5 Sound Summary 2014

colinhop@bigpond.net.
au Physics revision 2014 207

Recording and Reproducing Sound
This detailed study extends student understanding of waves together with aspects of
electromagnetism to the recording and reproducing of sound. Ideas of sound and electromagnetism
combine to aid the understanding of the operation and use of microphones and speakers, control of
sound level, need for hearing protection and acoustic properties of recording and performance spaces.

describe sound as the transmission of energy via longitudinal pressure waves;

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1, 2,
3
2, 3,
4
1 9 1 2 2 2, , 4 2 1 2 1, 9

Longitudinal waves
In longitudinal waves the vibration of the waves is in the same direction as the line of travel, the
particles do not move forward, they vibrate around an equilibrium position.

The movement of particles is in this direction.
compression rarefaction
Diffraction
Microphones
Electret-condenser
Crystal
Dynamic
Velocity

Loudspeakers
Dynamic

Frequency response

Fidelity
Reflection

Superposition

Resonance and standing
waves
Nature of waves wave equation frequency
response
dB W m
-2
colinhop@bigpond.net.au Physics revision 2014 208

max. positive pressure variation
(compression) greater than normal air pressure

max. negative pressure variation
(rarefaction) less than normal air pressure

normal air pressure is midway between compressions and rarefactions

Fig.a is a picture of a string with a periodic wave moving on it in the +x direction.
Fig.b shows same piece of string 0.10 sec later.

Example 337: 1971 Question 53 (1 mark)
What is the smallest velocity of the wave consistent with this information?

What is the frequency of the wave corresponding to this velocity?

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n


What is the next highest velocity of the wave consistent with the information on the diagram?

Which of the arrows on Fig. a shows the velocity of point P on the string?

Which of the following graphs best represents the velocity-time graph of point Q?


A teacher uses longitudinal waves on a very long spring to demonstrate travelling sound waves. The
first part of the spring is shown below

Example: 342: 1999 Question 1 (1 mark)
Estimate the wavelength of this wave.

Example 343: 1999 Question 2 (2 marks)
What is the speed of this wave if its frequency is 4.0 Hz? Give your answer in cm s
-1
.


A microphone is placed 1.70 m from the loudspeaker and the pressure at this point is measured as a
function of time.

Which one of the diagrams shown below (A D) best represents the pressure variation at the
microphone, as a function of time? The time scale for each starts at t = 0 (when the speaker
commenced to oscillate). You must justify your answer.


Consider a dust particle one metre in front of a loudspeaker that is producing a constant tone sound
wave.

Which one of the following statements and diagrams (A.D below) best describes the motion of the dust
particle?

A. The dust particle oscillates in a vertical direction.

B. The dust particle travels away from the speaker with the wave.

C. The dust particle remains stationary as the wave passes.

D. The dust particle oscillates in a horizontal direction.


A loudspeaker is emitting sound of a fixed intensity which travels equally in all directions. The figure
below shows the pressure variation plotted against distance from the loudspeaker, at a particular
instant of time. Take the speed of sound to be 333 m s
1
.

Which one of the graphs shows the pressure variation as a function of distance from the
loudspeaker, at a time that is a quarter of a period later than shown above?


analyse sound using wavelength, frequency and speed of propagation of sound
waves, v =f;

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
4, 5,
6, 7,
8
1 1 3 3 3 1 1

Wave equation

v= f

Frequency and period

f =
1
T
.

Loudness
The louder a sound is the greater the
magnitude of the variation from normal
pressure.

Reflection, absorption and transmission of sound
When sound strikes a surface, some is reflected, some is transmitted and some is absorbed. The law
of reflection states that the angle of incidence = angle of reflection. When sound is reflected there is
no change in speed, wavelength or frequency. Reflected sound is often referred to as an echo;
multiple reflections contribute to what is known as reverberation. When sound is absorbed, sound
wave energy is usually transformed into heat energy within the absorbing material.


The speed of sound in air is 340 m s
1
.
Ryan and Lee are investigating some properties of sound, and sound systems. They have been given
a signal generator that provides frequencies in the audible range, a small loudspeaker, and an
oscilloscope that they use to observe the amplitude of the signal from a microphone.

They first adjust the signal generator so that sound is emitted from the loudspeaker. The figure below
shows the oscilloscope trace of the signal from the microphone.

What is the frequency of the signal from the microphone?


analyse the differences between sound intensity (W m
-2
) and sound intensity level
(dB);

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
4, 5,
6, 7,
8
4, 5 7, 8 10,
11
3, 4,
5
6, 7 8, 9 3, 5 2, 3,
4, 5
3, 4 5

Intensity of a sound wave
The loudness of a sound depends on how much energy is carried by the wave. The intensity of a
sound wave is used to give a measurement of the rate at which the sound wave is carrying energy.

Sound-intensity Levels
The ear can detect intensities from 1 to 10
-12
W m
-2
. The doubling of the loudness of a quiet whisper
would be very noticeable, but adding the same sound to a louder source would not be noticed at all.
The sound loudness scale measures the ratio of the intensity of a sound wave against a standard
intensity, called the threshold of hearing and is 10
-12
W m
-2
, I
0
.
The sound intensity level, (in dB) = 10 log
0
I
I

A tenfold increase in intensity will correspond to a
level increase of 10dB, heard as a doubling of the
loudness.

A one hundred fold increase is a level increase of
20dB, heard as an increase of 4 in the loudness.

The human ear can only detect changes as small
as 3dB, this is equal to the doubling or halving of
the sounds intensity. This means that to make the
least noticeable increase in the volume of a stereo,
we need to double the power

Sound intensity and level.
Humans respond best to frequencies around 3000 Hz. Higher or lower frequency sounds need to have
greater sound intensity levels to be perceived as being as loud. The graph shows the sound intensity
that is required for a person with normal hearing to just hear each frequency. The low point on the
graph corresponds to the frequency that the ear is most sensitive to, so this frequency, it will appear
louder. Loudness and intensity are not the same, though they are related. Intensity is measurable, but
loudness is subjective.


Ryan and Lee are investigating some properties of sound, and sound systems. They have been given
a signal generator that provides frequencies in the audible range, a small loudspeaker, and an
oscilloscope that they use to observe the amplitude of the signal from a microphone.
When the microphone is 1.0 m from the loudspeaker, the sound intensity at the microphone is
100 mW m
2
. Ryan then moves the microphone further from the loudspeaker so that the distance
separating them is 2.0 m.

What is the expected sound intensity at this position?

By how many dB has the sound level decreased at a distance of 2.0 m from the loudspeaker
compared with the level at a distance of 1.0 m from the loudspeaker?

Rachel and Bruce have assembled some laboratory equipment and are planning a series of sound-
related experiments.

An audio-signal generator is used to drive a small loudspeaker, which emits sound uniformly in all
directions.
The audio power from the loudspeaker is kept constant at all frequencies used in the experiments. A
sound level meter is used to measure sound intensity. This is shown above. Initially, the frequency of
the signal generator is set to 476 Hz.

The speed of sound at the time of the experiment was 340 m s
-1
.
Calculate the wavelength of the 476 Hz sound wave. Include a unit in your answer.


Rachel measures the sound intensity level 2.0 m directly in front of the loudspeaker to be 64 dB.
What is the sound intensity (W m
-2
) at this location?

Rachel repeats the previous measurement, this time a distance 8.0 m directly in front of the
loudspeaker.
Which one of the following (A - D below) is the best estimate for the sound intensity level at this
distance?
A. 4 dB
B. 16 dB
C. 32 dB
D. 58 dB

Bruce places the loudspeaker in a box as shown below. Rachel observes that the sound intensity level
at 8.0 m directly in front of the loudspeaker has increased.

In terms of wave theory, explain how the box increases the sound intensity level. Make sure that your
answer includes references to both interference and phase.


calculate sound intensity at different distances from a source using an inverse
square law (knowledge of acoustic power is not required);

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
8, 9 9 4 2, 3,
4
4, 5 5, 6 4 6

The intensity varies I
2
1
r
. This means that if you double the distance the intensity will decrease by
a factor of 4.

Sound intensities and sound intensity levels of common sounds (not on the course, but
useful background)
Sound Intensity (W m
-2
) Intensity level (dB)
Threshold of hearing 10
-12
0
Rustle of leaves 10
-11
10
Whisper 10
-10
20
Normal conversation 10
-6
50 - 65
Loud radio 10
-4
80
Jackhammer 10
-2
100
Rock concert 1 120
Threshold of pain 1 120
Jet aircraft 100 140

The siren at the headquarters of the Country Fire Authority is mounted on a high stand. It emits sound
with a frequency of 4000 Hz. The figure below shows the siren and two volunteers.

On a day when there is no wind, the intensity of the sound heard by the volunteer at point P, a
distance of 20 m from the siren, is 0.0040 W m
-2
.

What is the sound intensity level (dB) at this point P? Reflections at the ground may be ignored.


What is the intensity (W m
-2
) of the sound heard by the volunteer at point Q, which is 80 m from the
siren?

The figure below shows a graph of the sensitivity of the ear of an average person as a function of
frequency. Sound intensity levels below the threshold of hearing cannot be heard, while those above
can be heard.

Explain, making use of the graph, why the frequency of the siren was chosen to be 4000 Hz.


In a demonstration of the perception of loudness, a teacher sets up a loudspeaker (P) on a stand at
the centre of the school oval as shown above. The loudspeaker emits sound equally in all directions
with a wavelength of 1.0 m. Ignore reflections from the ground.

A student, Xena, stands at the point X, 10 m from the loudspeaker, and measures the intensity of the
sound to be 9.0 10
-8
W m
-2
. Xena now moves to a place further away from the loudspeaker, and
measures the intensity of the sound to be 2.25 10
-8
W m
-2
.

How far is Xena from the loudspeaker at this new position?

By how many decibels has the intensity level of the sound changed between the two readings?


It is a cold, windless morning and three hot-air balloons hover above a park. Each balloon is stationary
and in direct line of sight, with no obstacles near them, as shown. Balloon A is equipped with a 100 W
siren, which emits a 2000 Hz tone uniformly in all directions. On board balloons B and C are students
with sound measuring equipment.

Which of the following is the best estimate of the sound intensity of the siren, measured at balloon B?
A. 0.5 W m
-2

B. 2.5 10
-2
W m
-2

C. 8.0 10
-4
W m
-2

D. 2.5 10
-5
W m
-2

By how many decibels will the sound intensity level at balloon C be lower than at balloon B?

Balloons B and C move so that they are at equal distances from balloon A.
The sound intensity at balloon C is now measured as 1.0 10
-2
W m
-2

What is the sound intensity level (dB) at balloon B?


Explain resonance in terms of the superposition of a travelling wave and its
reflection;

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
11,
12,
13
10,
11,
12
2, 3,
4, 5
8, 9,
10,
11
10,
11
6

Superposition
The displacement of two waves combining with each other is calculated by the vector addition of the
two components. The two pulses pass through each other without being altered.

Constructive interference is when the two pulses pass through each other and superimpose and
reinforce each other to give a maximum disturbance of the medium; this results in a louder sound.
Destructive interference is when the two pulses pass through each other and superimpose and cancel
each other out to give minimum or zero disturbance of the medium; this results in a quieter sound.

Resonance
Resonance is the condition when a natural vibrating system responds to an external driving frequency,
it occurs when a forcing frequency, the same as the natural frequency, is applied. Each object has its
own natural or resonant frequency.

Standing waves
If we have two identical waves travelling in the opposite directions in one medium we get a standing or
stationary wave. The superposition principle is used to obtain the waveform.
Certain points marked N = node = point of zero displacement, a node or nodal point.
Loops or antinodes, marked A, are points of maximum displacement, midway between the nodes.
The wave does not progress through the medium.
Wavelength is the same as that of the components.
Maximum amplitude of the resultant wave is twice that of the components.
The distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes is
2
.
Any particles between any two successive nodes are in phase. Their motions correspond at any
instant. They have zero displacement and maximum displacement at the same instant.
They can only be produced by the superposition of two waves of equal amplitude and frequency
travelling in the opposite direction
They are the result of resonance and occur only at the natural frequencies of the vibration.
Nodes are a result of destructive interference, there is little or no variation in air pressure, so it is
perceived by the listener as a region of soft sound. Antinodes are a result of constructive interference,
so there will be maximum variation of air pressure, which will be perceived as a region of loud sound.


resultant
direction of wave

direction of wave

resultant

resultant

Envelope of vibration

N N N N N

A A A A

Harmonics
The standing wave frequencies are referred to as harmonics. The simplest mode of vibration, which
has only one antinode, is called the fundamental. Higher level harmonics are referred to as overtones.
The first overtone is the second harmonic.


A pulse in a rope approaches a solid wall and is reflected from it.

Which of the following shows the pulse after reflection?

Two loudspeakers P and Q are connected in phase to an amplifier so that they emit sound of
frequency 1000 Hz. A microphone is moved along the line joining P and Q and shows a series of
maximum and minimum intensities. Three successive maxima are found at distances 1.27 m, 1.42 m
and 1.57 m from P.

What is the wavelength of the sound?

What is the speed of the sound in the medium?


Two physics students, Penny and John, use a length of light spring to demonstrate waves to their
class. The situation is shown below, where a scale is visible behind the spring.
P is a point on the spring.

Penny sends a single travelling pulse, moving from left to right, along the spring as shown below.

Which of the statements (A - F), listed in the key below, best describes the motion of the point P, at
the instant shown in the second figure?
Key
A. It is moving to the right.
B. It is moving to the left.
C. It is moving upwards.
D. It is moving downwards.
E. It is momentarily stationary.
F. It is always stationary.

Penny and John now set up a standing wave pattern on the spring as shown below.
At the instant shown below the pattern is at its maximum displacement.

Using the key above, which of the statements (A - F) best describes the motion of the point P, at the
instant shown.


Which one or more of the diagrams, G to J above, could show the standing wave pattern some time
later?
(One or more answers.)


Students use a narrow tube of length 0.432 m open at both ends to model a flute. By varying the
frequency of sound emitted from a small loudspeaker placed near one end, as shown below they
observe resonances at several frequencies.

The wavelengths of the sound at which the resonances with the three lowest frequencies occur are
0.864 m, 0.432 m and 0.288 m. The speed of sound in air is 340 m s
-1
.

Example 368: 1998 Question 10 (c/f 2009 Q10) (2 marks)
What is the lowest frequency at which resonance is observed by the students? Show your working.

The students then fill the 0.432 m tube with helium. The speed of sound in helium is 1000 m s
1
,
compared to 340 m s
1
for air.
The students find the longest wavelength of sound which produces resonance in the tube filled with
helium. Is this wavelength the same, longer or shorter than the longest wavelength when the tube was
filled with air?


In order to study resonance in air columns, students use a narrow tube of length 0.50 m that is
closed at one end and open at the other. They use a signal generator and loudspeaker as shown
below.

The students begin the experiment by using a sound of frequency 100 Hz. What will the students
hear that will enable them to identify this resonance frequency? Explain why this occurs.

Students use a narrow tube, open at both ends, to model a flute. A frequency generator attached to
a loudspeaker is placed near one end, as shown below. The fundamental frequency is measured to
be 385 Hz. Take the speed of sound to be 333 m s
1
.

P is at the middle of the tube and the sound of 385 Hz is still being emitted.
Which one of the following graphs best shows the pressure variation at P as a function of time?


Analyse, for strings and open and closed resonant tubes, the fundamental as the
first harmonic, and subsequent harmonics;

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1, 2,
3
6, 7 10,
11,
12
2, 3 6, 7,
8
7, 8,
9
12,
13
7, 8 6, 7 9, 10 2, 3,
11

Reflection in strings
When a wave reaches a free end, or yielding boundary, it will reflect with crests as crests and troughs
as troughs. Strings in musical instruments are always fixed at both ends.
The wavelength of the standing waves corresponding to the natural harmonics is
n
=
2L
n
or f =
nv
2L
.
All harmonics (n = 1,2,3, ) may be present, the ratio of frequencies f
1
: f
2
: f
3
= 1 : 2 : 3.

The fundamental frequency of a stretched wire depends on: length, tension and mass per unit length.
This gives f =
1 T
2L m
where: f = fundamental frequency in Hertz (Hz), L = length in metre (m),
T = tension in Newton (N), and m = mass per unit length in kg/m.

Reflections in tubes
Wind instruments rely on reflection of sound waves. When a compression arrives at the end of the
tube this high pressure this will reflect back down the tube resulting in a compression being reflected
as a rarefaction. A rarefaction arriving at an open end creates an area of low pressure. This will draw
free air from beyond the end into the tube creating an area of higher pressure, ie a compression

Pressure variation (Open at both ends)
First harmonic (fundamental frequency)
L
1
= 2L
f
1
=
v
2L
N A N

Second harmonic (first overtone)
2
=
2L
2
= L
f
1
=
2v
2L
= 2f
1
N A N A N

Pressure variation (Closed at one end)
First harmonic (fundamental frequency)
L
1
= 4L
f
1
=
v
4L
N A

third harmonic (first overtone, second resonant frequency)
2
=
4L
3

f
3
=
3v
4L
= 3f
1
N A N A

Overtones
The term overtone is applied to harmonics other than the fundamental frequency.
The main features of standing waves in air columns can be summarised
at open ends of the tube there is always an antinode
at closed ends there is always a node
the wavelength of the sound must fit the length of the pipe. The length of the air column that
vibrates is slightly longer than the length of the pipe, since antinodes form just outside the end of
the pipe
the fundamental vibration in a closed pipe has a wavelength twice as long as the fundamental in
an open pipe of the same length. This makes the frequency of the sound produced by a closed
pipe half that of the same length of an open pipe.

The vocal tract can be modelled by a tube of length L that is open at one end and closed at the other,
as shown below. The fundamental frequency of this tube is 500 Hz.
Vocal cords (V)

Calculate the length L of the tube, given that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s
-1
.

With which one or more of the following frequencies (A - E) could the tube also resonate?
A. 250 Hz B. 1500Hz C. 1000 Hz
D. 2000 Hz E. 2500 Hz

A singer emits a pure sound of frequency 500 Hz.
Which one of the diagrams (A - E) best shows the maximum pressure variation above and below
normal atmospheric pressure (P
0
), along the tube which models the vocal tract? The letters M and V
indicate the location of the mouth and vocal cords as shown above.


Kim has set up five plastic pipes (A E) on the window sill, pointing out into the open air as shown
below. The tubes are all open at both ends, but have different lengths from L to
1
4
L. The interesting
thing about such pipes is that each selects out from all the noise in the surroundings, a resonant
frequency that depends on its length.

When Kim listens at pipe A, of length L, the loudest sound that is heard has a frequency of 510 Hz.
What is the length of pipe A?

At which tube (A E above) will Kim hear sound of frequency 765 Hz?

Kim now seals the end of each tube that is outside the window with a sheet of thick cardboard. Kim
then holds a tuning fork of frequency 510 Hz in front of each tube in turn.
Which tube (A E above) will resonate at a frequency of 510 Hz?


Lee and Chris are constructing their own pipe organ. It consists of a number of plastic pipes, each of
which has been cut to a specific length. Their design is such that each pipe can be considered to be
an air column closed at one end. The organ is to have a range of 4 octaves, where the highest note
has a fundamental resonance of approximately 2000 Hz.
The speed of sound may be taken as 320 m s
-1
.
One particular pipe is designed to resonate at a fundamental frequency of 160 Hz.
Which of the choices below is the best estimate of the length of this pipe?
A. 0.25 m
B. 0.5 m
C. 1.0 m
D. 2.0 m

List two other frequencies below 1000 Hz at which this pipe could resonate.

Chris intends to record the sounds being produced by the pipe organ. He argues that since the
frequency of the top note is about 2000 Hz, for good reproduction they need a microphone with a good
frequency response only up to about 2000 Hz. Lee, however, knows that a microphone with a much
higher frequency response is needed to reproduce the organ sound with good fidelity.
Outline, with reasons, why Lee is correct.


describe in terms of electrical and electromagnetic effects, the operation of
- microphones, including electret-condenser, crystal, dynamic and velocity
microphones
- dynamic loudspeakers;

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1 2 10,
11
6 1 1 9, 10 10 12 7

Microphones
Microphones are transducers that transform sound energy into electrical energy that can be magnified
and then changed back to sound. The electrical signal has the same frequency as the sound. The
amplitude of the electrical signal should ideally be proportional to the amplitude of the variations in air
pressure of the sound

Electret condenser microphone
This type of microphone is made with the diaphragm as one plate of a parallel plate capacitor and can
also be referred to as an electrostatic microphone.

An electret is a piece of dielectric material that is permanently
polarised. One side of an electret is permanently positive, the
other side is permanently negative. The front plate is very thin and
usually covered in a very fine layer of gold.

The sound pressure causes the front plate to vibrate, this changes
the spacing between the diaphragm and the stationary back plate.
This causes a change in capacitance. A voltage is supplied to the
plates and thus the amount of charge on the plates varies,
producing a current.

The diaphragm of a condenser microphone can be very light compared with the dynamic microphone
and, consequently, can respond
more quickly and at higher
frequencies. Condenser
microphones usually have a greater
frequency range and a better
linearity than the dynamic
microphones.

Crystal microphone
The diaphragm is attached to a thin piece of piezoelectric crystal such
as quartz. Piezoelectric crystals produce a current when subjected to
changes in pressure. Sound causes the diaphragm to vibrate. This
produces a changing pressure on the crystal. This produces an
electric signal current whose size is proportional to the air pressure
variations of the sound.

Dynamic microphone
Dynamic microphones have a coil attached to a diaphragm
suspended in the magnetic field of a magnet. Pressure changes
(sound) cause the diaphragm to vibrate and the coil to move
backwards and forwards over the pole of the magnet. This, in
turn, causes the magnetic flux in the coil to change, inducing a
current in the coil. The size, frequency and waveform of the
induced current
are proportional to
the pressure
variations of the
sound.
The dynamic microphone has good frequency linearity
and is relatively strong. Good quality dynamic
microphones are used for recording purposes.
Dynamic microphones have peaks designed to gain
clarity with stage vocals

Velocity microphone/Ribbon microphone
The ribbon microphone does not have a diaphragm, it
has a corrugated ribbon of aluminium alloy suspended
in a strong magnetic field. Sound makes the aluminium ribbon vibrate. The
ribbon is corrugated to make it less stiff (so that it responds better to low
frequencies), and it is thin so that it is easily moved by air particles.

The aluminium ribbon responds to the air velocity of the sound waves and
not to any pressure variations. An EMF is induced across the ends of the
ribbon and this creates an electric current signal that is proportional to
variations in air pressure caused by the sound. This is a very sensitive microphone, but it cannot be
used in places where it would be subjected to mechanical shocks. These microphones will pick up
sounds coming from both sides of the microphone.

Listed below are three types of microphones.
crystal
dynamic
electret-condenser

Complete the following table by choosing, from the choices above, the type of microphone that
matches the physical effect on which its operation depends.

Microphone type Principle of operation
electromagnetic induction

piezoelectric effect

capacitance


Dynamic loudspeakers
The alternating current makes the coil around the fixed magnet move backwards and forwards,
creating compressions and rarefactions in the air in front of the cone. The larger the current thats
moving through the wire, the larger the induced magnetic field will be, and hence a greater force of
magnetic attraction or repulsion will be exerted by the permanent magnet. The speaker cone will move
in and out through a greater amplitude, transferring more energy to the surrounding air molecules and
thus creating a louder sound.

Loudspeakers come in a wide variety of sizes, roughly matching the range of frequencies they have
been designed to best produce: woofers for frequencies from 30 500 Hz, mid-range loudspeakers
for 500 4000 Hz, and the aptly named small tweeters for the high frequencies from 4 kHz 20 kHz.

describe the effects of baffles and enclosures for loudspeakers in terms of the
interference of sound waves due to phase difference,

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
3 6 1 11 12 11 8

Enclosures
When a speaker cone moves forward, the front surface sends out a compression wave. But at the
same time the rear of the cone is creating a rarefaction. At low frequencies (less than 200 Hz),
diffraction effects cause the sound waves from the back of the loudspeaker to bend around the outer
rim of the speaker and cancel out the sound waves from the front surface.

Usually the various speakers making up the left channel of a stereo output are mounted together in
one enclosure, and those making up the right in another, although the higher frequencies dont suffer
as much from diffraction effects. Some modern systems are now keeping speakers separate to allow
more tuning of the listening environment. Either way, the supplied frequencies are filtered and each
range is directed to the appropriate speaker: the high-frequency signals are sent to the tweeters and
the low frequencies to the woofer or sub-woofer.

Baffles
Designers aim to stop the unwanted sound from the back of the speaker superimposing with that from
the front. Placing the loudspeaker in a large baffle will always improve the production of low
frequencies, because of the increased distance from the back to the front of the speaker. A large, or
even infinite, distancetermed an infinite baffleis desirable but hardly practical.


A high fidelity loudspeaker system comprising individual
speakers mounted on a baffle board is shown in the diagram
below.
Explain the role of the baffle board in improving the performance
of the loudspeaker system.

Rachel and Bruce have assembled some laboratory equipment and are planning a series of
sound-related experiments.

An audio-signal generator is used to drive a small loudspeaker, which emits sound uniformly in
all directions. The audio power from the loudspeaker is kept constant at all frequencies used in
the experiments. A sound-level meter is used to measure sound intensity.

The sound intensity is measured 8.0 m directly in front of the loudspeaker. Bruce then places the
loudspeaker in a box as shown below. Rachel observes that the sound intensity level at 8.0 m
directly in front of the loudspeaker has now increased.

In terms of wave theory, explain how the box increases the sound intensity level. Make sure that
your answer includes references to both interference and phase.


Interpret frequency response curves of microphones, speakers, simple sound
systems and hearing, including loudness (phon);

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
4 7 5, 6,
7
10

Sound Systems
Human ears do not respond equally to all frequencies. Generally they respond best to frequencies
around 3000 Hz. The graph shows the sound intensity that is required for a person with normal
hearing to just hear each frequency. This means that the low point on the graph corresponds to the
frequency that the ear is most sensitive to. Because the ear is sensitive to this frequency, it will appear
louder.

Phon
The phon is the unit of equivalent
loudness. It measures how loud a sound
is perceived to be compared to a
reference sound normally at 1 kHz
(1000 Hz).

Graphs can be drawn for an average
human ear/brain combination.

The phon level is read from the graph
below. Hence 60 phons means as loud
as a 60 dB, 1000Hz tone.

To find what intensity level is required
for a sound of frequency 5 kHz to have a
loudness of 80 phons, read along the 80
phon curve until it intersects with 5 kHz.
80 dB

The curved line is a line representing all the
frequencies that sound as loud as each other. So on
this graph, a 100 Hz sound will seem equally as loud
as a 1000 Hz sound. This indicates that our ears are
less sensitive to 100 Hz sounds, because we need
more energy/m
2
to hear the 100 Hz sound.

You need to have a very good understanding of this
graph.

Frequency response curves
Microphone frequency response curves (or characteristics) show how well microphones respond to
sounds of the same sound intensity level at different frequencies. They usually have a vertical axis in
decibels (dB) and a horizontal axis in hertz (Hz). The graph enables you to read the variations in the
power gain or loss of the microphone with the frequency of the sound.

Frequency response curve for (a) a woofer and (b) a tweeter

The figure below shows the frequency response curve for a dynamic microphone.

From the data on the graph, what makes this microphone particularly suitable for use by a
singer?


Evaluate the fidelity of microphones and loudspeakers in terms of
- the intended purpose of the device
- the frequency response of the system
- physical construction (qualitative)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
4, 5 4, 5

Fidelity of microphones and loudspeakers
Fidelity is the degree to which a sound reproduction system accurately reproduces the original
recorded sound. A microphone is high fidelity if it responds equally well to most frequencies in the
human range (approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz). The electrical signal produced by the microphone
should be accurately proportional to the original sound.

High fidelity Low fidelity

Ryan and Lee decide to study the effect of different frequencies on the intensity of the sound produced
by the loudspeaker. The figure below shows the response of the speaker as a function of frequency,
when supplied with the same power.

The sound intensity at 1000 Hz at a distance of 1.0 m was measured to be 100 mW m
2
.
They adjust the signal generator to a frequency of 6000 Hz, and provide the same power into the
loudspeaker as they did for the 1000 Hz measurement.
What is the sound intensity they measure at the microphone 1.0 m away?


Ryan and Lee now use their equipment to study interference effects. They set the signal generator to
a frequency of about 1000 Hz, and connect it to an amplifier that feeds two identical small
loudspeakers in phase. The loudspeakers are placed 4.0 m apart. The setup is shown below. A line
OP is drawn on the floor from the midpoint of the line joining the loudspeakers and perpendicular to
that line.

Lee takes the microphone, which is still connected to the oscilloscope, and walks slowly from point O
towards point P. Ryan records the amplitude of the signal on the oscilloscope for different positions of
the microphone that Lee is holding.

Which of the diagrams (A D) above best shows the variation of amplitude as Lee moves from
position O towards position P? In the space below justify your choice.


A high fidelity loudspeaker system comprising individual speakers mounted on a baffle board is shown
in the diagram.

The frequency response curve for one of the speakers in shown below.

Which type of speaker is most likely to have a response curve similar to that shown above?
A. sub-woofer
B. woofer
C. mid-range speaker
D. tweeter

A system uses a single, wide-frequency response speaker. Explain why the quality (fidelity) will
deteriorate as the listener moves off the centreline. Hence explain why a multiple-loudspeaker system,
as shown above, would be more satisfactory.


describe diffraction as the directional spread of various frequencies in terms of
different gap width or obstacle size, including the significance of the magnitude of
the /w ratio
identify and apply safe and responsible practices when working with sound
sources and sound equipment

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
11,
12
11 6 7, 8,
9, 10
7, 8 1 8, 9,
10,
11
12,
13
7 12 9, 11 8 4

Diffraction
Sound waves can travel around corners, they spread out when they come through an open door.
Diffraction is the bending (or spreading) of waves around obstacles in the path of the waves, or as
waves pass through narrow openings. When sound is diffracted there is no change in wave speed,
wavelength or frequency.

Diffraction around obstacles.

long wavelengths, low frequencies short wavelengths, high frequencies

When the obstacle is small compared with the wavelength of the sound, there is very little disturbance.
Larger sound 'shadows' occur when the obstacle is much larger than the wavelength of the incident
wave.

Diffraction through gaps.
When sound travels through a narrow opening, such as a door, the waves bend around both sides of
the opening and are diffracted into the region beyond the barriers
on both sides of the doorway. So a narrow gap acts just like to
obstacles. The amount of diffraction is given by the value of the
ratio
w
where w is either the width of the object or the opening. As
the value of
w
increases, so does the amount of diffraction
(bending). If
w
<< 1, very little diffraction occurs, if the ratio
w
1, then it is complete diffraction, i.e.
bending through 180
0
.

Locating sound sources
We use this concept of diffraction to locate sound sources. For high frequencies (short wavelengths)
the head acts as an obstacle. One ear will hear a greater intensity than the other, from this we are
able to locate the direction of the sound. Low frequencies are much more difficult to locate, because
the long wavelengths will diffract around the head and both ears will hear approximately the same
sound intensity. To locate low frequency sounds the brain also needs to pick the time delay between
the signals to identify the direction.


Alexandra and Gary arrived at a pop concert that had already started. While waiting at point X in a
queue, Alexandra commented that the sound quality was poor. Although they could hear sound of low
frequency, high frequency sound was relatively much weaker. They were pleased to find that the
sound quality improved when they reached point Y in front of the hall entrance.

Circle the letter (A D) of the wave phenomenon that best explains their observations.
A. reflection B. refraction C. resonance D. diffraction

Explain why the sound quality was poorer at X, but improved at Y.


Max and Michelle are buying loudspeakers for their hi-fi. They are choosing between two models, a
35-cm diameter speaker (P), and a 5-cm one (Q). Both speakers operate equally well over the
complete audible frequency range. Max is standing in front of the speakers, and Michelle is the same
distance away, but to one side, as shown below.

As a test of the speakers they play sounds of 10 000 Hz and 200 Hz, and compare the intensity that
they each hear.
The wavelength of sound of frequency 200 Hz is 1.65 m. What is the wavelength of sound of
frequency 10 000 Hz?

Max comments that the intensity of the sound of both frequencies seems the same from either
speaker. However Michelle says that for the larger speaker, the 10 000 Hz sound is significantly softer
than the low frequency sound.
Explain these observations. Include relevant calculations and/or diagrams to support your reasoning.


Two physicists are discussing the design of a new theatre for use by a school choir. The design
requirement is for good acoustic properties; in particular, for even distribution of sound over the
whole frequency range throughout the theatre. A plan of the theatre to be used is shown below.
The stage opening is approximately 3 m wide.

One of the physicists wants to line the walls of the audience area of the theatre with heavy sound-
absorbing curtains.
Which one of the following states why this is a good idea?
A. The curtains will reduce the effect of diffraction through the stage opening, hence producing
better quality sound.
B. Without the curtains, different frequencies will reflect differently from the walls, causing distortion
due to diffraction effects.
C. Without the curtains, different frequencies will reflect differently from the walls, causing distortion
due to interference effects.
D. Without the curtains, there would be multiple paths from the speaker to each member of the
audience, thus causing distortion and sound loss due to interference effects in some parts of the
theatre.


Robyn is asked to address a large crowd on an oval at school. There are two public address
systems; each has a total power output of 160 W. Option A (left-hand diagram below) has one
loudspeaker of diameter 0.10 m that can handle 160 W. The other system, Option B (right-hand
diagram), has a line of 32 speakers of total length 3.2 m connected in parallel. Each speaker is 0.10
m in diameter, capable of handling 5 W.

The long line of speakers (Option B) can be treated as a single wide source. Both diagrams show the
layout of the oval and the public address systems. Robin must choose the system that will ensure
that most of the people, dispersed all over the oval, will be able to hear.
Which of the statements below gives the correct choice, and the best reason for the choice?
A. System A, since diffraction effects produce a wide maximum.
B. System A, since a single loudspeaker produces a better quality sound.
C. System B, since it produces more audio power.
D. System B, since diffraction effects produce a wide maximum.

5 Sound Summary 2014

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

5 Sound Summary 2014

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

colinhop@bigpond.net.

au Physics revision 2014 207

You might also like