9

CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK, RATIONALE, RESEARCH
HYPHOTHESES

A. Theoritical Framework
1. The Nature Of Descriptive Writing
a. The Definition Of Writing
Writing has for many years, even centuries, occupied a large place in
teaching and learning procedures in schools. To be literate has implied the ability
to read and write in the native language, and it is these skills which students have
practiced in class. This approach to native-language learning has easily transferred
to the foreign-language classroom, without too much thought given to its
appropriateness or inappropriateness in a situation where the student does not
have the spoken form the language already at his command. Writing exercises
keep students busy and out of mischief. They are easy to set; the inexperienced or
poorly qualified teacher may take them directly from the textbook, with which a
key to acceptable answers is usually provided; they may often be corrected as a
group procedure in the classroom; and they yield a wide spread of evaluative
grades for entry in the teachers records. With so much writing in foreign-
language classes over so many years, one would expect to find that this is the skill
for which effective methods have long since been evolved and with which the
students have the most success. Unfortunately, examinations, disappointing, and
teachers of advanced courses in colleges and universities continue to deplore the
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inability of students with four, five, and six, years of secondary school study of
the language behind them to express themselves in a clear, correct, and
comprehensible manner in writing. We would do well to examine critically the
role of writing in foreign-language learning at high school level, to analyze what
is involved in the process of writing a foreign language, and to trace out the steps
which this skill can be progressively mastered.
Traditionally, writing activities in foreign-language classes have taken the
form of the writing out of paradigms and grammatical exercises, dictation,
translation from native language to foreign language and from foreign language to
native language, and imitative and free composition. These exercises have often
been the only sections of language study tested in examinations and have
therefore become, in the eyes of students and teachers alike, the most important
occupations in foreign language classroom.

These various kinds of writing as follow:
1) Notation: In its simplest form writing can be the act of putting down in
conventional graphic form something which has been spoken. This act
may involve nothing more than the correct association of conventional
graphic symbols with sounds which have for the writer no meaning and no
significant interrelationship.
2) Spelling: This process is sometimes useful when specific sound-symbol
conventions are under consideration, or when the student is being asked to
discriminate among various sounds. If recognizable units of the foreign
language are involved.
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3) Writing practice: Writing becomes a more complicated process when it
involves putting in graphic form, according to the system accepted by
educated native speakers, combination of words which might be spoken in
specific circumstances (that is, which convey certain elements of
meaning). This type of writing which is involved in grammatical exercises,
the constructions of simple dialogue, and uncomplicated translation
exercises.
4) Composition: In its most highly developed form, writing refers to the
expression of ideas in a consecutive way, according to the graphic
conventions of the language; the ultimate aim of a writer at this stage is to
be able to express himself in a polished literary form which requires the
utilization of a special vocabulary and certain refinements of structure
(Riyes, 1970).

According to Riyes (1970:245-246) there are five stages of development to
write:
1) Copying
Copying (sometimes called transcription), is often despised by foreign-
language teachers as an unworthy and unchallenging occupation for
adolescent students. This attitude is unfortunate and ignores the fact that there
are many aspects of another language which are very strange to the students
and with which he needs to familiarize himself very thoroughly if he is to
write the language confidently. At this stage, he repeats a sentences to himself
12

as he copies it, and then tries to say it over to himself two or three times
without referring to the script.
2) Reproduction
Stage the student will attempt to write, without originality, what he has
learned orally and read in his textbook. This he will be able to do all the more
successfully if he has been trained in habits of accuracy during the copying
stage. If sound writing habits are to e firmly established, the learning
situations must be continually structures so that the students will write
correctly. As a first he will be to rewrite immediately each sentence he has
copied without reference to his copy or to the original. He will then compare
this version with the original for correction. Next he will be asked to write
down sentences he has memorized, read, and copied as they are dictated to
him.
3) Recombination
Where the student is required to reproduce learned work with minor
adaptations. This parallels in conception the recombination stage in oral work
and reading. It must, however, be continually borne in mind that the work for
recombination in writing will always be some distance behind what is being
spoken and read. At this stage, writing practice may take a number of forms.
Students will write out structure drills of various kinds: making substitution of
words and phrases, transforming sentences, expanding them to include further
information within the limits of learned phrases, contracting them by
substituting pronouns for nouns or single words for groups of words.
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4) Guided Writing
The student will be given some freedom in the selection of lexical
items and structural patterns for him written exercises, but within a framework
which restrains him from attempting to compose at a level beyond his state of
knowledge. At the guided writing stage the student may begin with
completion exercise where parts of sentences are given and the structural
pattern is thus established for him. Writing at this stage is still under
supervision.
5) Composition
The final stage of composition involves individual selection of
vocabulary and structure for the expression of personal meaning. In foreign
language, the student is still not capable of being truly creative in his writing
at this level, since he must write as a native speaker would write, without
having, as yet, the same mastery of the language in all its flexibility. At this
stage he will bee increasing his understanding of the differences between
speaking and writing a foreign language (Rayes, 252).

b. Types of Writing
The types of writing has two types, it is according to Alice Oshima (1999:
16-18).
1) Writing a Paragraph
A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group
of related sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as
one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is
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unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the
main idea clearly.
A paragraph may stand by itself. In academic writing, a paragraph is
often used to answer a test question such as the following: Define
management by objectives, and give one example of it from the reading you
have done for this class.
A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as a
chapter of a book or an essay. You will first learn how to write good
paragraphs, and then you will learn how to combine and expand paragraphs to
build essays.
A paragraph has three major structural parts; a topic sentence,
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only
names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one areas that
can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific
area is called the controlling idea.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by giving reasons,
example, facts, statistics, and quotations.
The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves
the reader with important points to remember.
In addition to the three structural parts of a paragraph, a good
paragraph also has the elements of unity and coherence.
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Unity means that you discuss only one main idea in a paragraph. The
main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting
sentence develops that idea. If, for example, you announce in your topic
sentence that you are going to discuss two important characteristics of goal or
gold mining.
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand
because (1) your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order and
(2) your ideas are connected by use of appropriate transition signals. For
example, in the paragraph about gold, there are two supporting ideas: Gold is
beautiful, and gold is useful. Each of these supporting ideas is discussed, one
after the other, and an example is given for each one. This is one kind of
logical order. Furthermore, the relationship between the ideas is clearly shown
by using appropriate transition words and phrases such as first of all, for
example, another important characteristic, and in conclusion.
2) Writing an Essay
An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long instead of just
one or two paragraphs. It is written about one topic, just as a paragraph is.
However, the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in one paragraph.
Therefore, you must divide the topic into several paragraphs, one for each
major point. Then you must tie all of the separate paragraphs together by
adding an introduction and a conclusion.
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Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing paragraph except that
an essay is longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if
you can write a good paragraph, you can write a good essay.
An essay has three main parts.
a) An introductory paragraph
b) A body (at least one, but usually two or more paragraphs)
c) A concluding paragraph
The introductory paragraph consists of two parts: a few general
statements about your subject to attract your readers attention and a thesis
statement to state the specific subdivisions of your topic and/or the plan of
your paper. A thesis statement for an essay is just like a topic sentence for a
paragraph: it names the specific topic and the controlling ideas or major
subdivisions of the topic.
The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops
a subdivision of your topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary
with the number of subdivisions or subtopics. The body is longest part of the
essay and can contain as many paragraphs as necessary to support the
controlling ideas of your thesis statement. The paragraphs of the body of the
essay are like the main supporting points in a single paragraph. Furthermore,
you can organize the paragraphs in an essay just as you organize the ideas in a
paragraph, by chronological order, logical division of ideas, comparison and
contrast, etc.
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The conclusion in an essay, like the concluding sentence in a
paragraph, is a summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.
The only additional element in an essay is the linking expressions
between the paragraphs of the body. These are just like transitions within a
paragraph. You use transitions within a paragraph to connect the ideas
between two sentences. Similarly, you use transitions between paragraphs to
connect the ideas between them.

c. Kinds of writing
George and Julia (1980: 378) divided kinds of writing four kinds:
1) Narration
Narration is the form of writing used to relate the story of acts or
events. Narration places occurrences.
2) Description
Description reproduces the way things look, smell, taste, feel, or
sound; it may also evoke moods.
3) Exposition
Exposition is used in giving information, making explanations, and
interpreting meanings.
4) Argumentation
Argumentation is used in persuading and convincing. It is closely
related to exposition and is often combined with it.


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d. Teaching Writing
The reasons for teaching writing to students of English as a foreign
language include
1) Reinforcement: some students acquire language in a purely oral/aural way,
but most of us benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. The
visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both our
understanding of how it all fits together and as an aid to committing the
new language to memory. Students often find it useful to write sentences
using new language shortly after they have studied it.
2) Language development: we cant be sure, but it seems that the actual
process of writing (rather like the process of peaking) help us to learn as
we go along. The mental activity we have to go through in order to
construct proper written texts is all part of the ongoing learning
experience.
3) Learning style: some students are fantastically quick at picking up
language just by looking and listening. For the rest of us, it may take a
little longer. For many learners, the time to think things through, to
produce language in a slower way, is invaluable. Writing is appropriate for
such learners. It can also be quiet reflective activity instead of the rush and
bother of interpersonal face-to-face communication.

Writing as a skill: by far the most important reason for teaching writing, of
course, is that it is a basic language skill, just as important as speaking, listening
and reading. Students need to know how to write letters, how to put written
19

reports together, how to reply to advertisements- and increasingly, how to write
using electronic media. They seed to know of writings special conventions
(punctuation, paragraph construction etc.) just as they need to know how to
pronounce spoken English appropriately. Part of out job is to give them that skill
(Harmer, 1998: 79)

e. Descriptive Writing Theories
Writing is one way to improve the students or personal development, as
we write, we become more potent thinkers and active learners, and we eventually
to a better understanding of ourselves through the clarifying and organizing of our
personal experiences and our innermost thoughts, and also writing helps fulfill our
to communicate. In this paper the write would like to explain about the descriptive
writing, correlate to the statement above, that writing is the way to improve the
students skill, so the writer interested to analyze the descriptive writing.
1) The meaning of descriptive
Descriptive is one of form of form of writing. The form of writing are
narration, exposition, persuasion. In writing, it is not avoided that the students
make an error in their performance, such as in making a descriptive writing.
Descriptive is writing about the way persons, animal, or thins appear.
Descriptions tell us how something looks or feels or sound (Randal, 1976:
254).

We could describe a person from head to toe, or vise or versa, or begin
with his most noticeable, feature and work from there.
Description is used nearly always as supporting device of on the other
three: narration, exposition, persuasion:
Descriptive is most useful in painting a word-picture of something concrete,
such as a scene or a person. Its use in not restricted, however, to what we can
20

perceive with our sense: we can also describe or attempt to describe an
abstract concept, such as an emotion or quality or mood. But most attempt to
describe fear, for instance, still resort to the physical-a coldness around the
heart, perhaps-and in such concrete ways communicate the abstract to the
reader (Randal, 1976: 253).

The purpose of description is to make a readers see, hear, or otherwise
experience something, description reproduces the way things look, sound, smell;
it may also evoke moods, such as happiness, loneliness. So between the writer and
readers have a same conclusion at the end. According to Djoko Widagdho (109) :
Karangan deskripsi adalah karangan yang berusaha melukiskan dan
menggambarkan ataumengemukakan, tingkah laku seseorang, suasana dan
keadaaan suatu tempat atau sesuatu lainnya, dan harus diusahakan agar
pembaca seolah-olah melihat sendiri apa yang kita lukiskan tersebut.
When we describe something, we draw a picture of it in words, such as if
we describe someone in one paragraph, A descriptive paragraph is a paragraph
that describes something. (Warriner, 1977: 329). In describing a descriptive
writing, we can describe a person, place etc. The following is an example of
descriptive writing place.
Until I was thirteen and left Arkansas for good. The store was may favorite
place to be. Alone and empty in the morning, it look like an unopened
present from a stranger. Opening the front doors was pulling the ribbon off
the unexpected gift. The light would come in softly (we faced north), easing
it self over the shelves of mackerel, salmon, tobacco, thread. It felt flat on the
big vat of lard and noontime during the summer the grease had softened to a
thick soup. Whenever A walked into the in afternoon. I sensed that it was
tired. I alone could hear the slow pulse of its job help done. But just before
be a time, after numerous people had walked in and out. Had argued over
their bills, or joked about their neighbours, or just dropped in to give sister
Henderson a Hi y all, the promise of magic mornings returned to the
store and spread it self over the family in washed life waves (Warriner, 1977:
330)

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Describing person;
Toms wife was a tall termagant, fierce of temper, loud of tongue, story of
arm. Her voice was often heard in wordy warfare with her husband; and his
face sometimes showed signs that their conflicts were not confined to words.
Thus room was a universal friend of the needy and acted like a friend in
need, that is, he always exacted good pay and good security. In proportion
to the distress of applicant was the highness of this terms. He accumulated
bonds and mortgages and gradually squeezed his customers closer and closer,
and send them at length, dry as a spone from his door.
From the eyes the panther and other stories, ladder edition (pyramids
communications, inc, 1972)

Washington irring
The devil and Tom Walker

2) The types of descriptive (Ismail Marahimin, 2001: 45-47).
In descriptive writing, there are two types of descriptive, expository and
then impressionist.
a) Expository
In making writing, we have to prepare anything. In writing too the have to
open our mind to write in apiece of paper. The writer must give about
information in writing based on the facts. According to warriners an
expository is giving the information about something or explains something.
The example of expository
No bird in the world is better equipped for per suit than the peregrine falcon,
bullet headed, broad in the shoulder and tapering to the tail, a powerful,
perfectly streamlined machine whose pointed wings are capable of putting it
into a power dive estimated to reach 175 miles per hour. But the peregrine is
effective only in open terrain; for this reason falconry as a sport has never
caught on in wooded eastern North America as it has on the moorlands of
north England and Scotland. Most falcons are strong fliers of the open
country, although some of smaller ones, the kestrels, are more like helicopters,
hovering for mice, grass hoppers, and the petty pray (Wariner, 1982: 331).
22

b) Impressionists
Actually, every writer want to make a reader understand about her/she
writing, so the purpose of the writer is making a reader to see or feel what the
writer want. In writing, the writer tries to show the situations, idea or make the
reader interest to read. According Herman William: The purpose of someone
interested in writing impressionistic description is thus to make us see and
thereby share and experience (William 1977: 199).

The Example of impressionist:

Our backyard is dominated by huge old live oak tree. The base of the trunk
measures approximately ten feet around. The thick muscular trunk rises
solidly for about eight feet and then separates into four main branches. From
these, the lower branches spread out horizontally over the ground, reaching
into the neighbors yard. The main branches continue to rise, up and up.
Where they compete with each other for air and sunlight from this heights, the
neighborhood cardinal and blue joys sing to each other, keeping a sharp eye
out for cats. As the bird sway in the wind, they look as if they are riding a ship
across a gently swelling ocean. From these heights too, it is easy to see the
variety of shrubs and sweet smelling flowers lining the two long sides of our
rectangular yard, the small walkway along the back of the house, and the back
fence that runs along the alley (Regina, 1995: 80).


In the first language education, learning to write to involves learning
specialize version of language already known to students. This specialized
language differs from spoken language, both I form and in use, but build upon
linguistic resources those students already posses. The ultimate goal of learning
to write is for most the value of being able to write effectively increase as
students progress through compulsory education on to higher education. At
the university level in particular, writing is seen not only as standardized
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system of communication but also as essential tool for learning. At least in the
English Foreign Language, one of the main functions of writing at higher
levels of education is to expand ones own knowledge through reflection rather
than simply to communicate information.
While the specific goals of writing instruction may vary culture to culture,
it is clear that writing is an important part of the curriculum n schools from the
earliest grade onward, and that most children in countries that have a formal
education system will learn to write. At least at the basic level in relatively
standardized within a particular culture.

2. The Nature Of Teaching Approach
Approach can be interpreted as a turning point or point of view we have on
the learning process, which refers to the view of the occurrence of a process that is
still very general nature, in which accommodating, strengthen, and supported
learning method with certain theoretical coverage. Seen from the approach, there
are two types of teaching learning approaches, namely: (1) learning-oriented
approach or based on students (student-centered approach) and (2) learning-
oriented approach or based on teacher (teacher-centered approach).
According to the Department of Education (1990: 180) approach can be
interpreted, "as a process, act, or how to approach things."
In the opinion of Wahjoedi (1999 121) that, "teaching approach is a way to
manage student learning activities and behavior so that he can actively perform
learning tasks so as to obtain an optimal learning outcomes".According
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Syaifuddin Sagala (2005: 68) that, "The teaching approach is a path that will be
used by teachers and students in achieving instructional objectives for a particular
instructional unit". According to Sanjaya, (2008:127) approach to student-
centered learning strategies reduce discovery and inquiry learning and inductive
learning strategies. According Suherman (1993:220) argues in the learning
approach is a road, way or policies adopted by the teacher or the students in
achieving the learning objectives from the perspective of how the process of
learning or the learning materials, general or special. According Soedjadi
(1991:102), differentiates into two mathematics learning approach, as follows.
1) Approach the material (material approach), which is the explanation of certain
mathematical topics using other math materials. learning approach (teaching
approach), which is the process of delivering or presenting specific math topics in
order to facilitate students' understanding.
From theories above we can conclude that, the teaching approach is a way
to have the system working to facilitate the implementation of the learning
process and student learning to assist in achieving the goals set.

a. Teacher Centered Approach
Teacher centered learning in the classroom is that the planning and eacher-
centered instruction. In this method a teacher (both teachers and lecturers) is
instrumental in providing teaching materials for their students. There are three
common tool in schools to implement teacher centered, ie creating behavioral
targeting (behavioral), analyzing the task, and preparing instructional taxonomy.
25

They mean that gurulah a bigger role for the smooth process of teaching and
learning in the classroom (Santrock, 2008). Meanwhile there is the same theory
advanced by Santrock teacher centered, Sudjana (2001) suggested approach
centered learning educators are learning activities that emphasize the importance
of activity in teaching or membelajarkan learners. Planning, implementation and
assessment of learning outcomes fiber process conducted and controlled by
educators.
Both the above theory can be interpreted that the teacher centered
approach to learning is a learning approach in teaching and learning teacher-
centered. Teacher as one - only center students receive information and the raw
information from the teacher and follow all instructed by the teacher.

1) General Tool Teacher centered approach
Three common tools that are useful in planning school teacher centered is
to create behavioral targeting (behavioral), analyzing tasks, and develop
taxonomy (classification) instructional (Santrock, 2008).
a) Creating behavioral targeting is a statement about the changes that
are expected by the teacher will occur in student performance.
b) Behavioral objectives should be specific. Mager (In Santrock,
2008), believes that behavioral targeting should contain three
parts: student behavior will focus on what students learn or do, the
conditions under which the behavior occurs stating how the
behavior will be evaluated or tested, the performance criteria to
determine the level of acceptable performance .
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c) Another tool in the task of analyzing teacher centered planning is a
task analysis, which is focused on solving a complex task that
students learn into components. This analysis can be through three
basic steps (Moyer & Dardig in Santrok, 2008); determine the
skills and concepts that students needed to learn the task, apply
materials needed to perform a task, such as paper, pencils,
calculators, and so on. Registering all the components work to be
done.
d) Taxonomy also helps formulate instructional teacher centered
approach. Bloom taxonomy developed by Benjamin Bloom and
his colleagues (1956). This taxonomy classifies educational
objectives into three domains: cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor.

2) Teacher-centered instructional strategy
There are five strategies that can be done to develop teacher-centered
(Santrock, 2007).
a) Teaching, explanations, and demonstrations
Regular activity of teachers in the direct instruction approach.
Research has found that effective teachers spend more time to
explain and demonstrate the new material (Rosenshine in
Santrock, 1985).
b) Questions and discussion
27

It is important to respond to the learning needs of each student
while keeping the interest and attention of the group. At issue is
the boys are usually more than female students dominate the
discussion.
c) Mastery learning
Learning a concept or topic thoroughly before moving on to more
difficult topics. Some studies show that mastery learning is
effective in improving student time spent to learn a task (Kulik,
Kulik, & Bangert-Drowns, 1990), but other researchers do not
receive much evidence to support this pendeketan mastery
learning (Bangert, Kulik, & Kulik , 1983). Resulting from the
mastery learning depends on teachers' expertise in planning and
implementing its strategy.
d) Seatwork
Made everyone or most students to learn on their own at their
bench. Different teachers in using this approach. Some teachers use
it every day, but there are also rare.
e) Homework
Another important instructional decisions is how much and what
type of homework should be given to the students.
3) The characteristics of learning-centered approach to teaching (Teacher
centered)
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According Sudjana (2001), the characteristics of learning-centered
approach to teaching is:
a) The predominance of educators in the learning activities, while
students are relatively passive and just doing activities through the
creation of an educator.
b) Learning materials made up of basic concepts or learning new
material and students need complete and clear information from
educators.
c) The number of students learning enough so that implementation
does not allow done by individuals or small groups.
d) Limited means of learning so that students can not do the learning
activities experienced directly through the application of learning
activities experienced or directly through the application or
experimental activities in the field.
4) Advantages and Weaknesses centered learning approach educators
(Teacher centered) Excellence-centered approach to learning educators
are:
a) Learning materials can be delivered completely by educators in
accordance with the learning program that has been prepared
beforehand.
b) Can be followed by students in large numbers.
c) Exact time will be used in accordance with the time schedule
specified learning.
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d) Target had planned learning materials relatively easily achieved.
While the weaknesses this learning approach is:
e) Easily lead to boredom on self-learners so that it can reduce
motivation, attention and concentration of students towards
learning activities.
f) The success of learning, in this case the change in the attitude and
behavior of students, is relatively difficult to measure because it is
informed to the students in general more touching the realm of
cognition.
g) Quality of the achievement of learning objectives that have been
set are relatively low because educators often just chasing a target
time to spend learning materials. Or large group learning method
suitable for use in mass relative centered learning strategies
educators. The techniques used include a lecture or lectures,
question and answer, lecture varied, demonstrations or
demonstration process and the results of other techniques related to
teaching techniques through mass media (Sudjana, 2001).

b. Cooperative Learning
1) The notion of cooperative learning
Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goal. Within
cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes beneficial to themselves and all
other group members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small
30

groups through which students work together to maximize their own and each
others learning (Johnson in Richard, 2001) .
According to roger, Olsen, and Kagan (Kessler, 1992) cooperative
learning is a body of literature and research that has examined the effects of
cooperation in education. It offers ways to organize group work to enhance
learning and increase academic achievement.
Jack C Richards and Teodere S Rodger (2001:47) defined the cooperative
learning is an approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative
activities involving pairs and small groups of learner in the classroom.
In order to build a good interaction, relation ship, sense of belonging and
also gives a good effect on student achievement in learning a foreign language, it
is a good for English teacher to use cooperative learning as a teaching method to
be implemented in the classroom.
Cooperative learning is a learning process that makes students working
together, helping, each other, and sharing ideas, asking and giving information
together.
Slavin (1995: 2) illustrates further that: cooperative learning prefers to a
variety of teaching methods in which students work in small group to help one
another learn academic content. In cooperative classroom, students are expected
to help each other, to discuss and argue with each other, to assess each others
current knowledge and fill in gaps in each others understanding.
H. Douglas Brown (2001: 47) defined the cooperative learning As
students work together in pairs and groups, they share information and come to
31

each others aid. They are a team whose players must work together in order to
achieve goals successfully.
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small
teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning
activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is
responsible not only for learning. What is taught but also for helping teammates
learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the
assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete.
Cooperative learning is a learning process carried out by the teacher to
make students work together and help each. In this learning process student can
solve their problems and task with their friends.
As stated Robert E Slavin (1995) : All cooperative learning methods the
idea that students work together to learn and responsible for their team mates
learning as well as their own. In addition to the idea of cooperative work, student
team learning methods emphasize the use of team goals and team success, which
can be achieved only if all member of the team learn the objective being taught
that is, in student team learning the student, task area not do something as a but
learn something as a team.
Cooperative learning not only makes student work in the group but also
train them to express their in the group. So each member of the group can be an
active participant in solving the problems.






32

2) Principles of Cooperative Learning
Roger E. W-B Olsen and Spencer Kagan (1992: 8) say that there are five
component in cooperative learning, positive interdependence, individual
accountability, face to face, collaborative skill, processing group interaction.
a) Positive interdependence
Positive interdependence among the students. Positive
interdependence will succeed when group members feel that they
are linked with each other in away that one can not succeed unless
everyone succeeds. So positive interdependence can cause students
work in groups to reach the best result of their group in learning.
b) Individual accountability,
Each member should have responsibility in learning and in
achieving groups goal. So each member should participate for the
best result of his or her group.
c) Face to Face Interaction
It is a condition in which the members of the group can able to
communicate to each other conveniently to accomplish the group
task.
d) Collaborative skill,
Students must be taught the skills how to cooperate with each
other in a group for a high quality of cooperation. Thus, teacher can
teach students the skills how to contribute their ideas, accept and
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appreciate others ideas, being good listeners and asking people for
reason.
e) Processing group interaction.
Learning in group can increase students skill in working and
interacting with others. in addition, they can also work and interact
with other group in the class. The interaction process among the
groups can include the feeling of togetherness, it can give positive
influence to each member to work better for the success of the
groups.

3) Other Elements of Cooperative Learning
Although there is general agreement on the importance of the above
elements, there is considerable variation accorded to size of group,
teambuilding, process or product, grading system and role of teacher (Roger,
1992: 14).
a) Group Size
Group size is an important factor in cooperative learning. The
teacher decides on the size of the group, this will depend on the
task they have to carry out, the age of the learner and the time
limits for the lesson. Typical group size is from two or four and can
be selected by the teacher, randomly or selected by the students.
b) teambuilding
Teambuilding is one of method conducted by students as they
begin to use cooperative learning. Teambuilding procedures can
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include having students choose a team name of their teammates,
the goal is for each team to learn the names of all the members of
the other them. these activities should be enjoyable, helping to
build good relationships between team members, while allowing
them to see how the group function.
c) product or process
Students will experience the interactive process of cooperative
learning either in integrated or separated skill. Aspects of the
interaction process may be emphasized as in the process of doing
the assigned materials that they evaluate how they cooperated,
encouraged and explained their teammates about the materials.
d) Grading
The grading system of team performance are including averaging
teammates individuals scores, assigning the lowest individual
score to each teammate, or adding individual scores. Students have
equal chance to improve their score, so each team can do well.
e) Role of the Teacher
The teachers role is to check students understanding about the
lesson and the task that should be done. Besides, the teacher can act
as a facilitator. He can observe and watch student while they are
working in groups. The teacher can also give a guidance and
explanation to the groups that have difficulties in doing the tasks.



35

4) Cooperative Learning Techniques
There are some techniques of cooperative learning according to Anita Lie
some of them are numbered head together, think pair square, three step
interview, and taking chips, and jigsaw (Anita Lie, 2002: 54-65).
a) Number Head Together
In this technique, a teacher divides student into some groups. Each
group consist of 4 members. First, the teacher gives a number to
each member such as, 1,2,3, and 4. then the teacher explains the
lesson and asks some question to the whole groups in the class.
Each group should discuss the answers and give reason for their
answers. In discussing the answer the teacher asks each member of
the groups to give his answers and reason , for example, the teacher
asks the members 1 to answer the question no; I, and some other.
After that, the teacher discusses the answer with the whole class.
b) Think-Pair-Square
In this technique, the teacher divides the students into some groups
each consisting of 4 members. Then the teacher explains the lesson
to the students. After that the teacher asks some questions or tasks
to the whole group in the class. Each group should discuss the
questions or tasks in to steps. First students discuss the questions or
tasks in two step. First, student discuss the question or task in pairs.
Second, they discuss the question or tasks again with other pairs in
their group in order to choose the best answers.
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c) Taking Chips.
In the technique, each member in group has three paper chips. In
the discussion each member stars with three paper chips. Every
time they speak, they get up one of their chips. When they have no
more chips, they can not speak again except to ask questions. It
happens until everyone has used all their chips. At that point,
everyone gets their chips back and that process begins again.
d) Three Step Interview
In this technique each person in the group has a letter: A, B, C ,or
D. then, person A interview person B, person C interview person
D. finally, each group member takes turns telling the other member
about the person they interviewed. For example, person A tells
person C and D about B, and some other. If time permits, each
person tells the whole class about one person in theirs group.
e) Jigsaw
In this technique, each group consists of 4 members. This is their
home team. Each home team member gets a different piece of
reading material: piece A,B,C or D. each person leaves their home
team and forms a group of no more than four from those who have
the same letter. This is their piece. Then, they team. They form
expert teams to become experts on their pieces. Then, they return
home and teach their piece to their home team . finally, home team
37

combine the information from their experts with their other
knowledge to perform a task
5) The Advantages and Disadvantages of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning can give a new way for learning in group especially
in learning English.. Cole and Chan say, cooperation also means as
collaborative activity that leads to a sharing of the goods, resources, reward or
privileges. Available to the group (Cole, 53). Using cooperative learning in the
class has some advantages and disadvantages which will be discussed in the
following section.
a) The advantages of cooperative learning.
Cooperative learning can promote a positive atmosphere or
effective climate, as distinct from the more public and potentially
threatening performance environment of the lockstep classroom.
Motivation, too, is often improved if learners feel less inhibited and
more able to explore possibilities for self expression. Arguably,
too, co-operation in the classroom is encouraged. These are
undoubtedly positive factors, but in individual classroom still need
to be in tune with it educational classroom.
There are some advantages of using cooperative learning in
teaching English. Shaw as cited by Cole and Chan says, students
in cooperative groups are able to work together for the good of the
group as whole rather just for their individual needs (Cole, 54).
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According to webb, as cited by Cole and Chan, students in
cooperative learning groups can be encouraged to assist students
with learning problems or disabilities. groups member are able to
monitor one anothers performances and provide feedback to those
having difficulties in learning new tasks.
Cole and chan also state cooperative learning procedures allow for
the social integration of special needs students. This positive
benefit can be used to improve the attitudes towards differences in
social background social class, and academic background.
And according (1989) identifies six primary benefit of cooperative
learning for students acquiring English. They are:
(1). Increased frequency and variety of second language practice
through different types of interaction
(2). Possibility for development or use of the first language in ways
that support cognitive development and increased second
language skill.
(3). Opportunities to integrate language with content- based
instruction.
(4). Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular
materials to stimulate language as well as concept learning
(5). Freedom for teachers to master new professional skill,
particulary those emphasizing communication; and
39

(6). Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other,
thus assuming a more active role in their learning (Mcgroarty,
1992: 2)..
b) The Disadvantages of Cooperative Learning
Beside the advantages, cooperative learning also has disadvantages,
therea are many complaints about cooperative learning which are
noted by Christison, its too noisy, I dont have enough space to
do cooperative activities, it takes so much time and effort, I have
too many students in my class to work in pairs small group.(
Christison, 1990: 6).
Cooperative learning has more advantages than disadvantages, so
in implementing cooperative learning in the classroom, the
disadvantages above can be minimized by using the collaborative
skill in the groups. Students need to know how to minimize the
noise

3. The Nature of Sentence Structure Mastery
a. The Defenition of Sentence Structure
Sentence is very important for some one who wants to communicate
with other people in speaking or in writing. For that reason, ones must
understand the definition of the sentence , because its one of the alternative ways
to recognize and to apply the sentence well.
40

A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that are
grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to
express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion.( ^
"'Sentence' - Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2013-
08-23)
A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms alone, i.e., as
anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop (Halliday,
20$). For instance, the opening of Charles Dickens' novel Bleak House begins
with the following three sentences:
There are several description of the sentences base on the dictionary of
language and linguistic a sentence is defined as the expression of a complete
though with at least a subject and a predicate. Marcella frank ( 1972: 220) in
Modern English a practical reference guide stated that traditional grammar
defines a sentence in way of two ways: by meaning and by function.
By meaning . according to this definition , a sentence is a complete though
By function , according this definition , a sentence consist of a subject and
a predicate .According to Masud Mada Stated that a sentence is a group of a
word expressing a complete though or a group words that begins with a capital
letter and ends with a period
Joy M . Red ( 1998: 121) stated in the Process of Composition that a
sentence is a group of words that you use to communicate your idea in writing or
in speech.
41

As. Michael ,A, Pyle and Mary Ellen Munoz (1982: 40) stated in the
book of TOEFL Preparation Guide that every sentence in English must have a
subject.

R A Thomson (1992: 407) stated that a sentence always begin with a
capital letter and ends with a full stop. also in the book of the Oxford Learners
Pocket Dictionary with illustrations stated that A sentence is a set of a word
expressing a statement, a question or a command , a sentence usually contain with
a subject and a verb in written English they begin with a capital letter and ends
with a full stop or and equivalent word.


The similar though about the definition of the sentences stated Michel
Swam (1980: xxvii) a sentence is a group of words that express a statement ,
command , question, or exclamation , a sentence consist of one or more clauses
,and usually have at least one subject and verb , in writing begin with a capital
letter and ends with a full stop , question mark or exclamation mark.
b. The Classification Of the Sentence
Sentences are generally classified in two ways , one by type and one by
number of formal prediction (Marcella, 1972: 220).
1) Classification sentence by type
a) Declarative sentence ( Statement )
In declarative sentence the subject and the predicate have normal
word order . the sentence end with period in writing and drop in
pitch in speech . for example :
The child ate his dinner
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He write s a letter every day
The beautiful lady watches TV program on TV set next to me.
His girl friend will go to London next week
A friend of mine studies English every day.
b) Interrogative sentence (Question)
In an interrogative the subject and auxiliary are often reversed . the
sentence ends with a question mark ( or, interrogative ) in writing ,
in the spoken language most yes no question end wit a rise in
pitch. Most interrogative word question end with a fall in pitch.
There are three kinds of questions in English :
(1). yes no question
these are simple questions eliciting the answer yes or not . For
example :
Is Mary late ?
Did Johns arrive late ?
Do you have any money ?
Is it raining ?
Are these enough chairs ?
(2). Attached question ( or tag )
These are also yes- no question , but the special form into which
they are put shows which of these two answers is actually
expected. These alternative for yes-no question consists of two
parts , the first part makes statement , the second part ask the
43

question that expect the agreement with the statement the second
part contains the regular question auxiliary plus the personal
pronoun that stand for the subject . for example :
it is not raining , is it ?
there is still some bread left, isnt there ?
they never go any where , do they ?
I am a student, arent I ?
- The teachers will not come on time , will they ?
(3). Interrogative word question
these are question that elicit specific information a person, place,
time, etc, for example :
Why is Mary late ?
Why did Mary arrive late ?
How tall are you?
How old are you ?
What is your name ?
c) Imperative Sentence ( Command, Request )
Imperative sentence is a sentence or verb from which command ,
request or forbid an action to be carried out. In an imperative
sentence only the predicate is expressed . the simple form of verb
is used regardless of person or tense. The imperative sentence end
with a period in writing and drop in pitch in speech.
For example :
44

open the door
dont open the door
lets not open the door
lets open the door
close the door
d) Exclamation Sentence ( exclamation )
Exclamation sentence is a sentence contain a strongly emphasized
opinion different from the declarative form either in intonation or
in structure . such sentences begin with an exclamation phrase
consisting of what or how plus a part of predicate. The exclamatory
phrase is followed by the subject and the balance of the predicate.
In writing the exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation
mark ( or, exclamation point ) sometime a period is used to lessen
the force of the exclamation . in speech, the most important word
in exclamatory phrase may receive a stronger degree of stress and
be accompanied by a rise in pitch.
What (a) is used when a noun terminates the exclamatory phrase
For example :
what a beautiful hair she has !
what a beautiful eye she has !
what a beautiful figure she has !
what a beautiful lady she is !
45

how is used when an adjective or an adverb terminates the
exclamatory phrase. For example :
How a wonderful car it is !
How a beautiful she is !
How a beautiful landscape it is !

2) Classification of Sentences by Number of full Predication
The classification is based on the number and kind of clauses within a
sentence.
a) Simple Tense
Simple tense contains only one clause. It is full subject and
predicate and the clause is and independent clause which can stand
alone grammatically . the simple sentence takes the form of
statement , a question, a request and an exclamation.
(1). Declarative
For example :
He goes to London
The man stole the jewelry
(2). Interrogative
For example :
what is your name ?
how old are you ?
3) Imperative
For example :
46

open the door
please close the door
4) Exclamation
For example :
what a terrific shoes they are !
how a wonderful bag it is !
b) Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent
clauses connected by coordinating conjunction , such as and, or, nor,
but, for, so, and yet. Each clause in a compound sentence must have a
subject and a verb, is of equal importance , and can stand alone
.punctuate the sentence by putting a comma(, ) before the
coordinating conjunction
For example :
- he says he will finish the work on time, and he will
- he says he will finish the work on time ,but he wont
- you may wait for him in the waiting room, or you may stay
here till he returns.
- The girl could not get the taxi ,so she took a bus
- I had explained the lesson twice , yet he didnt understand.



47

c) Complex Sentence
Complex sentence is a sentence which is made up of at least one
independent or main clause and one independent or subordinate
clause (Hartman, 1972: 45).
There are three types of dependent clause , named according to their
function in the sentence , such as adverbial clause , adjective clause,
noun clause.
(1). Adverbial Clause
An adverbial clause is a clause which function as an adverb
modifying some other structure . it can not stand alone as a
sentence , it must be connected to an independent clause.
When an adverb clause precedes an independent clause ,
comma is used separate the clause follows, usually no comma
is used . the adverbial conjunction which introduce an adverb
clause are when, because, although, if, while, . they also called
subordinating conjunction (Betty, 1989: 337).
For example :
- He went to market because he would to buy a pair of
shoes
- When I was in London, I visited the house of Owen
- Although it was raining, I went to campus
- If I have much money , I will go around the world
- It began to rain while I was walking home
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(2). Adjective Clause
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a
noun. It also called a relative clause the relative pronoun used
in relative clause are who, which, that, whom, whose, where,
when.
for example :
I know the who teaches me
The shoes which I used are a fired of mine
The man whom I saw was Mr. George
The Beach where I spent our vocation was beautiful
July is the month, when the weather is usually the
hottest
(3). Noun Clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause that function as a noun. It
can perform any function a noun, for example as a subject or
subject complement
There are three types of dependent clauses noun clauses, such
as that- clause w h-question clauses, yes/no question clause.,
For example :
I think that he is a good teacher
I know where she lives
I wonder if she need helps

49

d) Compound Complex Sentence
A compound complex sentence is a combination of two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent clause
For example :
many students drive their car to the college, but others
prefer to take public transportation because free parking
near the campus is unavailable.
If the students wish to park in the campus parking a lots ,
they must pay for a permit or the campus police will tag
their car.
From theories above, can conclude that a sentence strucure mastery is the
ability of the students to make a good sentence that is consist of words that they
use to communicate idea in writing or in speech.

B. Rationale
1. There Is Effect Of Teaching Approach Toward Student Descriptive
Writing Skill
In the learning process, the teaching approach is not everything. There are
many other factors that will determine the outcome of learning. This means
teaching approach is just one factor of many factors that require attention in the
overall management of learning. However, the determination of a specific
teaching learning approach in this case an approach of cooperative learning to
improve students descriptive writing skill skill was important for two reasons;
50

a. Determination of program content, learning materials, learning strategies,
learning resources, and techniques / forms of assessment should be
informed by the teaching learning approach is selected.
b. A reference to determine the overall management stages of learning is a
teaching learning approach selected.
Awareness of the need for proper teaching approach in descriptive writing
of the fact that most students are not able to link between what they are learning
with understanding how academic concepts they earn just something abstract, yet
practical needs touched their lives. Learning for which they receive only
accentuate memorizing of the topic or subject, but not followed by a deep
understanding that can be applied when they are confronted with a new situation
in life.
Using certain approach to the learner can develope their idea thats
difficult to say. It is developed to improve student decriptive writing skill and
used to facilitate thinking in the classroom setting and also used to stimulate for
classroom discussion. The learner will use the approach easily to generate their
ideas. Furthermore they will enjoy writing well. On the other hand, using certain
accproach for teaching that emphasizes well developed and carefully planned
lessons designed around small learning increments and cleanly defined and
prescribed teaching tasks. It is specifically designed to enhance academic learning
time. It does not assume that students will develop ideas on their own. Instead, it
takes learners through the steps of learning systematically, helping them see both
the purpose and the result of each step. When teachers explain exactly what
51

students are expected to learn, and demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish a
particular academic task, students are likely to use their time more effectively and
to learn more.
Based on the conceptual framework that allegedly, There is effect of
teaching approach toward student descriptive writing skill.
2. There Is Effect Of Sentence Structure Mastery Toward Students
descriptive writing Skill.
As we know language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for
human communication. Every group of society in a given culture, has its own
language, which they use it to communicate or to interact between them, it has a
set of agreed rules. This fact denotes us that we can communicate with every
people if we have understood well their culture and their language structure.
The students who learned English, generally still doubt whether they have
already produced and put into use are correct or wrong. This state of confusion is
certainly the lack of understanding of English structure. The students structure
mastery will most likely be the help in comprehending the reading passage.
Curriculum 1994 states: Pembelajaran unsur-unsur bahasa ditujukan untuk
mendukung penguasaan dan pengembangan empat ketrampilan berbahasa, bukan
untuk kepentingan penguasaan unsur-unsur itu sendiri. (Departemen Pendidikan
dan Kebudayaan, 1994:3).
The ultimate goal of English achievement for the students is they have to
master English well including the four language skills above and to use them in
52

either written form or the spoken one, because language is always associated with
spoken and written language activities.
Sentence structure mastery is needed in every language. In order to know
and acquire a foreign language, it is obvious that the learners, in this case the
students, have to know its sentence structure. Because, without knowing and
mastering the sentence structure of the language being learned, we may get wrong
interpretation of sentences.
In studying structure, the students learn how to put or construct the words
together or how the words relate to other words. The students learn how the words
are arranged in getting the meaning of the sentences.
There are many ways used in teaching structure. The way of teaching
should be appropriate with the method and approach used. Besides, the way must
be useful for the students achievement. Because, not all the ways fit for certain
class but it does not fit when it is used in another class.
The suitable way of teaching depends on many factors. The factors could
come from the situation connected with the class itself. It includes the amount of
students in the class and the condition of the classroom. On the other hand, the
factor could come from the performance of the students. Their intelligence and
their interest to study influence the way decided to use too. For these reasons, the
teacher must vary the way of teaching according to purposes of the teaching
learning process, the age and attainment of the class, and further, select and
arrange the materials which fit the students.
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Especially for students who learn English as foreign language, sentence
structure mastery is very important. The ability to understand and use the structure
is an important factor for the learners. In fact, evidence shows that there is a
strong relationship between structure and the four of language skills. As we know
the students language learning today points to the usage for communication
including the four skills of language: reading, writing, speaking and listening, but
structure still needs to be given attention. For it is impossible to master the four
skills of language without understanding the structure of language being learnt.
Based on the correct sentence structure, we can master the four of
language skills. The mastery of the four language skills based on the correct
sentence structure needs a lot of practice and application.
In the other hand, we know that nowadays, the formative test of English as
an obligatory subject at schools consist of many short-reading passages, there are
questions about content and grammatical structure. So, mastering the sentences
structure is very important in order to comprehend the reading passages, because
all those reading passages are built from grammatical structure and lexical items
The students who master sentence structure display a facility with words
and languages. They are typically good at writing, and telling stories. They tend to
learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and discussion and
debate. They are also frequently skilled at explaining, teaching and oration or
persuasive speaking. Hence mastery sentence structure can learn foreign
languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability
to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.
54

Based on the statement, it can be assumed that there is effect of sentence
structure mastery toward students descriptive writing skill.

3. The Interaction Effect Between Teaching Learning Approaches And
Sentence Structure Mastery On Students descriptive writing Skill Skill.
Good learning activities, conducive learning process, and the
implementation of effective learning can not be separated from teaching learning
approaches that used by teachers as well as sentence structure mastery.
Knowingly or not, that the teaching learning approaches especially cooperative
learning has a considerable influence on student descriptive writing skill. Besides
teaching learning approaches, sentence structure mastery also affects the student
writing skill. In learning activities teaching approaches can provide the excitement
of learning so that students are more motivated to take part in the teaching and
learning writing process in the classroom. Teaching approach and sentence
structure mastery positive synergy and is closely associated with student wiritng
skill.
Based on the description of the framework, allegedly There is an
interaction effect between teaching learning approaches and sentence structure
mastery on students descriptive writing skill.




55

C. Research Hypotheses
Based on the description of the theoretical basis and framework above, it
can be formulated research hypotheses, as follows:

1. There is effect of teaching approach toward students descriptive writing skill;
2. There is effect of sentence structure mastery toward students descriptive
writing skill;
3. There is an interaction effect between teaching learning approaches and
sentence structure mastery toward students descriptive writing skill.