LIQUIDS, SOLID AND PHASE CHANGE

OLIQUIDS
Importance of Intermolecular Interaction
A liquid can be describe as a form of matter that has a definite volume and takes the
shape of its container. In a liquid, the volume of the molecules and the intermolecular
forces between them are much more important than in a gas.
Kinetics of Liquids
An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the molecules and
the rapidity of their movement.
If a particular molecule gains enough kinetic energy when it is near the surface of a
liquid, it can overcome the attractive forces of the liquid phase and escape into gaseous
phase. This is called a change of phase. When fast moving molecules with high kinetic
energy escape, the average energy of the remaining molecules is lower; hence the
temperature is lowered.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the friction or resistance to motion that exists between the molecules of a
liquid when they move past each other. The viscosity of a liquid depends on its
intermolecular forces.
Ex: H2O vs alcohol and gasoline.
Surface Tension
Molecules at the surface of a liquid experience attractive forces downward and sideways
along the surface of the liquid. This imbalance force results in a property called surface
tension.
Capillary Action
Capillary action, the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid, is a
property closely related to surface tension ( a liquid will rise quite high in a very narrow
tube if a strong attraction exists between the liquid molecules and the molecules that
make up the surface of the tube).
Ex: paper chromatography; meniscus; plant
OPHASE EQUIBRIUM
Phase equibrium is when the rates of evaporation and condensation equalize.
In a close system, when opposing changes are taking place at equal rates, the system is
said to have dynamic equilibrium.
Chteliers Principle states that when a system at equilibrium is disturbed by the
application of a stress, it reacts so as to minimize the stress and attain a new equilibrium
position.
The molecules in the vapor that are in equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature
exert a constant pressure. This is called the equilibrium vapor pressure at that
temperature.
OBOILING POINT
When a liquid is heated in an open container, the liquid and vapor are not in
equilibrium and the vapor pressure increases until it becomes equal to the pressure
above the liquid. At this point, the average kinetic energy of the molecules is such that
they are rapidly converted from the liquid to the vapor phase within the liquid as well as
at the surface. The temperature at which this occurs is known as the boiling point.
Boiling point is defined as the point at which the liquids vapor pressure equals the
atmospheric pressure.
OCRITICAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The temperature above which the liquid phase of a substance cannot exist is called its
critical temperature. Above its critical temperature, no gas can be liquefied regardless of
the pressure applied. The minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical
temperature is called its critical pressure.
OSOLIDS
There are three categories: crystalline solids, amorphous solids and polycrystalline.
Particles in solids do vibrate in position, however, and may even diffuse through the
solid. Others not due to strong ionic or covalent bonds in network solids.
When heated at certain pressure, some solids vaporize directly without passing through
the liquid phase. This is called sublimation. Solids like solid carbon dioxide and solid
iodine exhibit this property because of unusually high vapor pressure.
The temperature at which atomic or molecular vibrations of a solid become so great that
the particles break free from fixed positions and begin to slide freely over each other in a
liquid state is called the melting point. The amount of energy required at the melting
point temperature to cause the change of phase to occur is called the heat of fusion.
OPHASE DIAGRAMS
The triple point is the only point temperature and pressure at which all three phases of a
substance can exist.
OWATER
Purification of Water
The process of distillation involves the evaporation and condensation of the water
molecules. The method of purification will remove any substance that has a boiling
point higher than that of water.
Composition of Water
Synthesis is the formation of a compound by initing its components.
Heavy Water
A small portion of water is called heavy water because it contains an isotope of
hydrogen, D (deuterium) which has one proton and one notron in its nucleus. Another
isotope is tritium, which has a nucleus of one proton and two notron.
Hydrogen Peroxide
H2O2 is a well-known bleaching and oxidizing agent.
Water Calorimetry Problem
Waters heat of vaporization = 40.79 kJ/mol = 2,26 x 10
3
J/g
Waters heat of fusion = 6.01 kJ/mol = 3.34 x 10
2
J/g
From 0 100: to increase the temperature of water by 1
o
C, the water needs to absorb
4.18J/g
1 cal = 4.18 J
Waters Reactions with Anhydrides
Anhydrides are certain oxides that react with water to form two classes of compounds-
acids and bases.
Basic anhydrides or Basic oxides
Acid anhydrides or Acid oxides
OPOLARITY AND HYDROGEN BONDING
Water reaches its greatest density at 4
o
C
Among H2O molecules, there are hydrogen bonds. This rather wide open structure
account for the low density of ice. As heat is applied and melting begins, this structure
begins to collapse. The collapsing increases the density of the water, but the remaining
bonds keep the structure from completely collapsing. As heat is absorbed, the kinetic
energy of the molecules breaks more bonds. At the same time, this added kinetic energy
tends to distribute the molecules farther apart. At 4
O
C, these opposing forces are in
balance-thus the greatest density.
OSOLUBILITY
When substances are dissolved in water to the extent that no more will dissolve at that
temperature, the solution is said to be saturated.The substance is called the solute and
the dissolving medium is called a solvent. If more water is added to the saturated
solution, then more solute will disolve in it.
General Rules of Solubility
- All nitrates, acetates, and chlorates are soluble
- All common compounds of sodium, posstasium, and amonium are soluble
- All chlorides are soluble except those of silver, mercury (I), and lead. (Lead
chloride is noticeably soluble in hot water)
- The normal carbonates, phisphates, silicates, and sulfides are insoluble except
those of sodium, posstasium, and amonium.
- All hydroxides are insoluble except those of sodium, potassium, ammonium,
calcium, barium, and strontium.
To solid, when temperature increases, solubility usually increases. Pressure has little
effect. To gas, solubilty usually decreases with temperature increase, solubility varies in
direct proportion to the pressure applied to it: Henrys Law.
Factors That Affect Rate of Solubility (How Fast They Go Into Solution)
The following procedures increase the rate of solubility
- Pulverizing increases surface exposed to solvent.
- Stirring brings more solvent that is unsaturated into contact with solute.
- Healing increases molecular action and gives rise to mixing by convection
currents.
Summary of Types of Solutes and Relationships of Type to Solubility
Solutes are most likely to dissolve in solvents with similar characteristics; that is, ionic
and polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, and nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonplar
solvents.
GWATER SOLUTIONS
To make molecules of ions of another substance go into solution, water molecules must
overcome the forces that hold these molecules together. The water molecules that
surround the ion differ in number for various ions, and the whold groupd is called a
hydrated ions. When two liquids are mixed and they dissolve in each other, they are said
to be completely miscible. If they separate and do not mix, they are said to be
immiscible. Two molten metals may be mixed and allowed to cool. This gives a solid
solution called an alloy.
CONTINNUUM OF WATER MIXTURES
E Solutions: clear; may have color. Particles do not settle. Particles pass through
ordinary filter paper. Particles pass through membrances. Particles are not visible.
E Colloids: do not pass through semipermeable membrances such as animal bladders,
cellophane, and parchment, which have very small pores. Visible in ultramicroscope.
Show Brownian movement.
E Suspensions: cloudy; opaque color. Settle on standing. Do not pass through ordinary
filter paper. Visible with microscope or naked eye. No Brownian movement.
EXPRESSIONS OF CONCENTRATION
There are general terms and very specific terms used to express the concentration of a
solution. The general terms and their definitions are:
Dilute: small amount of solute is dispersed in the solvent
Concentrated: large amount of solute is dispersed in the solvent
Saturated vs Unsaturated
Supersaturated
Specilfic Terms of Concentration
1. Percentage concentration
2. Molarity (M)
3. Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved in 1,000
grams of solvent.
4. Mole fraction
DILUTION
M1V1=M2V2
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
Colligative properties are properties that depend primarily on the concentration of
particles and not the type of particle.
The vapor pressure of an aqueous solution is always lowered by the addition of more
solute. From the molecular standpoint, it is easy to see that there are fewer molecules of
water per unit volume in the liquid, and therefore fewer molecules of water in the vapor
phase are required to maintain equilibrium. The concentration in the vapor drops and
so does the pressure that molecules exert.
The effects of this change in vapor pressure are registered in the freezing point and the
boiling point. The freezing point is lowered, and the boiling point is raised, in direct
proportion to the number of particles of solute present. For water solutions, the
concentration expression that expresses this relationship is molality (m), that is, the
number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
In 1000 g of solvent, an increase of 1 mol of solute causes an increase of 0.51
o
C in
boiling point and a decrease of 1.86
O
C in freezing point.
CRYSTALLIZATION
The structure is bounded by plane surfaces that make definite angles with each other to
produce a geometric form called a crystal. The smallest portion of the crystal lattice that
is repeated throughout the crystal is called the unit cell.
A substance that holds a definite proportion of water in its crystal structure is called a
hydrate. When this water is removed, the structure crumbles into the anhydrous white
powder.
Efflorescent: MgSO4
Deliquescent or hydroscopic : MgCl2 and CaCl2

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Acidic anhydride
Aeration: is the process
air circulates through,
mix with or dissolved in
liquids.
Alloy
Boiling point
Brownian movement
Colligative property
Concentrated
Critical pressure
Critical temperature
Crystal
Deliquescent
Dilute
Dynamic equilibrium
Endothermic
Efflorescent
Exothermic
Heat of fusion
Heat of vaporization
Heavy water
Hydrate
Hydrogen bonds
Le Chteliers Principle
Melting point
Miscible/immiscible
Molality
Molarity
Mole fraction
Phase equilibrium
Polarity
Saturated
Solute
Solvent
Specific gravity
Sublimation
Surface tension
Temporary hardness
Viscosity
Unknown concepts
Temporary hardness water contains a lot of cations Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
and anions HCO3
-
.
To reduce the hardness, you can either boil or add lime and Na2CO3 to the water.
Permanent hardness water contains CaSO4 and MgSO4, which do not precipitate when
boiling. Add Ba(OH)2.
A foam is a gas dispersed in a liquid.