The Brainstem

The section of human brain portrayed in Figure 3.8 shows several of the main structures of the
brainstem. In general, the brainstem produces more-complex movements than does the spinal cord. In
addition to responding to most sensory stimuli in the environment and regulating eating and drining,
body temperature, sleep and waing, the brain stem can produce the movements of waling and
running, grooming, and sexual behavior !all of which are more complex than the reflexive movements
produced by the spinal cord". The brains of fish, amphibians, and reptiles are basically e#uivalent to a
mammalian brainstem$ in conse#uence, the behavior of these animals is a good indication of the
functions of the brainstem. The brainstem can be subdivided into three parts% the diencephalon, the
midbrain, and the hindbrain. Their main structures and functions are summari&ed next.
Organization of the Motor System
The Brainstem
In addition to the corticospinal pathways that carry messages to the spinal cord, about '( pathways to
the spinal cord originate in various locations in the brainstem. These pathways are important for
carrying information pertaining to posture and balance from the brainstem and for controlling the
autonomic nervous system. For all motor functions, the motor neurons are the final common path, but
movements produced by the brainstem differ from those produced by the neocortex in that brainstem
movements tend to be whole-body movements, unlie the silled movements of the limbs organi&ed
by the neocortex.
The general idea that the brainstem is responsible for many movements performed by animals was
most dramatically revealed by a series of studies done by )wiss neuroscientist *alter +. ,ess. ,ess
developed the techni#ue of implanting and cementing electrodes into the brains of cats and other
animals.
These electrodes could subse#uently be attached to stimulating leads, causing little discomfort to the
animal and allowing it to move freely.
*hen ,ess stimulated the brainstem of a freely moving animal, he was able to elicit almost every
innate movement that an animal of that species might be expected to mae. For example, a resting cat
could be induced to suddenly leap up with an arched bac and erect hair, as though frightened by an
approaching dog. The movements would begin abruptly when the stimulating current was turned on
and end e#ually abruptly when the stimulating current was turned off.
The behaviors were performed without vigor when the stimulating current was low but increased in
vigor as the stimulating current was turned up. )ome stimulation sites produced turning of the head,
others produced waling or running, others produced aggressive or fear movements, and so forth. The
emotional behavior of the animal also could be modulated. *hen shown a stuffed toy, a cat might
respond to electrical stimulation of some sites by staling the toy, whereas it would respond to
stimulation of other sites with fear and withdrawal.
-ther functions of the brainstem pertain to the control of the movements used in eating and drining
and in sexual behavior. The brainstem is also important for posture, for the ability to stand upright and
mae coordinated movements of the limbs, for swimming and waling, and for movements used in
grooming and maing nests. .rooming is in fact a particularly complex example of a movement
pattern coordinated mainly by the brainstem. *hen grooming, a rat sits bac on its haunches, lics its
paws, wipes its nose with its paws, wipes its paws across its face, and finally turns to lic the fur on its
body.
These movements are always performed in the same order. The next time you dry off after a shower or
swimming, note the /grooming se#uence0 that you use. 1our grooming se#uence is very similar to the
se#uence used by the rat.