Academic Year 2014

Masters Thesis

Municipal Solid Waste Management

In Bekasi city, Indonesia

Author
IBRAHIM
SN : 5521120036-6

Dual Master Degree Program

Graduate School of International Relations
Ritsumeikan University
Kyoto, 2014

LIST OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

vi

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

2
2
8
8

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW

2.1 PREVIOUS RESEARCH 10
2.2 ORIGINALITY OF THE RESEARCH
2.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 10
2.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 13
2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
14
CHAPTER III SOCIAL SETTING
3.1 PROFILE OF BEKASI CITY

10
10

15
15

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH METHOD

16
4.1 TYPE OF RESEARCH 16
4.2 FOCUS OF RESEARCH 16
4.3 RESEARCH LOCATION 17
4.4 TYPE AND SOURCES OF DATA 17
4.5 DATA COLLECTING TECHNIQUES
18
4.6 DATA VALIDITY 19
4.7 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
20
4.8 CURRENT SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BEKASI CITY 20
4.9 SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE IN BEKASI CITY 25
4.9.1
SOLID WASTE COLLECTING AND TRANSPORTING
26
4.9.2
SOLID WASTE TREATMENT IN LANDFILL
32
4.10 THE IMPACT OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BEKASI CITY TOWARDS
ENVIRONMENT, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS
36
4.10.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AROUND SUMUR BATULANDFILL 36
4.10.2 ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BEKASI
CITY 40
4.10.3 SOCIAL IMPACTS OF MSWM IN BEKASI CITY 44
4.11 LESSON LEARNED FROM WASTE MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN
45
4.11.1 HISTORY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN
45
4.11.2 A BRIEF PROFILE OF KYOTO CITY 48
4.11.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN KYOTO CITY
48

ii

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION 53

iii

53

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE I.1 THE AMOUNT OF GARBAGE AT SUMUR BATU LANDFILL IN 2012..................7

TABLE II.1 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.......10
TABLE V.1 SOURCE OF SOLID WASTE IN BEKASI CITY 2006-2008...........................25
TABLE V.2 SOLID WASTE COMPOSITIONS IN BEKASI CITY........................................25
TABLE V.3 WASTE VEHICLE....................................................................................30
TABLE V.4 METHANE GAS EMISSION AT ZONE 4......................................................37
TABLE V.5 SURFACE WATER QUALITY AT ASEM RIVER.............................................37
TABLE V.6 BEKASIS WASTE EXPENDITURE.............................................................41
TABLE V.7 BEKASIS WASTE REVENUE....................................................................42
TABLE V.8. TOTAL EXPENDITURE AND REVENUE FROM GARBAGE FEES...................43
TABLE 25 HISTORY OF JAPANS LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT FOR A
SOUND

MATERIAL-CYCLE SOCIETY...................................................................47

TABLE 26 EXPENSES FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OF KYOTO CITY FISCAL YEAR
2013..............................................................................................................50
TABLE 27 REVENUE FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OF KYOTO CITY FISCAL YEAR
2013..............................................................................................................52

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE I.1 SUMUR BATU LANDFILL...........................................................................5

FIGURE II.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK..................................................................18
FIGURE III.1 MAP OF BEKASI CITY..........................................................................20
FIGURE III.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF BEKASIS SANITATION BUREAU..........23
FIGURE IV.1. COMPONENTS OF DATA ANALYSIS MILES AND HUBERMAN....................28
FIGURE V.1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FLOW IN BEKASI CITY....................................31
FIGURE V.2. SOLID WASTETREATMENT IN BEKASI CITY...........................................32
FIGURE V.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY.......................................................34
FIGURE V.4 SOLID WASTE OPERATIONAL TECHNIQUES............................................38
FIGURE V.5 GARBAGE DISPOSAL ACTIVITIES AT SUMURBATU LANDFILL....................42
FIGURE V.6 SUMUR BATU LANDFILL........................................................................43
FIGURE V.7 INACTIVE ZONE FOR FLARING SYSTEM..................................................45
FIGURE V.8 ASEM RIVER NEAR SUMURBATU LANDFILL.............................................51
FIGURE V.9 COSTS OF WASTE COLLECTION TO DISPOSAL IN 2012..........................54
FIGURE 10 KYOTO CITY WASTE FLOWS (UNIT: TONS/YEAR).....................................68

ABSTRACT

They aim of this study was to describe and explore the current solid
waste management in Bekasi City and uncover how this phenomenon
impacts to the environment, economy and ultimately the society. This
study used a qualitative research, gathered data from both primary and
secondary sources. Field investigation and face-to-face interviews
interview.
The study found that in a day more than 1,600 tons of garbage is
generated within the Bekasi municipality. With a population of 2.4 million,
this means that one person contributes an average of 0.625 kg of garbage
per day. Unfortunately, waste management service only coverage 53%,
thus, 47% of garbage is indicated managed improperly. Several factors led
this problem,
On the economy aspect the problems were led by insufficient of
Bekasis city budget in running solid waste treatment. On social aspect
due to by the lack of people awareness to maintain environmental
cleanliness in public areas.
This study also briefly describe waste history in Japan and garbage
management in Kyoto City.
Keywords: Solid Waste Management, Bekasi City

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

I.1

Research Background
Municipal Solid waste can be defined as any nonhazardous

discarded materials which generated particularly by households, and

commercial zones in urban areas in nature of organic and inorganic
forms. Municipal Solid waste (MSW) can also simply be called trash or
garbage (University of Michigan, 2012, p. 1).
Currently, cities around the world generate approximately 1.3 billion
tons of solid waste per year (World Bank, 2013). This volume is expected
to increase to 2.2 billion tons by 2025 (World Bank, 2013). The rate in
which waste is generated will more than double over the next twenty years
in lower income countries (World Bank, 2013). Globally, solid waste
management costs will increase from todays annual $205.4 billion to
about $375.5 billion in 2025 (The World Bank Group, 2011). Cost
increases will adversely impact low income comprise where there will be a
five-fold increase, while the cost for lower-middle income countries will
increase more than 4-fold (World Bank, 2013, p. vii).
Worldwide, the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) is growing
even faster than the rate of urbanization. Ten years ago there were 2.9
billion urban residents who generated roughly 0.64 kg of MSW per person
per day, which amount to 0.68 billion tons per year. Today the total global
urban population has increased to approximately 3 billion people, who

generate roughly 1.2 kg per person per day, totaling about 1.3 billion tons
per year. By 2025 the global urban population is projected to increase to
4.3 billion people who will generate about 1.42 kg per capita per day of
municipal solid waste, equaling approximately 2.2 billion tons per year
(World Bank, 2013, p. ix).
The global impact of solid waste is rapidly increasing. Solid waste is
a large source of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas (GHG) that has
particularly harmful short-term impact to the environment. The recycling
industry, with more than two million informal waste pickers around the
world, is now a global business with international markets which have
extensive supply and transportation networks. Locally, uncollected solid
waste contributes to flooding, air pollution, environmental pollution, GHG
emission, and ultimately contributes to global warming. There are also
public health impacts such as respiratory ailments, diarrhea and dengue
fever which can be directly correlated with uncollected solid waste.
Furthermore, particularly within cities of lower income countries, solid
waste management is often the single largest drain on the budget (Kyte,
2012, p. 9).
Based on data from the Ministry of Environment of Indonesia, each
person in Indonesia generated about 2.5 liters of garbage per day.
Therefore with todays population of 245 million it means that the total
garbage generated per day equals to 245 million X 2.5 liter = 612,500,000
liters or 612,500 m3/per day (Tempo, 2012).

To motivate local government in Indonesia to care about the

environment, the Ministry of Environment of Indonesia gives awards called
Adipura. The Adipura award is a tribute given once a year to cities in
Indonesia that successfully manages the urban environment, creating
cleaner and greener cities. There are several criteria to measure the
cleanliness and to determine whether a city is green. One of the criteria is
how a city tackle its solid waste management challenges. According to an
Adipura report released in 2012, Bekasi City achieved the lowest score.
This means that Bekasi city is the dirtiest city in Indonesia (Republika,
2012).
Bekasi is a city in West Java, Indonesia, located on the eastern
border of Jakarta within the JABODETABEK metropolitan region, to the
south is Bogor Regency, and in the east is Bekasi Regency. In 2011 it had
an area of 210.49 square kilometers (210.5 Km 2) and 2,447,930 people
(Bekasi in Figure, 2012).
Solid waste management in Bekasi is performed by the Sanitation
Bureau of Bekasi City. Based on Bekasis Local Regulation No. 6 of 2008
concerning Regional Departments in Bekasi city, the Sanitation Bureau is
a department that has multiple functions within the public service sector,
including Field of Data Collection and Development, Solid Waste Division,
Field Equipment and Supplies, UPTD landfill, UPTD Feces Treatment
Plant, and UPTD Cleanliness.

The Sanitation Bureau of Bekasi City has job descriptions namely:

collecting

data

for

solid

waste

potential,

hygiene

counseling,

environmental monitoring and controlling, garbage disposal, solid waste

transportation,

developing

solid

waste

methods,

procurement

of

equipment and sanitation supplies, management and treatment of the

waste facility, management and treatment of the waste facility and
implementation of operational of Sumur Batu landfill.
Sumur Batu Landfill located in Bantargebang district, currently
allocated 12.4 hectare comprising of 6 (six) zones. Yet, only one zone is
active while 5 others are inactive. The active zone is forecasted no longer
able to accommodate Bekasis garbage and will be overloaded in 2014
(Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012).

Figure I.1 Sumur Batu Landfill

Source: (Google Maps, 2014)

Most of solid waste in Bekasi managed by local government with
the exception of the solid waste treatment within the landfill which is
managed by PT Gikoko Kogyo. The local government of Bekasi has
cooperated with PT. Gikoko Kogyo, a Japanese company. The agreement
between the company and the local government has objective of collecting
and producing flare methane from the solid waste disposed in the city of
Bekasi's. The Sumur Batu landfill will therefore thus reduce greenhouse
gases (GHG) emissions while simultaneously producing energy. These

objectives will be facilitated through a Carbon Finance mechanism

between the World Bank and PT Gikoko Kyogyo. In addition, a percentage
of the project developers revenues from the certified emission reductions
(CERs) will be shared with the city to help improve solid waste collection
and disposal within the municipality. Apart from the financial and energy
benefits the project will also result in numerous public health benefits (The
World Bank Group, 2013).
According to Sihotang, a scholar who studied the environmental
impact of solid waste in Bekasi, observed that in a day approximately
1,500 tons of solid waste is generated within the Bekasi municipality
(Sihotang, 2013)." With a population of 2.4 million, this means that one
person contributes an average of 0.625 kg of garbage per day.
Unfortunately, with total of 1500 tons of garbage generated, only 40 % or
600 tones are able to be disposed in the landfill.
Therefore the remaining 900 tones are spread out to several
temporary and illegal disposal sites. The problem occurs due to a lack of a
suitable garbage transportation fleet. Between Monday and Friday there
are three round trips to the dump for garbage removal, while on Saturday
and Sunday there is only one trip.

Currently, Bekasi Citys Sanitation

office only has 112 garbage transporting vehicles. The ideal the number of
vehicles to effectively transport the waste produced within the city would
be 200 vehicles (Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative, 2012).

The problems indicated demonstrate that an effective solid waste

management system has not been established due to the fact that not all
of the garbage can be reduced and transported out. Generally, to manage
solid waste the Bekasi local government conducts a simple three step
approach of collecting, hauling and throwing away the garbage into the
landfill.
Based on data from the Bekasi Citys Sanitation Office, the trend of
solid waste tonnage has increased exponentially between 2008 and 2012.
With a population, in 2012, of 2,523,032, the amount of garbage that is
able to be disposed in the landfill is 144,695.25 tons or equal with 578,781
M3. Table I.1 demonstrates the amount of trips made to the dump as well
as the tonnage, Volume M3, and the average tons per day.
Table I.1 The amount of Garbage at Sumur Batu Landfill in 2012

Source: (Bekasi in Figure, 2012, p. 240)

To overcome the waste disposal problem in Bekasi, the local

authority have released the Local Government Regulation # 15 Year in
2011 regarding the Waste Management in Bekasi City. This regulation
referrers to the Act of the Republic of Indonesia # 18 Year from 2008
regarding Waste Management. Both regulations define waste as the
remnant of human daily activities and/or natural processed in the solid
form. Both regulations have the objective to improve public health and the
environmental quality as well as to utilize waste as energy source by
increasing the efficiency of raw material usage as well as changing the
behavior of people.
Based on aforementioned data, this research aims to describe and
explore the current solid waste management in Bekasi City and uncover
how this phenomenon impacts the environment, economy and ultimately
the society.
I.2

Research Questions.

THEORETICAL REVIEW

I.3

Previous Research

I.4

Originality of the Research

As the literature has demonstrated, the research regarding solid

waste management is not new thing and there have been multiple studies
conducted which relate to solid waste. However, this research is distinctly
different from previous studies in that it will elaborate and uncover the
impact of solid waste management in Bekasi city and observe the impact
and solution it has towards the three main pillars of sustainable
development, namely the environment, economics and social aspects,
simultaneously.
I.5

Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is a complex process because it involves

many technologies and disciplines. These include technologies associated

with the control of generation, handling, storage, collection, transfer,
transportation, processing, and disposal of solid wastes. All of these
processes have to be carried out within existing legal and social guidelines
that protect the public health and the environment and are aesthetically
and economically acceptable (Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002, p. 12).
Table II.2 Functional Elements of a Solid Waste Management System

No
1

Functional
element
Waste generation

Description
Waste
generation
encompasses
those
activities in which materials are identified as no
longer being of value and are either thrown
away or gathered together for disposal. What is
important in waste generation is to note that
there is an identification step and that this step
varies with each individual. Waste generation
is, at present, an activity that is not very
controllable.
9

No
2

Functional
element
Waste handling
and separation,
storage,
and
processing at the
source

Description

Waste handling and separation involve the

activities associated with managing wastes
until they are placed in storage containers for
collection. Handling also encompasses the
movement of loaded containers to the point of
collection. Separation of waste components is
an important step in the handling and storage
of solid waste at the source. On-site storage is
of primary importance because of public health
concerns and aesthetic considerations.
Collection
Collection includes both the gathering of solid
wastes and recyclable materials and the
transport of these materials, after collection, to
the location where the collection vehicle is
emptied, such as a materials-processing
facility, a transfer station, or a landfill.
Transfer
and The functional element of transfer and
transport
transport involves two steps: (1) the transfer of
wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to
the larger transport equipment, and (2) the
subsequent transport of the wastes, usually
over long distances, to a processing or
disposal site. The transfer usually takes place
at a transfer station. Although motor vehicle
transport is most common, rail cars and barges
are also used to transport wastes.
Separation,
The means and facilities that are now used for
processing, and the recovery of waste materials that have been
transformation of separated at the source include curbside
solid waste
collection and drop-off and buyback centers.
The separation and processing of wastes that
have been separated at the source and the
separation of commingled wastes usually
occurs at materials recovery facilities, transfer
stations, combustion facilities, and disposal
sites.
Transformation processes are used to reduce
the volume and weight of waste requiring
disposal and to recover conversion products
and energy. The organic fraction of MSW can
be transformed by a variety of chemical and
biological processes. The most commonly
used chemical transformation process is
combustion, used in conjunction with the

10

No

Functional
element

Description

recovery of energy. The most commonly used

biological transformation process is aerobic
composting.
6
Disposal
Today, disposal by landfilling or land spreading
is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether
they are residential wastes collected and
transported directly to a landfill site, residual
materials from MRFs, residue from the
combustion of solid waste, compost, or other
substances
from
various
solid
waste
processing facilities. A modern sanitary landfill
is not a dump. It is a method of disposing of
solid wastes on land or within the earths
mantle without creating public health hazards
or nuisances.
Source: (Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002, p. 1.4)
The overall goal of urban solid waste management is to collect,
treat and dispose solid wastes generated by all urban population groups in
an environmentally and socially satisfactory manner using the most
economical means available. Local governments are usually authorized to
have responsibility for providing solid waste management services, and
most local government laws give them exclusive ownership over waste
once it has been placed outside a home or establishment for collection
(The World Bank Group, 2011).
According to Nag & Vizayakumar solid waste management involves
management of activities associated with generation, storage, collection,
transfer and transport, reuse and recycling, processing and disposal which
should be environmentally compatible, adopting to the principles of
economy, aesthetics, and energy conservation (Nag & Vizayakumar,

11

2005). Four common categories of solid waste are: Municipal waste,

Industrial waste, Agriculture/Animal waste and Hazardous waste.
I.6

Sustainable Development
Sustainable

development

was

first

defined

by

the

World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987 as a

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within
it two key concept (The World Bank Group, 2011) :
(1) The concept of needs, in particular the esssential needs of the
worlds poor, to which over-riding priority should be given
(2) The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and
social organization on the environments ability to meet present
and future needs.
People concerned about sustainable development suggests that
meeting the needs of the future depends on how well we balance social,
economic, and environmental objectives, simply put, the needs of people,
when making decisions (DEPweb, 2011).
After the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, the
international community came to a consensus that environmental
protection is a shared responsibility, and protection of life is inseparable
from the economic and social aspects of Development (UNCED, 2003).
Since the meeting was held, for the first time the role of nongovernmental actors got recognition. The earth summit also resulted in the

12

formulation of the concept of sustainable development. Sustainable

development contains three main pillars which are inter-related and
mutually supportive namely, economic development, social development
and environmental Protection (UNCSD, 2012) .
Elkington defines sustainability as the principle of ensuring that our
actions today do not limit the range of economic, social, and
environmental options open to future generations (Elkington, 1997).
I.7

Conceptual Framework

Figure II.2 Conceptual Framework

13

CHAPTER II
SOCIAL SETTING

II.1

Profile of Bekasi City

14

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOD

III.1 Type of Research

The research approach used for this study is a case study analysis.
A case study is one of the approaches for research within in social
sciences. In general, the case study approach is used when the
researcher seeks to find the how and why of a real-life phenomenon
(Yin, 2003). In this case, in order to identify how household waste is
managed in Bekasi city, the analysis will start from waste collection to final
disposal and the overall impact of the current system toward the
environment, society and economy.
The sources of data for this study are from primary and secondary
sources. The primary data was obtained from the field through various
data collection techniques, including questionnaire survey, interviews, and
field observation. The secondary data was obtained between 2009- 2012
from the sanitation Bureau of Bekasi city and reports on waste
management aa well as its budget in the City.

15

III.2 Focus of Research

The research focus is needed to narrow and limit the study and
data source, in order to avoid redundancy within the data collections. This
reseach will explore how solid waste management contributes to the
success and failure in reducing solid waste in Bekasi city. This research
will focus on following aspects:
1. Current solid waste management in Bekasi city, it will describe and
analyze:
a. Sources of Solid Waste
b. Solid Waste Collecting and Transporting
c. Solid Waste Treatment in Landfill
2. The impacts of solid waste management in Bekasi towards the
environment, economy and the social aspects will be limited to
following:
a. Solid waste management budgeting (economic);
b. Environmental impacts around landfill (environment).
c. Public Acceptance and Awareness (social)
III.3 Research Location
Type and Sources of Data

III.4 Data Validity

According to Lincoln and Guba posit that the trustworthiness of a
research study is important to evaluating its worth, qualitative inquiry is
developed by four criterias : credibility, dependability, confirmability and
transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). .
Dependability

16

Dependability refers to the stability and reliability of data overtime and over
conditions.

Confirmability
Confirmability refers to objectivity, that is, the potential for congruence
between two or more independent people about the datas accuracy,
relevance, or meaning.
Transferability
Transferability refers to generalation and how applicable it is to other
research of the data, that is the extent to which the findings can be
transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups.
III.5 Data Analysis Technique

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview and analysis

of the solid waste situation in Bekasi city. It is divided into two parts. The
first part describes the general description of current solid waste
management that has been conducted by the Bekasi city government. The
second part of this chapter describes the impacts of solid waste
management towards the environment, economy as well as social
aspects.
17

III.6 Current Solid Waste Management in Bekasi city

Bekasi city had released the Local Government Regulation Number
15 of 2011 regarding Waste Management in Bekasi City. According the
regulation, the objective of waste management is to increase public
health and environmental quality as well as to utilize waste as energy
source, increasing efficiency of raw materials usage and changing people
behavior with principle responsibility, sustainability, profitability, justice,
awareness, togetherness, safety, security, and economic value (Lembaran
Daerah Kota Bekasi, 2011).
This research uncovered that garbage in Bekasi city is handled in
several ways by four main stakeholders comprising of Individuals, the
Community, the Local Government and the Private Sector. Individuals
handle garbage by directly burying the waste into soil, burning, or by
simply disposing the waste into the river or vacant land. At a community
level garbage is treated by methods known as garbage banks and
composting, garbage banks is an exchanging method of garbage for
money. The waste is collected by people and money is exchanged for the
collected waste.
The local government has the responsibility to give environmental
education and enhanced peoples awareness in managing garbage.
Giving training and infrastructure support for the community to run
garbage banks and composting is also the responsibility of the

18

government. Another main role of the Bekasi local government is

transporting garbage from sources and discarding them into a landfill.

Figure V.3 Municipal Solid Waste Flow in Bekasi city

Sources: Author Modification based on Bekasis Sanitation Bureau

Furthermore, garbage at the landfill can be treated by using an

advanced treatment facility such as the Gikoko Kogyo Company.
Therefore, the private sector is also involved in treating the garbage in
Bekasi. Gikoko Kogyo uses an innovative technology known as Landfill
Gas Flaring (LGF). This technology is the implementation of a Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) program based on a Kyoto Protocol
agreement among developed (annex I) and developing (non-annex I)
countries. It stated that developed countries in Annex I are encouraged to
give compensation to developing countries in non-annex I to carry out
certified emission reduction (CER) of greenhouse gases (Setiabudhi,
2011).
According to data collected by the Bekasis Sanitation Bureau in
2013, in a day, Bekasi city generated 1,613 tons of garbage or equal with
6,452 m3/day, unfortunately, only 43%, 696 tons, of garbage was able to
be disposed into the landfill, while only 2%, 30 tons, of garbage was
converted to compost. Furthermore, 8%, 136 tons, was processed through
the 3 Rs of reuse, recycle, and reduce. However, most of garbage, 47%
or 751 tons are unable to be dispose to the landfill or any further treatment
facility.
19

Figure V.4. Solid WasteTreatment in Bekasi City

Source: (Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012)
According to Kiswanti, Bekasis Section Chief for the Technical
Development of Solid Waste. People awareness is an important thing of
waste management in upstream level, furthermore she said:
Dari sekitar 1.600 ton sampah yang dihasilkan oleh penduduk Kota
Bekasi, sekitar 43% yang terangkut ke TPA sebagian besar sisanya
menjadi sampah liar, hal ini dikarenakan berbagai faktor, salah
satunya ialah kesadaran masyarakat dalam melakukan pengolahan
sampah dari sumbernya seperti pemilahan dan pewadahan (Ningsih,
2014).

From the total amount produced, around 1,600 tons of solid waste is
generated by Bekasis inhabitants, only 43% is able to be disposed to
the landfill, while most of the remaining waste is considered illegal
waste. The problem is due to several factors, one of them is the lack

20

of people awareness in managing waste from the source such as

sorting and packaging (Ningsih, 2014).
Aforementioned statement is in line with Zhu, where they stated
that the main objective of waste management hierarchy is to reduce the
amount of waste that is disposed of in landlls, reducing the deterioration
of the environment, reducing the emissions that landlls produce, and
saving energy and natural resources (Zhu, et al., 2008).
Furthermore World Bank explained that the hierarchy of solid waste
management started as the three Rs, reduce, reuse, recycle (World
Bank, 2013). But, now a fourth R is frequently added which is recovery.

Figure V.5 Waste Management Hierarchy

Source: (World Bank, 2013, p. 27)
Since the waste management service only covers 53% of the
total waste produced, the remaining 47% of waste is indicated as
unmanaged. An awareness of the people of Bekasis in how to treat their
waste from the source is due to several factors. At least two of the factors
can be identified in this research.
1. The lack of waste management socialization to Bekasis people. This
is due to financial and human resource constraints of the Bekasis
Sanitation Bureau.
2. Most of Bekasi people are busy people and they do not have time to
sort and package the waste. They only wish to dispose the waste
and pay the janitors to collect their waste regularly.

21

Solid waste management cannot be managed solely by the

Sanitation Bureau, but there is a need for community support. In particular,
the awareness to reduce waste from the source and the result will be the
reduction of solid waste that is disposed to landfill.
III.7 Sources of Solid Waste in Bekasi City
Solid waste in Bekasi is derived from various sources, inter alia:
Domestic Waste (Household waste), Traditional Markets, Commercials
and Public Areas, Industry and Hospital.
Table V.3 Source of Solid Waste in Bekasi City 2006-2008
No. Source of Waste Generation
2006
2007
2008
1 Domestic Waste
59.12% 56.67% 54.51%
2 Traditional Markets
18.22% 15.04% 14.42%
3 Commercials and Public Areas 16.54% 23.26% 24.62%
4 Industry and Hospital
6.12% 5.03% 7.45%
Source: (Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012)
In terms of waste composition as pictured on Table V .4, Bekasi
City was dominated by organic waste. 63.19% of organic waste is
generated by Bekasis people in 2011. One of the most significant
differences between the waste generated in developed and developing
nations is in terms of its composition. The wastes generated in developed
countries are mainly inorganic in nature, whereas organic contents form a
large portion of waste in developing countries.
Table V.4 Solid Waste Compositions in Bekasi City
No Waste Compositions 2003 (%)
2011 (%)
1
Organic
65.05
63.19
2
Plastic
11.08
17.58
3
Paper
10.11
4.23
4
Wood
3.12
7.06
5
Textile
2.45
6.39

22

No Waste Compositions 2003 (%)

2011 (%)
6
Metal
1.90
0.20
7
Glass
1.63
0.50
8
Rubber/Leather
0.55
0.51
9
Battery
0.28
10
Bone/egg
1.09
11
others
2.74
0.34
Source: (Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012)
The nature and composition of waste is highly dependent on
income and lifestyle of the population. In economic aspect organic waste
such as vegetable waste can be added income by converting waste to
fertilizer by using composting methods.
Currently, there are 121 composting areas in Bekasi City that has
the production capacity 1m 3/day/area. In a month the 121 areas can
produce compost of 30 X 121m3= 3,630 m3/month. The effort to convert
waste to compost contributes to reducing waste by approximately 2% of
total waste that is generated in Bekasi city. Yet, this effort is far from the
optimum result. In the table above the composition of organic waste is
63.19%.
Bekasi city generated 1,613 tons of waste in a day meaning that
organic waste potential is 1,019 tons. If composting waste processed can
be optimized, it can be reduce waste around 63%. This is caused by
several factors such as the lack of awareness of people to sort between
organic and inorganic waste and lack of infrastructure to process the
compostable material.

23

III.7.1 Solid Waste Collecting and Transporting

Waste collection is an activity to move waste from its sources
including residential, industrial, commercial, and institutional, to the
treatment facilities or disposal sites. According to World Bank collection
waste can be done by several methods:
1. House-to-House: Waste collectors visit each individual house to
collect garbage. The user generally pays a fee for this service.
2. Community Bins: Users bring their garbage to community bins that
are placed at fixed points in a neighborhood or locality. MSW is
picked up by the municipality, or it is designate, according to a set
schedule.
3. Curbside Pick-Up: Users leave their garbage directly outside their
homes according to a garbage pick-up schedule set with the local
authorities (secondary house-to-house collectors not typical).
4. Self-Delivered: Generators deliver the waste directly to disposal sites
or transfer stations, or hire third-party operators (or the municipality).
5. Contracted or Delegated Service: Businesses hire firms (or
municipality

with

municipal

facilities)

who

arrange

collection

schedules and charges with customers. Municipalities often license

private operators and may designate collection areas to encourage
collection efficiencies.(World Bank, 2013)
From the methods of waste collection illustrated, Bekasi City has
applied all of those techniques except the last way which is to contract or
delegate service. According to Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 192454-2002 regarding operational techniques in managing waste in urban

24

areas, starting from segregating waste, collecting, hauling until disposal to

landfills is demonstrated in the figure below.

Figure V.6 Solid Waste Operational Techniques

Source: SNI 19-2454-2002
Bekasi city has applied Solid Waste Operational Techniques in
accordance with the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 19-2454-2002. It
is in line with Tchobanoglous & Kreith where they state that solid waste
management is a complex process because it involves many technologies
and

disciplines

(Tchobanoglous

&

Kreith,

2002).

These

include

technologies associated with the control of generation, handling, storage,

collection, transfer, transportation, processing, and disposal of solid
wastes. All of these processes have to be carried out within existing legal
and social guidelines that protect the public health and the environment
and are aesthetically and economically acceptable.

25

Garbage collection, transferring, transporting to final disposal is

done and shared between the waste generators, local community
organizations (RT and RW) and Bekasis Sanitation Bureau (Bekasi's
Sanitation Bureau, 2012).
Waste generators have the responsibility to collect their own waste.
They must provide their own plastic sacks, buckets or small containers
and bins to accommodate their own waste to be collected. Local
governments cannot impose on the community to provide a uniform type
of bin. This is due to the fact that the community is tasked with providing
the bins by themselves, if they cannot provide the bins, they can as for the
the bins to Bekasi Local Government through local community
organizations (RT and RW).
Transporting waste from the source to the nearest temporary
disposal is also the responsibility of the local community. The community
can be divided into two categories, RT and RW. RT is the smallest local
community organization covering 40 to 60 households while RW consist of
5 to 7 RTs.
The waste generators organized by RT or RW, must provide all of
the necessity related to solid waste management such as financing,
collecting and transporting. Through this mechanism RT or RW hire 2-3
people to collect the waste door to door and dispose the waste to the
nearest temporary disposal site.

26

After the waste from waste generators are transported to temporary

disposal the local government takes action in the next step. There are two
types of temporary disposal stations in Bekasi city which are Landasan
and Depo. Landasan has an area of about 100m 2. Landasan is used to
put waste containers with the capacity of 4m 3. Depo has a wider area than
Landasan at about 200m 2. Depo is usually used as a transfer station and
is meant to transfer the waste from small transport vehicles into bigger
vehicles. Both Landasan and Depo were built with reference to national
standards.
Solid waste was collected from the temporary stations to the
disposal sites using open dump trucks and/or arm roll trucks with container
transportation. From temporary disposal to final disposal site, as well the
provision of temporary stations, are organized and financed by Bekasis
Sanitation Bureau.
The trucks are not equipped by leachate protector, therefore the
leachate directly leaks along trip to final disposal/landfill. The limited
number of trucks becomes a major problem in municipal waste
management. According to Bekasis Sanitation Bureau, ideally every
10,000 residents are served by a truck with capacity 6m 3. Thus, Bekasi
city, with population more than 2.5 million, should ideally provide a
minimum 250 unit of trucks. Yet, in fact currently Bekasi City only has 104
trucks.
No

Table V.5 Waste Vehicle

Waste
Quantity

27

Transportation
Trucks
a. Dump Truck
84
b. Amroll Truck
16
c. Light Truck
4
2
Landasan Container
8
3
Container
100
4
Wagon Motorcycle
78
5
Wagon
275
6
Depo Transfers
7
Source: (Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012)
1

The limitation of collection trucks and services make householders

have to take up other measures of illegal disposing activities of their waste
such as the custom of burning the waste in front of their house, in their
backyard or at the curbside, or to dump it on unused land or dispose of the
waste in rivers and canals.
Littering has serious environmental consequences, such as local air
pollution and contributes to the increased incidence of flooding. Mostly the
householders put an intermediate storage of waste along the roadside,
attracting pets, animals and scavengers, and creating a public nuisance.
Transportation of waste from disposal stations to the final disposal
site is often time consuming. A collection vehicle takes several hours just
to travel from the city to the landfill site because of the heavy traffic and
crowded streets. Therefore most collection vehicles can undertake only 12 trips per day. Trucks were provided by the local governments Sanitation
Bureau. Truck are often old and in poor repair. Often trucks are overloaded
and waste spills out and they often lose part of their load during their trips
to the disposal site.
28

Figure V.7 Garbage Disposal Activities at Sumurbatu Landfill

Upon arrival at the final disposal site, a truck is lead to the active
zone of the dumpsite on tracks. There was no weighbridge at dumpsites
and inconsistent control of the total weight and volume of waste delivered
is due to the high frequency of truck arrivals.
It is clear that there is no separation and intermediate treatment of
the waste management in Bekasi city, all of the waste from waste
generators will directly go to final disposal in the same shape.

III.7.2 Solid Waste treatment in Landfill

The end process of waste management in Bekasi is landfilling the
waste to finals disposal. In Bekasi city the final disposal site is mainly the
Sumur Batu Landfill.
Figure V.8 Sumur Batu Landfill

Source: (Google Maps, 2014)

The landfill has opened in 2003 with a landmass of 11 hectares
divided into 6 zones or cells. 10 hectares are to dispose waste, while the
rest are for other supporting infrastructure. Zone 1 to Zone 5 are not
currently in use anymore and are inactive due to over capacity and have
been utilized to apply Clean Development mechanisms through a landfill
gas flaring system. This system is intended to capture methane gas from
waste and actively contributes to reducing the effect of greenhouse gasses
and global warming.

29

The Bekasi local government is struggling to expand the final

disposal site due to scarcity of land. Even if there is land available and the
owners agree to sell the land, the price is set higher than usual the going
rate. The limitation of the number of heavy equipment is also hindering the
operation of final disposal sites. Not all of the waste can properly be buried
in the landfill sites and consequently this causes seepage of leachate
directly to the environment.
Currently, Sumur Batu landfill in Bekasi city is used as a Sanitary
Landfill. Furthermore Bekasis Section Chief of Technical Development of
Solid Waste (Kepala Seksi Pengembangan Teknik Persampahan Kota
Bekasi) explained that:
Setiap tahun untuk menampung produksi sampah Kota Bekasi
diperlukan minimal 2 hektar lahan, maka jika sistem ini (sanitary
landfill) akan digunakan terus untuk 5-10 tahun yang akan
datang diperlukan luas
lahan 10-20 hektar (Ningsih, 2014).
Every year, to accommodate solid waste that generated in Bekasi
city, there needs to be at least 2 hectares of land. If the system,
sanitary landfill, is to be
continuously used for 5-10 years there
needs to be an additional 10-20 hectares of land (Ningsih, 2014).
World Bank described that proper landfilling is often lacking,
especially in developing countries (World Bank, 2013). Landfilling usually
progresses from open-dumping, controlled dumping, controlled landfilling,
to sanitary landfilling (World Bank, 2013).
The difference between sanitary landfilling and other landfilling is
similar to the difference between a leachate treatment system and a flaring
system. The leachate is liquid that moves through or drains from a landfill

30

(waste water), meanwhile flaring system is a system to capture methane

gas from waste in reducing the effect greenhouse gasses and global
warming. Consequently, the flaring system also can convert waste into
electricity.
Solid waste treatment in Bekasis Sumur Batu Landfill is undertaken
by Bekasi Sanitation Bureau, except for the Flaring System. The system is
fully conducted by a private company, namely PT. Gikoko Kogyo from
Japan. From the six waste zones in Sumur Batu landfill, currently, only two
zones can be utilized by Gikoko Kogyo for Flaring because the flaring
system can only be used if the waste area is inactive due to the area
reaching a maximum limit of waste. The average height of the two inactive
waste zones is around 20 meters.

Figure V.9 Inactive Zone for Flaring System

Source: Sanitation Bureau, 2013

The partnership between Bekasi local government and Gikoko
Kogyo is a project for Clean Mechanism Development/ CDM. According to
Henry said that government is giving ground to governance; that is, the
public, private, and independent sectors increasingly are managing public
programs

and

delivering

public

services

through

contractual

or

collaborative arrangements (Henry, 2004). Furthermore, he stated that the

management and coordination of the relationships among governments
and organizations in the private and non profit sectors is held for the
purpose of achieving specific policy goals.

31

The partnership at least gives two benefits for Bekasi city, the first
benefit is reducing air pollution such as carbon dioxide and Methane
Gasses rising from waste in the Sumur Batu landfill. This can be controlled
and reduced. The second benefit is obtained by selling carbon dioxide
(CO2) to the World Bank. 17% of the carbon dioxide selling will be given to
the Bekasi local government. The World Bank will pay at least 10 euro for
every ton of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is processed in the Sumur Batu
landfill. The representative of World Bank said that World Bank will pay
250,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) by the end of 2012 (Kompas, 2008).
However, after researchers confirmed this carbon dioxide (CO2)
compensation, Bekasis Sanitation Bureau claimed that up until August of
2013 they have not received any money from selling carbon dioxide
(CO2).
Another of results observations made by the researchers showed
that sanitary the landfilling system that is used in the Sumur Batu landfill is
the best landfilling system used by Bekasi city. This system was previously
what the city used for open dumping landfilling.
Even though sanitary landfilling is environmentally friendly enough,
there is one problem which must be considered. This is the use of land.
Because flaring system of sanitary landfilling cannot reduce the waste, it is
only reducing the impact on air pollution from greenhouse gas (GHG) and
methane gas (ch4) emission generated from waste heaps. Therefore, if
the landfill area cannot accommodate anymore waste the government

32

must undertake land acquisition. Otherwise, the waste will pollute a whole
city.
Ideally, to reduce the amount of waste in final disposal site the use
of incineration is the most ideal method. According to World Bank,
incineration of waste, with energy recovery, can reduce the volume of
disposed waste by up to 90% (World Bank, 2013). This high volume of
reductions are seen only in waste streams with very high amounts of
packaging materials, paper, cardboard, plastics and horticultural waste.
However, the development of an incineration system is expensive.
The cost for construction, maintenance and skilled of human resources
are all impediments to developing countries from obtaining sophisticated
incineration systems. Therefore, incineration system cannot be developed
solely by the local government of Bekasi City. The financial and logistical
support of the central government and the private sector is needed to
implement a more efficient waste management system.
III.8 The impact of solid waste management in Bekasi City towards
environment, economic and social aspects
The impact of solid waste management in Bekasi is assessed on
the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental and social
aspects.

33

III.8.1 Environmental impacts around Sumur Batulandfill

The activities in transporting and disposing waste in Sumur Batu
landfill raise questions regarding the impact towards the degradation air
and water quality. Landfilling garbage treatment that is conducted by
Bekasi city causes the potential damage to air quality. Landfilling garbage
systems emit methane gas (CH 4) which is over twenty times more harmful
than CO2 in damaging the atmosphere, resulting and contributing to
climate change and global warming (EPA, 2014).
Lestari did research to measure methane gas in zone 4, an active
zone, of Sumur Batu Landfill in Bekasi city (Lestari, et al., 2013). The
average result of methane gas (CH 4) concentration at zone 4 was an
astounding 433,434.574 g/m3, this number was greater than US standard
which was only 160 g/m3.
Table V.6 Methane Gas Emission at Zone 4

Methane gas
emission
(g/m3)
1
7
246,003.2
2
10
246,003.2
3
10
246,003.2
4
10
492,006.4
5
10
410,005.4
6
7
656,008.6
7
7
738,009.6
Average (g/m3)
433,434.235
Source: (Lestari, et al., 2013)
Grid

Age of waste
(month)

Beside waste impacts on air quality, solid waste treatment at Sumur

Batu landfill also impacts the water quality negatively. In 2010, Bekasis
Environmental Management Bureau conducted measurement toward

34

surface water quality at Asem River, 50 meters from the Sumur Batu
landfill in Bekasi City.
Organic and inorganic waste that is disposed on the landfill have
negatively impacted ground water contamination. Furthermore, rotting
garbage from organic waste can transform to coli bacteria, which mixes
with leachate and flow into the ground, contaminating surface water.
Table V.7 Surface Water Quality at Asem River

35

Source: (BPLH, 2010)

The result of surface water quality has shown that Asem River did
not meet requirement of water quality class 2 and class 3. According to Act
of Republic of Indonesia Number 82 in 2001 Regarding Water Quality
Management and Pollution Control Air, quality of water divided into four
classes
1. used for drinking water or any other use with the similar
requirements
2. used as service water, recreational, freshwater fish breeding,
animal husbandry, gardening or any other use with the similar
requirements;
3. used for fresh water agricultural, farming and any other use with
the similar requirements
4. used for Irrigation and any other use with the similar requirements

Figure V.10 Asem River near Sumurbatu Landfill

Low quality of surface water near Sumur Batu landfill is due to the
landfill location and has not met the technical and environmental
standards set by Indonesian National Standard (SNI. 03 3242 1994)
regarding landfill site selection procedure. If a landfill is near a river, the
leachate from waste directly contaminates the river. Leachate treatment in

36

Sumur Batu uses a simple method that is based on a microorganism

process to degrade pollutants in organic waste. This method has been
proven to be insufficient and ineffective, impacting the quality of water on
rivers near the landfill.

III.8.2 Economic Impacts of Solid Waste Management in Bekasi city

To run garbage management in 2013, Bekasi city has only allocated
around 1% of its annual budget. The lack of financial support contributes
to waste management services in Bekasi not being optimal . Bekasis
Section Chief Technical Development of Solid Waste (Kepala Seksi
Pengembangan Teknik Persampahan Kota Bekasi) stated that:
terdapat beberapa hambatan dalam pengelolaan sampah di Kota
Bekasi,

diantaranya

menganggarkan

faktor

sekitar

finansial,
(satu)

Kota

persen

Bekasi

dari

APBD

hanya
untuk

pengelolaan sampah, sedikitnya anggaran membuat pelayanan

pengelolaan sampah di Kota Bekasi menjadi

tidak

maksimal

(Ningsih, 2013).
There are several obstacles to solid waste management in Bekasi
city, one of them is financial factors. Bekasi city only allocated
around 1% from Bekasis Local Budget. The lack of budget in waste
management directly correlates with the lack of waste service
(Ningsih, 2013).

37

The internal constraints lies with the inconsistency of policies

among regional planning and the ability of the local government budgeting.
The local government targeted a 3% improvement of coverage area per
year. Yet, the allocated budget can only increase the service level less
than 2% per year (Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012).
Similar to most of the developing countries, the problem is that
budget allocation mechanism for waste management is based on political
consideration. If the waste management has a political value, the budget
allocation increases. In the other words, if the waste management does
not have political consideration the allocation decreases.

Table V.8 Bekasis Waste Expenditure

Budget
Equivalent in
No
Year Population
Allocation
U.S Dollar. *
(Rp)
1
2010 2.336.489
28,478,377,070 2,420,807
2
2011 2.447.930
26,727,058,570 2,271,936
3
2012 2,584,427
35,714,793,800 3,035,939
Source: (Bekasi's Sanitation Bureau, 2012)
*. Foreign exchange rate of Bank of Indonesia (June, 6 th 2014)
Ideally, the budget allocation is set according to the number of
waste generators. It is because the increasing population leads to an
increase in waste generation. However, this allocation does not apply in
Bekasi. In 2012 the allocation increase was due to the political will of the
Mayor such to obtain the Adipura. Adipura is an annual award from
President of Republic Indonesia that given to the cleanest city.

38

In

2012,

the

Bekasi

government

allocated

around

IDR

18,500,000,000/year or USD 1,600,000 to collect waste and dispose

them to landfill, the amount was only for technical activities to collect
wastes from sources and disposed them to landfill. The majority of the
expenditure was used for transporting and landfilling processes.

Figure V.11 Costs of Waste Collection to Disposal in 2012

To cover the expenditures in managing waste, Bekasis has three

sources of local revenue: 1). Garbage Fees; 2). Stool Fees; and 3). an
economic compensation from Bantargebang Landfill.
Table V.9 Bekasis Waste Revenue
No
1
2
3

Sources of
Revenue
Fees from
Garbage
Fees from Stool
Compensation
from
Bantargebang
Landfill
Total

2010
(IDR)
(USD)
2,811,864,000
239,022
117,000,000
9,945
39,970,000,000
3,397,653

2011
(IDR)
(USD)
3,218,973,000
273,629
118,000,000
10,030
37,858,000,000
3,218,123

2012
(IDR)
(USD)
6,000,000,000
510,030
135,000,000
11,475
41,386,640,000
3,518,075

42,898,684,000
3,646,606

41,194,973,000
3,501,782

47,521,640,000
4,039,581

*. Foreign exchange rate of Bank of Indonesia (June, 6 th 2014)

Source: Bekasis Sanitation Bureau
The most income, 87%, is derived from compensation of
Bantargebang landfill. Bantargebang landfill belongs to Jakarta Province,
solid waste from Jakarta Areas is disposed to the Bantargebang landfill.
Yet, the landfill lies in Bekasi area, thus, the Jakarta Local Government
must pay compensation such as for maintenance of streets that are used

39

by waste trucks from Jakarta. There is also compensation paid to people

living around the landfill due to environment degradation and health risks.
While revenue from garbage fees only covered 12.7%, and the rest 0.3%
is contributed from stool treatment fees.
It can be observed that there is a huge gap between the
expenditure of garbage disposal and the revenue from garbage fees.
Expenditure for garbage disposal in 2012 amounted to USD 1,600,000
while revenue from garbage fees was only USD 510,030. Thus, Bekasi
city had to give a subsidy of about $1,089,970, running an astounding
313% deficit.
The amount of deficit is even higher if other parameters of waste
expenditures

are

added,

such

as

cost

for

waste

management

socialization/3R activities, waste infrastructure grants to society, office

administrative expenditures and other non-technical activities.

Table V.10. Total Expenditure and Revenue from Garbage Fees

Of Bekasi city 2012
NO
1
2
3
4

ITEMS
Population
Number of Household
GDP
GDP per Capita
Waste Generation
Waste Landfilled
Expenditure (IDR/Year)
Cost per ton of waste
Cost per household
% Cost of GDP per capita
Revenue
Charge per Ton of Waste
Charge per Household
% of GDP per Capita
Balance
Subsidy

VALUES
2,523,032 (inhabitants)

EQUIVALENT (USD/Year)
-

611,982 (units)

45,857,384,000 (IDR)
18,175,506 (IDR/Year)
589,475 (Ton/Year)
251,120 (Ton/Year)
35,714,793,800 (IDR/Year)
142,222 (IDR/Year)
58,359 (IDR/Year)
0.3 (%)
6,000,000,000 (IDR/Year)
23,892 (IDR/Year)
9,804 (IDR/Year)
0.05 (%)
- 29,714,793,800 (IDR/Year)
-595.25%

3,898,111 (USD)
1,545 (USD/Year)
3,035,939 (USD/Year)
12.08 (USD/Year)
4.96 (USD/Year)
510.030 (USD/Year)
2.03 (USD)
0.83 (USD/Year)
-1,675,858 (USD/Year)
-595.25%

40

* Exchange rate at USD 1 = IDR 11,275 (April 7th 2014)

*. Foreign exchange rate of Bank of Indonesia (June, 6 th 2014)

Source: Sanitation Bureau of Bekasi city, recalculated.

In 2012, Bekasi city had to give a subsidy of 595.25% in order to

dispose only 251,120 of 589,475 tons garbage (42%). This means that the
subsidy is higher if all of the garbage (100%) will be disposed in the
landfill. In view of economic circumstances, this result is not feasible.
Therefore, Bekasi city has to rebalance the budget between expenditures
and revenue by increasing waste retribution or streamlining the process to
make solid waste management economically feasible.

III.8.3 Social impacts of MSWM in Bekasi city

41

III.9 Lesson Learned from Waste Management in Japan

III.9.1 History of Waste Management in Japan
History of municipal solid waste management in Japan is started since
hundreds year ago, the history mainly is divided into 2 mains era, before world war II
and after world war II (Yamamoto, 2002). Modernization and industrialization in
Japan was started since this country opened to foreign relation as impacts of the
Meiji Restoration beginning in 1868. However, the restoration had negative impacts,
opened foreign relation increase spread plague of disease such as cholera,
dysentery into Japan.

To tackle this situation the Government of Japan initiated

to established public work and made guided for citizen on how to dispose garbage
properly. As the result, the Filth Cleansing Law was promulgated in 1990, the law
given responsibility for each cities in Japan to manage municipal solid waste which is
generated in its jurisdiction.
However, some cities such as Tokyo and Osaka failed to manage their solid
waste autonomously due to the limitation of lands were used as landfill sites. The
cities had to research other waste treatment methods such as composting, recycle
and gasification. In 1930, the Government of Japan stipulated under the Waste
Cleansing Law that incineration was mandatory as a method to manage solid waste.
Although incineration systems can reduce significant amount of garbage. However,
the incineration plants induced several negative impacts such as insufficient
performance and pollution and they were not solved until middle of 1960s
(Yamamoto, 2002).
Many infrastructures including incinerator plants were had destroyed as
impacted of World War II, so wastes should be landfilled. Shortly thereafter, the
damaged plants were restored and some new incineration plants were constructed,
42

both all of them induced environmental issues same as before the war (Yamamoto,
2002). Therefore, to tackle environmental issues Government of Japan was repealed
the Filth Cleansing Law and stipulated the Public Cleansing Law in 1954.
The evolution of Japan waste management as depicted on Table 11 is divided
into 3 (three) approaches. 1.) Hygiene approach, 2). Environmental Pollution
approach anionic d 3). Sound Material-Cycle Society approach.
The law of Waste management based on Hygienic approach was introduced
in the beginning of 1954 by stipulated Public Cleansing Law. At the end of 1954s
government of Japan. Rapid Japan economic growth started in 1960, this cause the
expansion of industrial zones in cities of Japan. Although they can brought prosperity
to Japanese. Nevertheless, the growth induced an increase amount of municipal
solid waste. Due to the lack of suitable lands for landfilling, some cities in Japan
constructed an incineration system.
However, the incinerator technology was used at the time caused severe air
pollution problems. Facing the air pollution problems, in early of 1960, the
Government of Japan promulgated the Law which concerned on environmental
pollution issues particularly that was emitted from Industrial activities.
Japan is undertaking the transition of waste management to a Sound
Material-Cycle Society approach. This approach is established by promoting
reduction, reuse, recycling and appropriated disposal, Sound Material-Cycle Society
has aims to minimized the consumption of natural resource and reducing the
environmental load as much as possible (Ministry of Environmental of Japan, 2010) .
The milestones of Sound Material-Cycle Society was started when the Oil
Crisis attacked Japan in 1973 and 1979, Japanese be aware that the resources in
the Earth had limitation and resource conservation was important (Yamamoto, 2002).

43

Many Japanese concerned on recycle the waste. In early of 1990s, Japanese

Government started to promote the importance of waste reduction and waste
recycling, substantial Waste Disposal Laws were revised to establish a Sound
Material-Cycle Society.
Table 11 History of Japans Legislative Framework Development for a sound
Material-Cycle Society
Era
Situations
Post
- Waste Management for good
WWII environmental hygienic
1950s
- Keep the environment hygienic
and comfortable
1960s
- Clear increase of industrial
~1970s
waste etc. and Environmental
Pollution
with
the
high
Economic Growth
- Waste
management
for
environmental protection
1980 ~
- Promotion of the development
of facilities for waste
management
- Environmental Protection on
Waste Management
1990s
- Reduce/Recycle of Waste
- Establishment of Recycling
Laws
- Measures against hazardous
materials (Inc. Dioxins)
- Appropriate
waste
management depends on the
diversity of the types/properties
of wastes

2000 ~

- Promotion of 3R towards the

establishment of a Sound
Material Cycle Society
- strengthen the measures for
industrial waste management
- Strengthen measures against
illegal dumping

44

Establishment of Law
- Public Cleansing Law (1954)

- Basic Law for Environmental Pollution

Control (1967)
- Waste Management Law (1970)
- Amended Waste Management Law
(1976)
- Law for Bay Area Marine and
Environment Consolidation Centers
(1981)
- Septic Tank Law (1983)
- Amended Waste Management
Law(1991)
- Law to Promote the Development of
Specified Facilities for the Disposal of
Industrial Waste (1992)
- Fundamental Environmental Law (1993)
- Container and Packaging Recycling
Law(1995)
- Amended Waste Management
Law(1997)
- Home Appliances Recycling Law(1998)
- Law Concerning Special Measures
against Dioxins(1999)
- Fundamental Law for Establishing a
Sound Material-Cycle Society(2000)
- Construction/Food Waste Recycling
Laws(2000)
- Amended
Waste
Management
Law(2000)
- Law Concerning Special Measures
Against PCB Waste (2001)
- End-of-life
Vehicles
Recycling
Law(2000)
- Law on Special Measures Concerning
Removal of Environmental Problems
Caused
by
Specified
Industrial
Wastes(2003)

- Amended
Waste
Law(2003-2006)

Source: (Yatsu , 2010)

45

Management

III.9.2 A Brief Profile of Kyoto City

Kyoto is a city is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu,
Japan, the city is surrounded by the Higashiyama, Kitayama, and Nishiyama
mountain ranges and has two main rivers, the Kamo in the east, and the Katsura in
the west. The total area is 827.90 Km 2. In 2011, 1,473,746 of people were recorded
living in Kyoto.
Kyoto was established in 794 as the imperial capital of Japan for more than
one thousand years. The historical city of Kyoto offers a vast pool of shrines,
temples, and cultural facilities, and a long tradition of numerous grand festivals and
traditional events which attracted tourist to visit. The city of Kyoto is also home to
numerous traditional and modern industrial. Popular public and private universities
such as Kyoto University and Ritsumeikan University are also located in the city.

III.9.3 Solid Waste Management in Kyoto City

In Kyoto city, garbage is mainly divided into four type: burnable garbage,
cans/bottles/PET bottles, plastic containers and packages and small metal items,
garbage must be separated accordingly and be disposed into designated places and
day.
Garbage collection can be done by the Kyoto city government or contracted to
private sectors. When the garbage is managed by the Kyoto city government,
garbage have to place in a special designated garbage bags, placed garbage in an
incorrect bag will not be collected. These bags can be found at retail stores,
supermarkets, convenience stores, and other such venues with variety prices

46

depend on their volume capacities. For garbage is collected by private businesses, it

is not necessary to use special garbage bags.

47

Figure 12 Kyoto City Waste Flows (unit: tons/year)

48

49

Source: (Kyoto City Environmental Bureau, 2014)

50

In 2012, total amount of garbage was generated by inhabitants of

Kyoto City was 1318 tons of garbage per day, each inhabitants contributes
an average of 0.83 kg of garbage per day. Most of these garbage, 64.6%,
was imposed incineration treatment. The incineration is a burning
treatment of garbage for reducing its quantity. While, total amount of waste
recovery has contributed 23.5% for Kyotos solid waste management. Only
0.6% of waste turn into fertilizer or feed and the remaining 11.3% went to a
landfilling process.
The total cost was spent in 2013 by the Kyoto city for garbage
treatment activities worth 27,330,700,000 or approximately equal with
$270,573,930.

The

largest

expenditures

are

used

43.69%

for

Environmental services costs. While, disposal costs such as collection and

transportation shared about 33.61% of cost. To finance the expenditures,
Kyoto only earned 13,438,000,000/$133,036,200. This means Kyoto City
had financial burden because had to give subsidy around 50.8% for
managing solid waste.
Table 12 Expenses for solid waste management of Kyoto City Fiscal Year
2013
No

Expenditures

Expenses
(Yen)

Descriptions
Salaries, cost for industrial

Environmental
1

waste processing guidance,

11,942,863,000

services costs
2

Environmental

waste reduction promotion,

environmental conservation
644,098,000 Global Warming and Pollution

51

protection Costs

Control Costs
Operational costs for garbage
collection and transportation,

Disposal costs

9,188,121,000
recycle, incineration and
landfilling
Fertilizer, feed and public

Manure
4

580,145,000
Treatment Costs
Equipment and

toilet maintenance
238,930,000 Maintenance for vehicles

Materials Cost
City beautification, Ash
Environmental
melting facility
facility
6

4,736,543,000 maintenance,Landfilling
maintenance
development, vehicles
costs
purchase

Total Expenses 27,330,700,000

Source: (Kyoto City Environmental Bureau, 2014)

Table 13 Revenue for solid waste management of Kyoto City fiscal Year

2013

No
1

Types of
Revenue
subrogation

Revenues

Descriptions

10,000,000 Waste processing payment

52

Garbage fees, charge for

Commissions and
2

4,317,669,000 use of government facilities,

fees

waste services license

7,759,000 Environment conservation

Central
Government

aid, waste subsidy,

Funds
Property Income

environmental research
82,234,000 Land and building loan
revenue, naming rights
revenue, recycling revenue

Money
5

2,708,048,000 Business Cooperation

Transferred
Loan principal and interest
revenue, Public Work

miscellaneous

4,087,290,000
Project, indemnity, toilet

Municipal Bonds
Total Revenue

revenue, canned sales

2,225,000,000 13,438,000,000

Source: (Kyoto City Environmental Bureau, 2014)

CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

IV.1 Conclusion

53

54