Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

CHAPTER 2 OUTLINE
Biographical Characteristics
1. Finding and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee
productivity, absence, turnover, and satisfaction is often complicated.
2. Many of the conceptsmotivation, or poer, politics or organizational culture
are hard to assess.
!. "ther factors are more easily definable and readily availabledata that can be
obtained from an employee#s personnel file and ould include characteristics
such as$
%ge
&ender
'ength of service, etc.
A. Age

1. (he relationship beteen age and )ob performance is increasing in importance.
First, there is a idespread belief that )ob performance declines ith
increasing age.
*econd, the or+force is aging
(hird, ,.*. legislation largely outlas mandatory retirement.
2. -mployers# perceptions are mi.ed.
(hey see a number of positive /ualities that older or+ers bring to their
)obs, specifically e.perience, )udgment, a strong or+ ethic, and
commitment to /uality.
"lder or+ers are also perceived as lac+ing fle.ibility and as being
resistant to ne technology.
*ome believe that the older you get, the less li+ely you are to /uit your )ob.
(hat conclusion is based on studies of the age0turnover relationship.

!. 1t is tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism.
Most studies do sho an inverse relationship, but close e.amination finds
that the age0absence relationship is partially a function of hether the
absence is avoidable or unavoidable.
1n general, older employees have loer rates of avoidable absence.
2oever, they have higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to
their poorer health associated ith aging and longer recovery periods
hen in)ured.
3. (here is a idespread belief that productivity declines ith age and that
individual s+ills decay over time.
4evies of the research find that age and )ob performance are unrelated.
(his seems to be true for almost all types of )obs, professional and
nonprofessional.
5. (he relationship beteen age and )ob satisfaction is mi.ed.
Most studies indicate a positive association beteen age and satisfaction,
at least up to age 67.
"ther studies, hoever, have found a ,0shaped relationship. 8hen
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
professional and nonprofessional employees are separated, satisfaction
tends to continually increase among professionals as they age, hereas it
falls among nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the
later years.
B. Gender

1. (here are fe, if any, important differences beteen men and omen that ill
affect their )ob performance, including the areas of$
9roblem0solving
%nalytical s+ills
Competitive drive
Motivation
*ociability
'earning ability
2. (here is no significant difference in )ob productivity beteen men and omen.
!. 8omen are more illing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive
and more li+ely than omen to have e.pectations of success, but those
differences are minor.
3. (here is a difference beteen men and omen in terms of preference for or+
schedules.
Mothers of preschool children are more li+ely to prefer part0time or+,
fle.ible or+ schedules, and telecommuting in order to accommodate their
family responsibilities.
5. %bsence and turnover rates
8omen#s /uit rates are similar to men#s.
(he research on absence consistently indicates that omen have higher
rates of absenteeism.
(he logical e.planation$ cultural e.pectation that has historically placed
home and family responsibilities on the oman.
C. Tenure

1. (he issue of the impact of )ob seniority on )ob performance has been sub)ect to
misconceptions and speculations.
2. -.tensive revies of the seniority0productivity relationship have been
conducted$
(here is a positive relationship beteen tenure and )ob productivity.
(here is a negative relationship beteen tenure to absence.
(enure is also a potent variable in e.plaining turnover.
(enure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover
and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.
(he evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.
D. Ability

1. 8e ere not all created e/ual: most of us are to the left of the median on some
normally distributed ability curve.

2. -veryone has strengths and ea+nesses in terms of ability in performing
certain tas+s or activities: the issue is +noing ho people differ in abilities and
using that +noledge to increase performance.
!. Ability refers to an individual#s capacity to perform the various tas+s in a )ob. 1t
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
is a current assessment of hat one can do.
3. 1ndividual overall abilities are made up of to sets of factors$ intellectual and
physical.
E. ntelle!tual Abilities

1. 1ntellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities.
2. 1; tests are designed to ascertain one#s general intellectual abilities. -.amples
of such tests are popular college admission tests such as the *%(, &M%(, and
'*%(.
(he seven most fre/uently cited dimensions ma+ing up intellectual abilities are$
number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive
reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory. "#ee
E$hibit %&'(.
!. <obs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual
abilities. For e.ample, the more information0processing demands that e.ist in a
)ob, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities ill be necessary to
perform the )ob successfully.
3. % careful revie of the evidence demonstrates that tests that assess verbal,
numerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are valid predictors of )ob
proficiency at all levels of )obs.
5. (he ma)or dilemma faced by employers ho use mental ability tests is that
they may have a negative impact on racial and ethnic groups.
6. =e research in this area focuses on >multiple intelligences,? hich brea+s
don intelligence into its four sub0parts$ cognitive, social, emotional, and
cultural.
). *hysi!al Abilities

1. *pecific physical abilities gain importance in doing less s+illed and more
standardized )obs.
2. 4esearch has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of
physical tas+s. "#ee E$hibit %&%(.
!. 1ndividuals differ in the e.tent to hich they have each of these abilities.
3. 2igh employee performance is li+ely to be achieved hen management
matches the e.tent to hich a )ob re/uires each of the nine abilities and the
employees# abilities.
G. The Ability&+ob )it

1. -mployee performance is enhanced hen there is a high ability0)ob fit.
2. (he specific intellectual or physical abilities re/uired depend on the ability
re/uirements of the )ob. For e.ample, pilots need strong spatial0visualization
abilities.
!. @irecting attention at only the employee#s abilities, or only the ability
re/uirements of the )ob, ignores the fact that employee performance depends
on the interaction of the to.
3. 8hen the fit is poor employees are li+ely to fail.
5. 8hen the ability0)ob fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that
far e.ceed the re/uirements of the )ob, performance is li+ely to be ade/uate,
but there ill be organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
satisfaction.
6. %bilities significantly above those re/uired can also reduce the employee#s )ob
satisfaction hen the employee#s desire to use his or her abilities is particularly
strong and is frustrated by the limitations of the )ob.
'earning

'earning occurs all the time.
1f e ant to e.plain and predict behavior, e need to understand ho
people learn.
,. De-inition o- .earning

1. 8hat is learningA % generally accepted definition is >any relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of e.perience.?
1. (he definition suggests that e shall never see someone >learning.? 8e can
see changes ta+ing place but not the learning itself.
2. (he definition has several components that deserve clarification$
First, learning involves change.
*econd, the change must be relatively permanent.
(hird, our definition is concerned ith behavior.
Finally, some form of e.perience is necessary for learning.
. Theories o- .earning
(here are three theoriesclassical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social
learning.
Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning gre out of e.periments conducted at the turn of the
century by a 4ussian physiologist, 1van 9avlov, to teach dogs to salivate in
response to the ringing of a bell.
2. Bey concepts in classical conditioning C9avlov#s e.perimentD
(he meat as an unconditioned stimulus: it invariably caused the dog to
react in a specific ay.
(he bell as an artificial stimulus, or hat e call the conditioned stimulus.
(he conditioned response. (his describes the behavior of the dog: it
salivated in reaction to the bell alone.
1. 'earning a conditioned response involves building up an association beteen
a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
2. 8hen the stimuli, one compelling and the other one neutral, are paired, the
neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, ta+es on the
properties of the unconditioned stimulus.
!. Classical conditioning is passivesomething happens, and e react in a
specific ay. 1t is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event. 1t is
voluntary rather than refle.ive.
Opeant Conditioning
1. "perant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its conse/uences.
9eople learn to behave to get something they ant or to avoid something they
do not ant.
2. (he tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by reinforcement or lac+ of
reinforcement.
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
!. 2arvard psychologist B.F. *+inner#s research on operant conditioning
e.panded our +noledge.
3. (enets of "perant Conditioning are$
Behavior is learned.
9eople are li+ely to engage in desired behaviors if they are positively
reinforced for doing so.
4eards are most effective if they immediately follo the desired
response.
%ny situation in hich it is either e.plicitly stated or implicitly suggested
that reinforcements are contingent on some action on your part involves
the use of operant learning.
Social Leaning
1. 1ndividuals can also learn by observing hat happens to other people, by being
told about something, as ell as by direct e.periences.
2. 'earning by observing is an e.tension of operant conditioning: it also
ac+noledges the e.istence of observational learning and the importance of
perception in learning.
!. (he influence of models is central to social learning.
3. Four processes determine the influence that a model ill have on an individual.
%ttentional processes. 9eople learn from a model only hen they
recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
4etention processes. % model#s influence ill depend on ho ell the
individual remembers the model#s action after the model is no longer
readily available.
Motor reproduction processes. %fter a person has seen a ne behavior by
observing the model, the atching must be converted to doing.
4einforcement processes. 1ndividuals ill be motivated to e.hibit the
modeled behavior if positive incentives or reards are provided.
. #haping: A /anagerial Tool

1. 8hen e attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated
steps, e are shaping behavior.
2. 1t is done by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the
individual closer to the desired response.
!. Methods of *haping Behavior.
9ositive reinforcementfolloing a response ith something pleasant
=egative reinforcementfolloing a response by the termination or
ithdraal of something unpleasant
9unishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate
an undesirable behavior
-.tinctioneliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior.
8hen the behavior is not reinforced, it tends to gradually be e.tinguished.
3. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. (hey strengthen a
response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and
e.tinction, hoever, ea+en behavior and tend to decrease its subse/uent
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
fre/uency.
5. 4einforcement, hether it is positive or negative, has an impressive record as
a shaping tool.
1. % revie of research findings$
*ome type of reinforcement is necessary to produce a change in behavior.
*ome types of reards are more effective for use in organizations than
others.
(he speed ith hich learning ta+es place and the permanence of its
effects ill be determined by the timing of reinforcement. (his point is
e.tremely important and deserves considerable elaboration.
+. #!hedules o- Rein-or!e0ent
1. (he to ma)or types of reinforcement schedules are$ 1E continuous and 2E
intermittent.
2. % continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each and
every time it is demonstrated.
!. 1n an intermittent schedule, not every instance of the desirable behavior is
reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to ma+e the behavior orth
repeating.
1t can be compared to the or+ings of a slot machine.
(he intermittent payoffs occur )ust often enough to reinforce behavior.
1. -vidence indicates that the intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement tends
to promote more resistance to e.tinction than does the continuous form.
2. %n intermittent reinforcement can be of a ratio or interval type.
!. 4atio schedules depend upon ho many responses the sub)ect ma+es: the
individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of
behavior.
3. 1nterval schedules depend upon ho much time has passed since the last
reinforcement: the individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behavior after
a particular time has elapsed.
F. % reinforcement can also be classified as fi.ed or variable.
G. 1ntermittent techni/ues can be placed into four categories, as shon in -.hibit
203.
17. Fi.ed0interval reinforcement schedulereards are spaced at uniform time
intervals: the critical variable is time, and it is held constant. *ome e.amples$
(his is the predominant schedule for most salaried or+ers in =orth
%mericathe paychec+.
11. Hariable0interval reinforcementsreards are distributed in time so that
reinforcements are unpredictable.
9op /uizzes
% series of randomly timed unannounced visits to a company office by the
corporate audit staff
12. 1n a fi.ed0ratio schedule, after a fi.ed or constant number of responses are
given, a reard is initiated.
% piece0rate incentive plan is a fi.ed0ratio schedule.
1!. 8hen the reard varies relative to the behavior of the individual, he or she is
said to be reinforced on a variable0ratio schedule.
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
*alespeople on commission
1. Rein-or!e0ent #!hedules and Behavior
1. Continuous reinforcement schedules can lead to early satiation. ,nder this
schedule, behavior tends to ea+en rapidly hen reinforcers are ithheld.
Continuous reinforcers are appropriate for nely emitted, unstable, or lo0
fre/uency responses.
2. 1ntermittent reinforcers preclude early satiation because they do not follo
every response.
(hey are appropriate for stable or high0fre/uency responses.
!. 1n general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than fi.ed
schedules. I-.hibit 205E
3. Hariable0interval schedules generate high rates of response and more stable
and consistent behavior because of a high correlation beteen performance
and reard. (he employee tends to be more alert since there is a surprise
factor.
.. Behavior /odi-i!ation
1. % classic study as conducted at -mery %ir Freight Ino part of Federal
-.pressE$
-mery#s management anted pac+ers to use freight containers for
shipments henever possible.
9ac+ers intuitively felt that G7 percent of shipments ere containerized. %n
analysis shoed that it as only 35 percent.
Management established a program of feedbac+ and positive
reinforcements by as+ing each pac+er to +eep a chec+list of his or her
daily pac+ings, both containerized and noncontainerized.
%t the end of each day, the pac+er computed his or her container utilization
rate.
Container utilization )umped to more than G7 percent on the first day of the
program and held.
(his simple program of feedbac+ and positive reinforcements saved the
company J2 million over a three0year period.
2. (his program at -mery %ir Freight illustrates "B Modification.
1. (he typical "B Mod program follos a five0step problem0solving model$
1dentifying critical behaviors
@eveloping baseline data
1dentifying behavior conse/uences
@eveloping and implementing an intervention strategy
-valuating performance improvement
2. Critical behaviors ma+e a significant impact on the employee#s )ob
performance: these are those 5K17 percent of behaviors that may account for
up to L7 or F7 percent of each employee#s performance.
!. @eveloping baseline data determines the number of times the identified
behavior is occurring under present conditions.
3. 1dentifying behavioral conse/uences tells the manager the antecedent cues
that emit the behavior and the conse/uences that are currently maintaining it.
5. @eveloping and implementing an intervention strategy ill entail changing
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two
some elements of the performance0reard lin+age0structure, processes,
technology, groups, or the tas+ith the goal of ma+ing high0level
performance more rearding.
6. -valuating performance improvement is important to demonstrate that a
change too+ place as a result of the intervention strategy.
L. "B Mod has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee
productivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and
improve friendliness toard customers.
/. #o0e #pe!i-i! Organizational Appli!ations
1. 8ell pay vs. sic+ pay
"rganizations ith paid sic+ leave programs e.perience almost tice the
absenteeism of organizations ithout such programs.
*tar+mar+ 1nternational IFlorida mar+eting firmE pays employees J177 for
each unclaimed sic+ day up to J677 per year for perfect attendance.
Forbes magazine cut its medical and dental claims by over !7 percent.
2. -mployee discipline
-very manager ill, at some time, have to deal ith problem behaviors.
Managers ill respond ith disciplinary actions such as oral reprimands,
ritten arnings, and temporary suspensions.
(he use of discipline carries costs. 1t may provide only a short0term
solution and result in serious side effects.
@isciplining employees for undesirable behaviors tells them only hat not
to do. 1t does not tell them hat alternative behaviors are preferred.
@iscipline does have a place in organizations.
1n practice, it tends to be popular because of its ability to produce fast
results in the short run.
!. @eveloping training programs
Most organizations have some type of systematic training program.
1n one recent year, ,.*. corporations ith 177 or more employees spent in
e.cess of J5F billion on formal training for 3L.! million or+ers.
*ocial0learning theory suggests that training should offer a model to grab
the trainee#s attention: provide motivational properties: help the trainee file
aay learning for later use: provide opportunities to practice ne
behaviors: offer positive reards for accomplishments: provide opportunity
to transfer learning to the )ob Iif training is off siteE.
3. *elf0management
"rganizational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allo
individuals to manage their on behavior.
(he basic processes involve observing one#s on behavior, comparing the
behavior ith a standard, and rearding oneself if the behavior meets the
standard.
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