Chapter 3

Ecosystems: What Are

They and How Do They
Work?
Chapter Overview Questions
What is ecology?
What basic processes keep us and other
organisms alive?
What are the major components of an
ecosystem?
What happens to energy in an ecosystem?
What are soils and how are they formed?
What happens to matter in an ecosystem?
How do scientists study ecosystems?
Updates Online
The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at
the book companion website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.

InfoTrac: Rescuers race to save Central American frogs. Blade (Toledo,
OH), August 6, 2006.
InfoTrac: Climate change puts national parks at risk. Philadelphia
Inquirer, July 13, 2006.
InfoTrac: Deep-Spied Fish: Atlantic Expeditions Uncover Secret Sex Life
of Deep-Sea Nomads. Ascribe Higher Education News Service, Feb 21,
2006.
Environmental Tipping Points
NatureServe: Ecosystem Mapping
U.S. Bureau of Land Management: Soil Biological Communities
Core Case Study:
Have You Thanked the Insects
Today?
Many plant species depend on insects for
pollination.
Insect can control other pest insects by
eating them
Figure 3-1
Core Case Study:
Have You Thanked the Insects
Today?
if all insects disappeared, humanity
probably could not last more than a few
months [E.O. Wilson, Biodiversity expert].
Insects role in nature is part of the larger
biological community in which they live.
THE NATURE OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is a study
of connections in
nature.
How organisms
interact with one
another and with
their nonliving
environment.
Figure 3-2
Fig. 3-2, p. 51
Communities
Subatomic Particles
Atoms
Molecules
Protoplasm
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems
Organisms
Populations
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
Earth
Planets
Solar systems
Galaxies
Universe
Organisms
Realm of ecology
Ecosystems
Biosphere
Organisms and Species
Organisms, the different forms of life on
earth, can be classified into different species
based on certain characteristics.
Figure 3-3
Fig. 3-3, p. 52
Insects
751,000
Other animals
281,000
Fungi
69,000
Prokaryotes
4,800
Plants
248,400
Protists
57,700
Known species
1,412,000
Case Study:
Which Species Run the World?
Multitudes of tiny microbes such as bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, and yeast help keep us alive.
Harmful microbes are the minority.
Soil bacteria convert nitrogen gas to a usable
form for plants.
They help produce foods (bread, cheese, yogurt,
beer, wine).
90% of all living mass.
Helps purify water, provide oxygen, breakdown
waste.
Lives beneficially in your body (intestines, nose).
Populations, Communities, and
Ecosystems
Members of a species interact in groups
called populations.
Populations of different species living and
interacting in an area form a community.
A community interacting with its physical
environment of matter and energy is an
ecosystem.
Populations
A population is a
group of interacting
individuals of the
same species
occupying a specific
area.
The space an
individual or
population normally
occupies is its habitat.
Figure 3-4
Populations
Genetic diversity
In most natural
populations
individuals vary
slightly in their
genetic makeup.

Figure 3-5
THE EARTHS LIFE SUPPORT
SYSTEMS
The biosphere
consists of several
physical layers that
contain:
Air
Water
Soil
Minerals
Life
Figure 3-6
Fig. 3-6, p. 54
Lithosphere
(crust, top of upper mantle)
Rock
Soil
Vegetation
and animals
Atmosphere
Oceanic
Crust
Continental
Crust
Lithosphere
Upper mantle
Asthenosphere
Lower mantle
Mantle
Core
Biosphere
Crust
Crust (soil
and rock)
Biosphere
(living and dead
organisms)
Hydrosphere
(water)
Atmosphere
(air)
Biosphere
Atmosphere
Membrane of air around the planet.
Stratosphere
Lower portion contains ozone to filter out most of
the suns harmful UV radiation.
Hydrosphere
All the earths water: liquid, ice, water vapor
Lithosphere
The earths crust and upper mantle.
What Sustains Life on Earth?
Solar energy,
the cycling of
matter, and
gravity sustain
the earths life.
Figure 3-7
Fig. 3-7, p. 55
Nitrogen
cycle
Biosphere
Heat in the environment
Heat Heat
Heat
Phosphorus
cycle
Carbon
cycle
Oxygen
cycle
Water
cycle
What Happens to Solar Energy
Reaching the Earth?
Solar energy
flowing through
the biosphere
warms the
atmosphere,
evaporates and
recycles water,
generates winds
and supports
plant growth.
Figure 3-8
Fig. 3-8, p. 55
Absorbed
by ozone
Visible
Light
Absorbed
by the
earth
Greenhouse
effect
UV radiation
Solar
radiation
Energy in = Energy out
Reflected by
atmosphere (34% )
Radiated by
atmosphere
as heat (66%)
Heat radiated
by the earth
Heat
Troposphere
Lower Stratosphere
(ozone layer)
ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS
Life exists on land systems called biomes
and in freshwater and ocean aquatic life
zones.
Figure 3-9
Fig. 3-9, p. 56
100125 cm (4050 in.)
Coastal
mountain
ranges
Sierra
Nevada
Mountains
Great
American
Desert
Coastal chaparral
and scrub
Coniferous
forest
Desert
Coniferous
forest
Prairie
grassland
Deciduous
forest
1,500 m (5,000 ft.)
3,000 m (10,000 ft.)
4,600 m (15,000 ft.)
Average annual precipitation
Mississippi
River Valley
Appalachian
Mountains
Great
Plains
Rocky
Mountains
below 25 cm (010 in.)
2550 cm (1020 in.)
5075 cm (2030 in.)
75100 cm (3040 in.)
Nonliving and Living Components of
Ecosystems
Ecosystems consist of nonliving (abiotic) and
living (biotic) components.
Figure 3-10
Fig. 3-10, p. 57
Sun
Oxygen
(O
2
)
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
Secondary consumer
(fox)
Soil decomposers
Primary
consumer
(rabbit)
Precipitation
Falling leaves
and twigs
Producer
Producers
Water
Factors That Limit Population Growth
Availability of matter and energy resources
can limit the number of organisms in a
population.
Figure 3-11
Fig. 3-11, p. 58
Zone of
intolerance
Optimum range
Zone of
physiological
stress
Zone of
physiological
stress
Zone of
intolerance
Temperature Low High
No
organisms
Few
organisms
Upper limit of
tolerance
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

s
i
z
e

Abundance of organisms
Few
organisms
No
organisms
Lower limit of
tolerance
Factors That Limit Population Growth
The physical
conditions of the
environment can
limit the
distribution of a
species.
Figure 3-12
Fig. 3-12, p. 58
Sugar Maple
Producers: Basic Source of All Food
Most producers capture sunlight to produce
carbohydrates by photosynthesis:

Producers: Basic Source of All Food
Chemosynthesis:
Some organisms such as deep ocean bacteria
draw energy from hydrothermal vents and
produce carbohydrates from hydrogen sulfide
(H
2
S) gas .
Photosynthesis:
A Closer Look
Chlorophyll molecules in the
chloroplasts of plant cells
absorb solar energy.
This initiates a complex
series of chemical reactions
in which carbon dioxide and
water are converted to
sugars and oxygen.
Figure 3-A
Fig. 3-A, p. 59
Sun
Chloroplast
in leaf cell
Light-dependent
Reaction
Light-
independent
reaction
Chlorophyll
Energy storage
and release
(ATP/ADP)
Glucose
H
2
O
Sunlight
O
2

CO
2

6CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O C
6
H
12
O
6
+

6
O
2
Consumers: Eating and Recycling to
Survive
Consumers (heterotrophs) get their food by
eating or breaking down all or parts of other
organisms or their remains.
Herbivores
Primary consumers that eat producers
Carnivores
Primary consumers eat primary consumers
Third and higher level consumers: carnivores that eat
carnivores.
Omnivores
Feed on both plant and animals.
Decomposers and Detrivores
Decomposers: Recycle nutrients in ecosystems.
Detrivores: Insects or other scavengers that feed
on wastes or dead bodies.
Figure 3-13
Fig. 3-13, p. 61
Scavengers
Powder broken down by decomposers
into plant nutrients in soil
Bark beetle
engraving
Decomposers
Long-
horned
beetle
holes
Carpenter
ant
galleries
Termite
and
carpenter
ant work
Dry rot
fungus
Wood
reduced
to
powder
Mushroom
Time
progression
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration:
Getting Energy for Survival
Organisms break down carbohydrates and
other organic compounds in their cells to
obtain the energy they need.
This is usually done through aerobic
respiration.
The opposite of photosynthesis
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration:
Getting Energy for Survival
Anaerobic respiration or fermentation:
Some decomposers get energy by breaking
down glucose (or other organic compounds) in
the absence of oxygen.
The end products vary based on the chemical
reaction:
Methane gas
Ethyl alcohol
Acetic acid
Hydrogen sulfide
Two Secrets of Survival: Energy Flow
and Matter Recycle
An ecosystem
survives by a
combination of
energy flow and
matter recycling.
Figure 3-14
Fig. 3-14, p. 61
Abiotic chemicals
(carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen,
minerals)
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Solar
energy
Consumers
(herbivores,
carnivores)
Producers
(plants)
Decomposers
(bacteria, fungi)
BIODIVERSITY
Figure 3-15
Biodiversity Loss and Species
Extinction: Remember HIPPO
H for habitat destruction and degradation
I for invasive species
P for pollution
P for human population growth
O for overexploitation
Why Should We Care About
Biodiversity?
Biodiversity provides us with:
Natural Resources (food water, wood, energy,
and medicines)
Natural Services (air and water purification, soil
fertility, waste disposal, pest control)
Aesthetic pleasure
Solutions
Goals, strategies
and tactics for
protecting
biodiversity.
Figure 3-16
Fig. 3-16, p. 63
The Ecosystem Approach
Protect populations
of species in their
natural habitats
Goal
The Species Approach
Goal
Protect species
from premature
extinction
Preserve sufficient
areas of habitats in
different biomes and
aquatic systems
Strategy
Tactics
Protect habitat areas
through private
purchase or
government action
Eliminate or reduce
populations of
nonnative species
from protected areas
Manage protected
areas to sustain
native species
Restore degraded
ecosystems
Tactics
Legally protect
endangered species
Manage habitat
Propagate
endangered
species in captivity
Reintroduce
species into
suitable habitats
Strategies
Identify endangered
species
Protect their critical
habitats
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS
Food chains and webs show how eaters, the
eaten, and the decomposed are connected to
one another in an ecosystem.
Figure 3-17