial differential equations
representing the stress function that can be satisfied by su-
perimposing a single Fourier series in the x and y directions
for finite rectangles.
The generalized crosswise Fourier series solution for the
stress function is expressed as Equation A1 or expanded in
Equation A2 in the Appendix. Thus, the stresses derived by
substituting the stress function from Equation A1 to Equa-
tion 8 are as in Equation A3.
The above theoretical equations were applied to a weld
bead, where Equation 6 was used as the boundary condition,
which is isolated. A rectangular coordinate system was used, as
shown in Fig. 2. Due to the bending effects from the eccentri-
cally applied remote tensile forces at the ends of plates, the
stresses at the upper-right vertical surface (Section 2) and the
lower-left vertical surface (Section 1) were assumed to be a
combination of the uniform normal stress and the linear nor-
0.5
12.5
0.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
(6)
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
= + + +
= + +
=
=
M
I
y g t
F
t
for the thin sheet
M
I
y g t
F
t
for the thick sheet
v
t
for the thin sheet
v
t
for the thick sheet
x
x
xy
xy
x x y y

+

+

= 2 0 (7)
4
4
4
2 2
4
4
y x
x y
x y xy
=

=

(8)
2
2
2
2
2
A B
C D
Fig. 6 The LSF equivalents for the plane strain and plane stress conditions. A S
eq,1
; B S
eq,2
; C S
eq,1
and S
eq,2
at three locations
for a root opening ratio of 0.2; D S
eq,2
.
WELDING RESEARCH
mal stress. The origin of the coordinate system is at the center
of the root opening. In the root opening surface between the
upper and lower plates, the normal stresses are zero. At the
top and bottom horizontal surfaces, at y = p, the normal and
shear stresses are zero and can be expressed as follows.
The boundary conditions applied at the finite rectangle
are given in Equation A4. From the boundary conditions, we
derived all the coefficients of the stress components as in
Equation A5. Because all the coefficients in the above stress
components are coupled to each other, they can be
determined through a numerical iteration method with the
initial conditions.
Result and Discussion
Local Stress Factors in a Weld Bead
The local stress factors are defined by the ratios of the
local stresses relative to the remote uniform tensile stress in
the thin sheet (t
1
) and denoted by S
x
, S
y
, S
xy
, which were cal-
culated for the twelve cases.
where
is the remote uniform tensile stress in the thin

sheet and is Poissons ratio. As a fatigue failure criterion,
S
eq,1
and S
eq,2
are the von Mises equivalent stresses normal-
ized by
for the plane strain and plane stress conditions,

respectively (Refs. 1517).
Each case in Table 1 has one numerical data set. The nu-
merical calculations for the 12 cases produce 12 sets of the
local stresses. The numerical results of the LSF distribution
for Equation 9 are shown in Fig. 4. The points A and B are
the local maximums of S
x
, and point C is the local minimum
of S
xy
. The locations of the maximum and minimum of S
y
were slightly different from those of S
x
.
Numerical results for the LSFs at the three locations are
given in Fig. 5 for the various thickness and root opening ra-
tios. When the thickness ratio is one, the LSFs at A and B
should be equal to within a numerical error. A notation of
each curve in Fig. 5 represents the location and root opening
ratio. For example, A0.1 represents the LSF curve for
location A with a root opening ratio of 0.1.
The normal stress in the x direction, S
x
, is shown in Fig.
5A. As the thickness ratio increased, S
x
increased at A (in the
thin sheet) but decreased at B (in the thick sheet). For exam-
ple, A0.2 increased from 4.5 to 5.8 and B0.2 decreased from
4.5 to 3.8. The larger root opening ratio resulted in a larger
S
x
at both the A and B locations. For example, S
x
at A
increased from 5.0 to 5.8 when the TR was 1.3 and the GR
was zero, and S
x
at C was between 1.0 and 1.9, which was
much lower than at A or B. When the TR was larger than 1.0,
S
x
at A was always greater than at B.
The normal stress in the y direction, S
y
, is shown in Fig.
5B. As the thickness ratio increased, S
y
increased at A but
decreased at B. For example, A0.2 increased from 3.6 to 5.4
and B0.2 decreased from 3.6 to 2.3. As the root opening
ratio increased, S
y
increased at both A and B, which indicates
that the peeling stress was greater in the y direction.
However, S
y
at C was nearly zero and did not change much,
even as the thickness or root opening ratio increased.
Figure 5C shows S
xy
, which is negative within a weld
bead. A local minimum of S
xy
was at location C, and at A and
B, S
xy
was almost zero. As the thickness ratio increased, the
absolute value of S
xy
increased. For example, the absolute
value of C0.2 increased from 2.1 to 2.4. As the root opening
ratio became larger, the absolute value of S
xy
increased. For
example, the absolute value of S
xy
at C increased from 1.8 to
2.4 when a thickness ratio of 1.3 was used.
The maximum LSFs for the different thickness ratios are
shown in Fig. 5D, where the root opening ratio was 0.2. The
solid lines are the LSFs for A0.2, and the dotted lines are the
LSFs for C0.2. For A0.2, S
x
and S
y
were positive, whereas S
xy
was almost zero, but for C0.2, S
y
was almost zero, S
x
was
positive, and S
y
was negative.
Equivalent LSF for Multiaxial Stress States
Both S
eq,1
and S
eq,2
, as defined in Equation 9, are the
equivalent local stress factors for the plane strain and plane
stress conditions, respectively, which were calculated from
the LSFs and used as a criterion to estimate the fatigue life
under the multiaxial stress state in the weld bead.
Figure 6A shows S
eq,1
for the various thicknesses and
root opening ratios from Table 1. The plane strain condition
1 1 2 2 3
0.5 3
(9)
1
2 2 2 2 2
0.5
2
2
2 2 2
0.5
( )( ) ( )
( )

+ + + +
1
]
+ +
_
,
1
]
1

S / S / S /
S S S S S S
for the plane strain condition
S S S S S S
for the plane stress condition
x x y y xy xy
eq, x y x y xy
eq, x y x y xy
Fig. 7 SN curves for mild steel, STS301L, GDAlSi10MgT6
from Refs. 8, 11, 12, and 18. A Mild steel (UWS): calculated
by Equation 11 with LSF = 1 (Ref. 8); B mild steel (plane
strain): calculated by Equation 11 with LSF = 2.0 (plane strain
condition); C mild steel (plane stress): calculated by Equation
11 with LSF = 3.3 (plane stress condition); D mild steel (butt):
R = 0, 30 Hz, t
1
= 0.9 mm, width of specimen = 7 mm (Ref. 18); E
mild steel (lap): R = 0, 10 Hz, t2/t1 = 1.0/1.0, width of speci
men = 40 mm, 2w = 0.8~2.0 mm (Ref. 8); F STS301L(lap): R =
0, 20 Hz, t
2
/t
1
= 2.0/1.5, width of specimen = 12.5 mm, 2w = 1.0
mm (Ref. 11); G GDAl (butt): R = 0, 25~35 Hz, t
1
= 3.0 mm,
width of specimen = 30.0 mm, 2w = 3 mm (Ref. 12); H GDAl
(lap): R = 0, 25~35 Hz, t
2
/t
1
= 3.0/3.0, width of specimen = 30.0
mm, 2w = 2~4 mm (Ref. 12).
WELDING RESEARCH
can be applied to the center sections of the weld bead
sections. For the plane strain condition in the center
section, S
eq,1
had a local maximum at C, which was between
3.2 and 4.2; another local maximum occurred at A or B,
which was between 1.7 and 2.4.
Figure 6B shows S
eq,2
for the various thicknesses and
root opening ratios from Table 1. The plane stress condition
can be applied to the edge side sections of the weld bead sec-
tions. For the plane stress condition in the edge-side
section, S
eq,2
at A and C increased as the thickness ratio in-
creased, but the value at A was always larger than at C. How-
ever, S
eq,2
at B decreased as the thickness ratio increased.
For example, A0.2 increased from 4.0 to 5.6, C0.2 increased
from 3.7 to 4.3, and B0.2 decreased from 4.0 to 3.2.
Figure 6C gives S
eq,1
and S
eq,2
when the root opening
ratio was 0.2. Both A0.2S
eq,2
and B0.2S
eq,2
were much larger
than A0.2S
eq,1
and B0.2S
eq,1
; however, C0.2S
eq,1
and
C0.2S
eq,2
were essentially equal and close to A0.2S
eq,2
, which
was the largest value. When the thickness ratio was one, the
difference between A0.2S
eq,2
and C0.2S
eq,2
(or C0.2S
eq,1
) was
less than 0.3. Therefore, fatigue failure would initiate at A in
the edge-side sections if it was assumed that no defect was
present in the weld bead. However, when the thickness ratio
is near one, the probability of fatigue failure in the shear
mode at C in all the sections should be checked.
For the plane stress condition in the edge-side sections,
Fig. 6D gives S
eq,2
for all the thicknesses and root opening
ratios. As the thickness ratio or root opening ratio
increased, S
eq,2
increased. At A, S
eq,2
increased more rapidly
than S
eq,2
at C. When the root opening ratio was 0 or 0.1
and the thickness ratio was one, the difference between S
eq,2
at A and S
eq,2
at C was so small that fatigue failure would ini-
tiate at both A and C in the edge-side sections. When the
thickness ratio was larger than one, fatigue failure would
initiate only at A in the edge-side sections because A0S
eq,2
,
A0.1S
eq,2
, and A0.2S
eq,2
were larger than C0S
eq,2
, C0.1S
eq,2
,
and C0.2S
eq,2
, respectively.
If there are no additional stress concentrations due to a
root notch around the weld bead or other defects inside the
weld bead, then the local stress factors and the locations
where fatigue failure might initiate can be predicted, which
can then be used in predicting the fatigue life.
Fatigue Strength of a Lap Joint
Without any defects in the weld bead, fatigue failure
would occur at either location A, B, or C, wherever the LSF
has the local maximum value. When the von Mises equiva-
lent stress reaches a criterion for fatigue failure, the location
and its LSF value at the fatigue failure can be found in Fig. 6.
The fatigue strength, S
N, lap
, of a lap joint can be calculated
from Equation 10 in terms of the fatigue strength, S
N
, of the
sheet material and the maximum of the equivalent LSFs
(such as S
eq,2
in Fig. 6D). Afterward, S
N, lap
can be modified
by the fatigue notch factor or by other correction factors.
According to Fig. 6C, fatigue failure occurred at location
A when the thickness ratio was not one. When the thickness
ratio was 1 and the root opening ratio was 0.2, the
maximum value of S
eq,2
was 4.1, which indicates that the lap
joint will fail at the fatigue limit 4.1 times lower than its
base materials if there is no notch effect. When the
thickness ratio was 1.3 and the root opening ratio was 0.2,
the maximum S
eq,2
was 5.6 at A.
If the fatigue strength of a butt joint, S
N, butt
, of the sheet
material is known, Equation 11 is useful for getting the
fatigue strength of a lap joint because the experimental fa-
tigue strength of a butt joint already has the fatigue notch
factor or other correction factors, including the metallurgi-
cal change.
For example, Fig. 7 shows typical S-N curves obtained
from Refs. 8, 11, 12, and 18. The vertical axis is the fatigue
stress ratio (FR), which is defined as the ratio of the
activated fatigue stress at the number of cycles to the
ultimate tensile strength of the specimen, and the parallel
axis is the number of reversals (2N), where both axes are
displayed on a logarithmic scale.
The S-N curve of mild steel is shown as mild st (UWS) in
Fig. 7, which is calculated by the relation between fatigue
life and ultimate tensile strength in Ref. 8. It depicts the fa-
tigue strength, S
N
, of mild steel (the unwelded specimen)
when FR = 0.9 at 2N = 10
3
and FR = 0.5 at 2N = 10
6
. For lap-
joint mild steel, Equation 12 is derived from Equation 10
and the relation in Ref. 8. The new S-N curves of the lap-
joint specimens without defects were obtained for two
equivalent LSF results, 2.0 (at A0 or B0 of the plane strain
condition in Fig. 6A) and 3.3 (at A0 or B0 or C0 of the plane
stress condition in Fig. 6B) by calculating the fatigue
strength, S
N
,
lap
, from Equation 12. They are shown as mild
st (plane strain) and mild st (plane stress) in Fig. 7.
An experimental S-N curve of lap joint mild steel (Ref. 8) is
given as mild st (lap) in Fig. 7 when TR = 1 and GR = 0.0 with
a strip specimen of 40 mm width. Another experimental S-N
curve of a butt joint mild steel for R = 0 and 15 Hz (Ref. 18) is
shown as mild st(butt) in Fig. 7 when a tensile specimen has
0.9 mm thickness and 7-mm specimen width. Calculated LSF
results were between 2.0 and 2.8, which exhibited a good cor-
relation with the S-N curve of equivalent LSF 2.0 at A0 or B0
for TR = 1 and plane strain condition in Fig. 6A.
An experimental S-N curve of a lap joint of STS301L (Ref.
11) gives very low FR (0.07 at 10
6
cycles) when R = 0 at 20
Hz using a tensile-shear specimen with TR = 1.3 and GR =
0.1 in Fig. 1. This corresponds to the equivalent LSF 5.0 at
A0.1 of plane stress condition in Fig. 6B.
The experimental S-N curves of butt and lap joints of
GD-AlSi10Mg-T6 show very low fatigue stress ratio when R
S
S
max LSF
N,lap
N
eq ( )
= (10)
S
S
max LSF
N,lap
N,butt
eq ( )
= (11)
S mild steel
S N
max LSF
N,lap
u
eq
( )
( )
=
1.62
(12)
-0.08509
WELDING RESEARCH
= 0 at 25~35 Hz using a 30-mm-wide specimen with TR =
3.0/3.0 and GR = 0.2 (Ref. 12). Although the welds of GD-
AlSi10Mg-T6 seem to have many defects or degradation, the
LSF result between FRs of a lap joint and a butt joint is
about 4.2~4.4, which exhibited a good correlation with
LSF4.1 at A0.2 of TR = 1 and the plane stress condition in
Fig. 6D.
In Eibl (Ref. 12), the fatigue strength results of the butt
and lap joints with complete penetration of two aluminum
sheets were obtained. Comparisons between the fatigue
strength of a laser-welded butt joint in Appendix A and a
laser-welded lap joint in Appendix B are shown in Table 2.
Calculated LSF results (LSF4.3 and LSF4.8) exhibited a good
correlation with LSF4.1 (at A0 of TR = 1 in Fig. 6B) of the
same thicknesses if a small root opening is assumed.
In Zhang et al. (Ref. 13), the discrepancy of the
experimental fatigue data between the different thickness
combinations and the same thickness combinations could be
explained by introducing the LSF before the fictitious root
notch radius because the notch effect was added by
introducing the mixed parameter, P
a
, as the combined stress
intensity factor. Afterward, the notch effect due to welding
defects could be superimposed on the LSF results.
Summary and Conclusions
1. The local stress factors in the weld bead of a lap joint
created by laser beam welding were numerically obtained
and displayed in graphs according to the nondimensional
variations of the thickness ratio, root opening ratio, and
three candidate locations.
2. The two-dimensional differential equation of the
stress functions was solved in a generalized crosswise
Fourier series. The boundary condition of the weld bead
after tensile loading was derived theoretically in the nondi-
mensional form by assuming a weld bead rotation caused by
the geometrical eccentricity and a linear deformation
through the thickness.
3. The stress fields within the weld bead of a lap joint
were obtained according to the thickness ratio and the root
opening ratio. The maximum stress in the loading direction
or in the transverse direction occurred at the corner, near
the root opening of the thin sheet, but the maximum shear
stress occurred at the center of the weld bead. All the maxi-
mum stress components increased as the thickness ratio
and/or the root opening ratio became larger.
4. Note that when a fatigue evaluation is under considera-
tion, the tensile-shear effect in a lap-joint weld dramatically in-
creases both the maximum normal stresses in the loading and
transverse directions as well as the shear stresses near the root
opening, which should not be neglected.
5. The equivalent local stress factors were taken as a cri-
terion for the fatigue life estimation, and the comparisons
of the LSFs with the experimental results in other studies
on the fatigue life resulted in excellent correlations.
The authors would like to thank the Institute for Advanced
Engineering (IAE) for providing partial financial support.
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Appendix
List of Symbols
t
1
, t
2
: thickness of the thin and thick sheets, respectively
g: half of the root opening size
w: half of the width of the weld bead
l: distance between the end grip and the weld bead
F: applied remote load
References
Acknowledgments
WELDING RESEARCH
V: transverse load at the weld bead
M
1
, M
2
: moment at the weld bead
: rotation angle of the weld bead
I
1
, I
2
: moment of inertia at the cross section of the two
sheets,t
1
and t
2
, respectively
x1
,
x1
: local stresses in sections 1 and 2
: stress function
x
,
y
,
xy
: normal and shear stresses in the two-
dimensional x-y space
LSF: local stress factor defined by the ratio of the local nor-
mal (or shear) stress to the remote uniform tensile stress
(
) for a thin thickness

S
x
=
x
: LSF for the normal stress in the x axis

S
y
=
y
: LSF for the normal stress in the y axis

S
xy
=
xy
: LSF for the shear stress in the x-y plane

S
eq,1
: LSF for the equivalent stress for the plane strain
condition
S
eq,2
: LSF for the equivalent stress for the plane stress
condition
S
N,lap
: Fatigue strength at the number of cycles N for a lap
joint
S
u
: Ultimate tensile strength
TR: thickness ratio defined by t
2
(thick sheet) divided by t
1
(thin sheet)
GR: root opening ratio defined by 2g (root opening size) di-
vided by t
1
(thin sheet thickness)
LO: location where fatigue failure may occur
m: Poissons ratio
Equations
2 2
(A1)
0 2
0
0 2
1 2
1
1 1
1
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ +
+ +
1
]
+ +
1
]
A
x C xy
B
y
cos y f x sin a y f x
cos x g y sin x g y
n n n n
n
m m m m
m
2 2
and and are integers
2 (A2)
0 2
0
0 2
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1
1 2 1 2
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ +
+
+
+ +
_
,
+
+ +
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
_
,
+
+
+ +
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1

+ + + +
A
x C xy
B
y
cos a y
A cosh x A sinh a x
A xcosh x A xsinh a x
sin a y
B cosh x B sinh x
B xcosh x B xsinh x
cos x
C cosh y C sinh y
C ycosh y C ysinh y
sin x
D cosh y D sinh y
D ycosh y D ysinh y
where a
n
p
,
m
p
, n m
p p p t g t g
n
n n n n
n n n n
n
n n n n
n n n n
n
m
m m m m
m m m m
m
m m m m
m m m m
m
n m
(A3)
0
2
1
2
2
1
1 2
1
0
1
2 2
2
1
0
1
1 2
1
1 2
1 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+
1
]
+ +
1
]
+ +
1
]
+
1
]
+
1
]
+
1
]
B cos y f sin y f
cos x g sin x g
A cos y f sin y f
cos x g sin x g
C sin y f cos y f
sin x g cos x g
x n n n n n n
n
m m
II
m m
II
m
y n
II
n
II
n
m 1m m m
m
xy n n
I
n n
I
n
m m m
I
m m m
I
m
n n
m m
n n
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0 (A4)
1 1
2
2
1
1 2
1 2
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

< +
+
<
+
+

w, y for t g y g
for g y g t
w, y for g y g t
for g t y g
w, y for g t y g t
w, y for g t y g t
x, p , x, p for w x w
x,p , x,p for w x w
x x
x x 2
xy
xy
y xy
x xy
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
1
5
2 5
2
2
2 5
2
1
3
2 5
2
1
4
2 5
2
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
_
,
+
+
_
,
_
,
_
,

+
A
R
K K
sinh c c cosh c
sinh c c
A
K K
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WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
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WELDING RESEARCH
Introduction
Maraging steels are a special class of
ultrahigh-strength steels that differ
from ordinary steels because they can
be hardened by a carbon-free metallur-
gical reaction (Ref. 1). The maraging
18Ni steel family was first developed in
the 1960s by the International Nickel
Co., containing the following main com-
ponents: Ni (18.9%), Co (7%), Mo
(3.8%), and Fe (balance) (Ref. 2). This
alloy presented a body-centered-cubic
martensitic structure following the qua-
sibinary Fe-Ni system that is very duc-
tile in the annealed condition. Its
martensite has a high dislocation den-
sity with a good response to
precipitation hardening (Ref. 3). Upon
reheating at about 480C for 3 h, this
steel undergoes age hardening and pro-
duces high yield strength, although hav-
ing just a small decrease in toughness.
Another important characteristic of this
steel is that martensite is formed from
the austenite even at very low cooling
rates, making it possible to treat large
parts (Ref. 2).
Maraging steels have a wide range
of applications, but they are
particularly suitable for nuclear and
aerospace areas due to their excellent
combination of high yield strength
and toughness (Ref. 4). These steels do
not experience significant dimensional
changes after aging, and their low car-
bon content also provides excellent di-
mensional stability during the austen-
ite-martensite transformation.
Many studies (Refs. 510) had
demonstrated that the maraging steel
martensite could revert to austenite
during aging. If enough temperature
and time are given during aging, the
alloy tends to follow the
thermodynamic equilibrium and a per-
centage of martensite may be
transformed into ferrite and austenite
by a diffusion-controlled process. The
austenite formed this way is enriched
in nickel, since solubility of nickel is
higher in austenite than in ferrite.
After cooling, the reverted austenite
remains stable if its nickel content is
sufficiently high.
In most 18Ni maraging steels, the
amount of reverted austenite is
normally not significant after usual
heat treatments. Notwithstanding,
austenite reversion is usually seen in
the fusion zone of welds because of
microsegregation in the interdendritic
spaces. The elements cobalt and nickel
are referred to have a low partition co-
efficient in maraging steels. However,
molybdenum and titanium have high
solid-liquid partition coefficients and
are prone to segregate (Ref. 11).
Molybdenum is known by its effect on
acceleration of reverted austenite for-
mation during aging (Ref. 6).
The reverted austenite formed in
the interdendritic areas could not be
hardened by aging, having inferior
strength and hardness compared to
the aged martensite. According to the
work of Venkateswara (Ref. 12), with
an 18Ni(250) maraging steel welded
by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
homogenization treatment is capable
of eliminating the segregation effect in
the fusion zone.
Heat Treatment and YbFiber Laser Welding
of a Maraging Steel
The influence of homogenization and solutionizing on an 18Ni(300) maraging steel
welded with a Ybfiber laser source are evaluated
BY L. FANTON, A. J. ABDALLA, AND M. S. FERNANDES de LIMA
L. FANTON (leofanton@gmail.com) is with the Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP), Brazil. A. J. ABDALLA
and M. S. FERNANDES de LIMA are with the Instituto de Estudos Avanados (DCTAIEAv), Brazil.
ABSTRACT
Maraging steels are iron-nickel alloys having an unusual combination of high
mechanical strength and high toughness. In this work, the effects of laser welding and
postweld heat treatments have been analyzed. The fusion zone showed a cellular-den-
dritic morphology with a relatively low hardness (450 HV) compared to the heat-af-
fected zones (HAZs) and base material (500 HV). The segregation in the fusion zone
increases the tendency of austenite phase formation during aging. The solutionized
and aged coupons presented the highest yield strength values (1890 MPa). Homoge-
nization treatment showed to be effective on eliminating the as-cast dendritic
structure of the fusion zone, but decreased the yield strength to about 1350 MPa,
showing that this treatment should be used carefully. The welded specimens presented
tensile strength close to the unwelded specimens, demonstrating that the ytterbium-
fiber laser welding of 18Ni-type maraging steels could be considered.
KEYWORDS
Laser Beam Welding Maraging Steels High-Strength Steels
Precipitation Hardening
WELDING RESEARCH
Maraging steel has been usually
welded with GTA and plasma arc weld-
ing (PAW) with filler metal additions
(Refs. 1315). Meshram (Ref. 16)
recently showed that friction stir weld-
ing (FSW) also has potential for join-
ing maraging steels for aerospace ap-
plications. In fact, maraging steels
have demonstrated good weldability in
a variety of welding techniques,
including laser welding. Van Rooyen
(Ref. 14) demonstrated that a Grade
250 maraging steel can be welded with
CO
2
and Nd:YAG lasers; however, he
showed this to be very sensitive to the
joint alignment and root opening. The
high beam quality of the fiber lasers
allows its absorption for all metal and
alloys, making then a good option for
deep penetration welding (Ref. 17).
The present contribution intends to
evaluate the influence of the most
common heat treatments used in
maraging steel to an 18Ni300 alloy
fabricated in the Centre of Aeronautics
Technology (Brazil). Differently from
the other steels used in the Brazilian
satellite launch vehicle program,
maraging steels are soft after welding,
increasing the reliability of the project.
These steels are being evaluated to re-
place 300M and 4340 steels in parts of
the Brazilian satellite launch vehicle.
Additionally, the use of an Yb-fiber
laser source to weld maraging steels
was not reported in the literature.
The current alloy was developed by
the Centre of Aeronautics Technology in
So Jos dos Campos, Brazil. Sheets
with thicknesses of 2.5 and 10 mm were
used in this work, and their
compositions are shown in Table 1.
Both sheets have the same origin and
should present similar composition.
The differences in the compositions are
probably due to chemical analyses reso-
lution and/or manufacture. No further
information about the fabrication
process was given by the manufacturer.
A 2-kW continuous-wave fiber
laser produced by IPG Co. was used
here. The laser radiation is generated
in a 50-mm-diameter fiber doped with
ytterbium. The doped fiber is
connected to a process fiber 100 mm
diameter and 10 m long, which is
then connected to an Optoskand pro-
cessing head. The focal length was
157 mm with a minimum spot diame-
ter of 100 mm. Pure argon gas at 30
L/min flow rate has been used to pro-
tect the sample against oxidation.
The protection gas was delivered
through a rounded copper tube of 3
mm internal diameter directly over
the irradiated area. The welding head
staying still and the samples moving
are realized by a CNC table. Figure 1
shows the laser experimental welding
system used.
Initial welding tests have been
carried out on 10-mm-thick plates
using different combinations of beam
power and welding speed. The samples
were previously ground to guarantee a
flat and homogeneous surface on each
sample. Just before welding, the sam-
ples surfaces were washed with
Fig. 1 Photo of the laser welding system used.
Table 1 Chemical Compositon of the 18Ni
Maraging Steel
Element Content (%) Content (%)
(Alloy A) (Alloy B)
C 0.008 0.01
Ni 19.12 17.85
Mo 4.94 4.96
Co 9.66 9.32
Al 0.089 0.14
Ti 0.77 0.8
Cu 0.076
Ca 0.04
Zr <0.01
S 0.002 0.007
P 0.008 0.002
Si 0.07 0.05
Mn 0.011 0.01
Cr 0.043 0.04
Table 2 Welding Parameters for Inital Tests
Sample Laser Scanning Speed Beam Power
(cm/min) (W)
1 300 1400
2 300 1600
3 120 1600
4 120 1400
5 120 1800
6 180 1800
7 240 1800
8 (preaged) 120 1800
9 (preaged) 180 1800
10 (preaged) 240 1800
11 (preaged) 300 1800
Fig. 2 Tensile test specimen dimensions.
WELDING RESEARCH
ethanol. Welding parameters for these
initial tests are shown in Table 2. The
objective of these tests is to give some
directions on choosing good welding
parameters for the fabrication of
tensile specimens. To avoid joint align-
ment problems, the bead-on-plate tech-
nique was chosen for the fabrication of
tensile specimens. The effects of aging,
homogenization, and solutionizing
were investigated. The aging treatment
was performed at 480C during 3 h. For
homogenization, samples were heated
at 1150C for 1 h, and the solutionizing
treatment was done at 815C for 1 h.
The samples were air cooled to room
temperature after each heat treatment.
The microstructure of the welded
samples were analyzed by optical mi-
croscopy (Zeiss Epiphot 2000) using
the following etchants: 1) modified
Frys reagent (150 mL H
2
O, 50 mL
HCl, 25 mL HNO
3
, and 1 g CuCl
2
), 2)
Nital 15%, and 3)
sodium metabisul-
fite solution (10 g
in 100 mL H
2
O).
Microhardness measurements were
carried out using a Vickers microhard-
ness tester (Future-Tech FM-700) with
a 300 gf load for 10 s. Measurements
have been done in a traverse cut of the
weld bead at 0.5 mm from the weld
face and 0.1 mm between
indentations.
For the fabrication of the tensile
specimens, bead-on-plate welds were
performed on plates of approximately
2.5 mm thickness. Based on previous
experiments, it used a laser scanning
speed of 180 cm/min and laser power
of 1800 W. The laser beam was
focused on the sample surface. Speci-
mens for tensile tests were cut out
from the welded plates, according to
Fig. 2. The weld bead was oriented
transversely to specimens length.
The tensile specimens were divided
in four groups with different postweld
heat treatment conditions as follows:
Group A: homogenized,
solutionized, and aged
Group B: homogenized and aged
Group C: solutionized and aged
Group D: aged.
Homogenization treatment created
an oxidized layer. These samples were
ground using SiC 600 paper until the
oxidation was visibly removed. At least
three specimens of each heat
treatment condition were tested and
unwelded specimens of each group
were also tested for comparison. The
existence of pores in the weld bead
was verified by X-ray analysis, and
samples with visible pores were
rejected. Tensile tests were carried out
Fig. 3 Different welding parameters. A Weld bead depth; B width.
Fig. 4 Cellular/dendritic solidification structure of the fusion
zone for a nonaged sample (Alloy A). Etched with Nital 15%.
Fig. 5 Optical microscope image showing the fusion zone and
HAZ for a homogenized sample (Alloy B). The fusion zone no
longer shows the ascast dendritic structure. Etching: modified
Frys reagent.
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
on an Instron 338 machine with a
loading rate of 1 mm/min. The
fracture surfaces were observed under
scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Results and Discussion
Initial Welding Tests
The measured weld beads depths and
widths are shown in Fig. 3 for the 10-
mm-thick plates. The samples that were
aged before welding (pre-aged) showed
similar dimensions to the unaged speci-
mens using the same parameters, indi-
cating that the precipitates have a low
influence on the laser absorption. The
tensile specimens used in this work
were not aged before welding.
The initial results provided an idea
about the behavior of
the alloy after Yb-
fiber laser welding.
Based on these
results, some tests
have also been done
with the 2.5-mm-
thick sheet, consider-
ing that the heat flow
is different in a thin-
ner sample. The pres-
ence of pores and
weld depth were ana-
lyzed. The best
results were obtained
using a weld speed of
180 cm/min and
beam power of 1800
W. These were then
the parameters used
for the tensile speci-
mens.
Microstructure and Hardness
The fusion zone exhibits a cellular/
dendritic morphology, as shown in Fig.
4. After the homogenization treatment,
the fusion zone no longer presented the
cellular/dendritic structure, as shown
in Fig. 5. This result indicates that the
homogenization treatment is effective,
as expected, on eliminating the segre-
gation of the fusion zone.
Figure 6 shows the fusion zone of
an aged sample as well as a
solutionized and aged sample etched
with sodium metabisulfite solution.
The white regions revealed a similar
pattern found by Venkateswara (Ref.
12) using an electron probe microana-
lyzer (EPMA) about the distribution of
molybdenum, which is reported to
segregate interdentrically. The
metabisulfite solution showed to be a
good option to reveal the
molybdenum-rich areas.
Near to the fusion zone in the as-
welded condition, there is an austeni-
tized heat-affected zone (HAZ 1)
followed by an aged zone (HAZ 2), as
shown in Fig. 7. The metallurgical be-
havior of the HAZ can be understood
through the analysis of hardness
across the weld joint.
Figure 8A shows the hardness pro-
file for the sample welded with 1800 W
laser power and a welding speed of 180
cm/min. In the as-welded condition,
the fusion zone and HAZ 1 have simi-
lar hardnesses of about 300 HV. The
hardness values increase in the HAZ 2
and then decrease as long as it gets far-
ther from the weld interface. The age-
hardening effect observed in HAZ 2 is
proportional to the heat input, as ob-
served in Fig. 8B, where a relatively low
welding speed of 30 cm/min was used.
In this case, the hardness values
observed on HAZ 2 were relatively
high. All other welding parameters
used in this work presented the same
general characteristics.
The temperatures experienced by
HAZ 1 were high enough to transform
it into austenite. Although this trans-
formation occurs at temperatures
around 700C, the austenite will only
be transformed back to martensite
during cooling at much lower tempera-
tures, where no aging effect is
observed, preserving the original soft
martensite and hardness values simi-
lar to the base material.
Fig. 6 Fusion zone images. A The aged condition; B solutionized and aged condition. Alloy B, Etching: sodium metabisulfite solution.
Fig. 7 Fusion zone image and the two heataffected zones
(HAZ) (Alloy A). Etched with Nital 15%. HAZ 1 was austenitized
and HAZ 2 was aged during welding.
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
The HAZ 2 had not been
transformed into austenite, but the
temperatures achieved were high
enough to aging, even in such a small
period of time, increasing its
hardnesses values. The higher the
temperature achieved, the higher the
aging effect. The shadow observed in
HAZ 2 is actually caused by the precip-
itates generated during aging.
After the postweld aging treatment,
the two HAZs achieve similar hardness
of about 500 HV (Fig. 8A, B). In this
condition, the fusion zone presented
lower hardness values, probably
caused by the effects of segregation
and formation of reverted austenite.
The homogenization treatment after
welding was not able to make the fusion
zone achieve the same hardness values
of HAZ and base material. Figure 9
shows the hardness profile of a homog-
enized, solutionized, and aged sample.
Tensile Strength Tests
Figure 10 shows the results of ulti-
mate tensile strength, yield strength,
and total elongation for all heat-
treated conditions. Group C
(solutionized and aged) had the
higher strength values, followed by
group A (homogenized, solutionized,
and aged), group D (aged), and group
B (homogenized and aged).
Figure 11 shows a traverse cut of the
fractured region with arrows indicating
the fractured surfaces. The specimens
fractured preferentially at the fusion
zone. In some cases, the crack went
through the fusion zone and also the
HAZ, as exemplified by Fig. 11B.
The welded specimens of all groups
presented quite close mechanical prop-
erties when
compared to the un-
welded specimens,
indicating that the
material has good
weldability. The low
hardness of the fu-
sion zone did not
have a noticeable in-
fluence on the ten-
sile strength. The
welded specimens
presented inferior
elongation
compared to the un-
welded specimens,
except for group B,
where the average
value was higher.
Nevertheless, it is
important to
consider that the in-
ferior hardness of the fusion zone
could cause deformation to be
restricted to this small area.
Homogenization treatment was
detrimental to mechanical properties
in all cases. One of the reasons,
pointed out by literature, is the grain
size growth after homogenization
treatment (Refs. 12, 18, 19) since the
Hall-Petch relationship applies (Ref.
20). Moreover, Rack (Ref. 20) showed
that 18Ni maraging steels with a large
grain size may fail catastrophically due
to the propagation of intergranular
cracks. According to Venkateswara
(Ref. 12), solutionizing heat treatment
(in the same temperature and time
used in this work) was able to reduce
grain size after homogenization treat-
ment and restore some mechanical
properties. For the alloy used in this
work, solutionizing treatment after
homogenization (Group A) was able to
recover some strength, compared to
specimens that were only
homogenized (Group B), but at still
lower values when compared to speci-
mens that were only solutionized
(Group C).
The detrimental effects of homoge-
nization observed in this work, even
after solutionizing treatment, might
have been intensified by the oxidation
layer present on the specimens
surface. Even after grinding, an
oxidized layer of about 100 mm could
still be observed by optical
microscope. Figure 12 shows a
traverse cut image of the fractured
surface of a homogenized specimen,
where the oxidized layer is
highlighted. It is possible to see some
oxidation points where the fracture
may have been originated.
Fig. 8 Hardness distribution across weldment of an aswelded (white dots) and aged sample (black dots). Welding parameters are as
follows: A 1800 W and 180 cm/min; B 1800 W and 30 cm/min.
Fig. 9 Hardness distribution across the weldment of a homog
enized, solubilized, and aged sample welded with 1800 W laser
power and 60 cm/min scanning speed. The fusion zone still pres
ents lower values of hardness compared to the HAZ and base
material even after homogenization treatment.
A B
WELDING RESEARCH
An intergranular crack at the
oxidized region can be observed on the
fracture surface image of Fig. 13.
Conclusions
The stress strength values of the
welded specimens were close to that
obtained for sheet specimens, demon-
strating that the alloy studied in this
work was successfully welded by the
ytterbium-fiber laser source.
It was observed there were two dif-
ferent HAZs an austenitized zone
and an aged zone. The transformation
thar occurred in the HAZ did not have
a significant influence on the tensile
strength since the fracture occurred
preferentially in the fusion zone.
Among all heat treatment
conditions used in this work, the solu-
tionized and aged specimens showed
the best yield strength values, around
1890 and 1900 MPa for welded and
sheet specimens, respectively. The ho-
mogenized samples, on the other
hand, had their mechanical properties
severely affected. The oxidized layer
formed on the homogenized
specimens appears to be the origin of
crack formation.
The fusion zone exhibits a
cellular/dendritic morphology where
there is segregation of alloy elements,
especially titanium and molybdenum.
The sodium metabisulfite solution
etching reagent was capable of reveal-
ing the molybdenum-enriched areas of
the as-cast metal. This segregation in-
creases the tendency of reverted
austenite formation on the fusion
zone, but the strength values obtained
in this work were not severely affected
by this phenomenon. Despite the
expected effect of homogenization
treatment on recovering the hardness
values of the fusion zone, the alloy used
in this work presented lower hardness
values in the fusion zone compared to
the HAZ and base material.
The oxidation effect of
homogenization reported in this work
indicates that the use of an
atmosphere-controlled furnace should
be necessary. Another problem already
reported in the literature about
Fig. 10 Tensile test results. A Ulti
mate tensile strength (UTS); B yield
strength (YS); C elongation.
Fig. 11 Traverse cut images of the fractured surface for specimens of groups A to D.
The arrows indicate the fractured region. Etching: modified Frys reagent.
Fig. 12 Traverse cut image of the fractured surface of a homogenized specimen. The
arrow indicates where the fracture began. It is possible to observe some points where
the oxidation was more intense. Etching: modified Frys reagent.
A A
B
B
C
C
D
WELDING RESEARCH
homogenization treatment of marag-
ing steels is the intergranular crack
caused by grain growth. Considering
that the tensile strengths for
unwelded and welded specimens are
also very close, this work suggests that
the use of homogenization treatment
as a way to eliminate the segregation
effects in the fusion zone may not be
worthwhile and should be evaluated
separately for each maraging alloy and
welding technique.
The authors thank CAPES, Pro-De-
fense Project 014/08, the Instituto de
Estudos Avanados (IEAv/DCTA), and
Dr. Rogrio de O. Hein from UNESP.
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Fig. 13 Images of the fracture surface of a homogenized and aged specimen. A Transition between the fragile oxidized layer and the base
metal; B a highlighted region where an intergranular crack occurred. The oxidized region shows a fragile rupture while the base metal
shows the expected ductile fracture mode with a presence of dimples.
Acknowledgments
References
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