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IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH

3-1
3 Steam Cycles
3.1 Introduction
Cyclic steam-based power plants are the World's biggest man-made power source
1
.

The steam turbine was introduced by Sir Charles Parsons in the 1880s.

All steam cycles are based on the Rankine cycle which is a true thermodynamic cycle.

Steam power plants use heat to generate 50 to 2000 MW of electricity from
combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas)
the exhaust of combined cycles
nuclear reactions

1
The Gas Turbine is the World's second biggest power source.
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3.2 Basic Steam Plant and the Rankine Cycle
The simplest form of steam plant comprises the following four components
A feed pump to compress liquid water.
A constant pressure boiler and superheater.
An adiabatic turbine.
A constant pressure condenser.

3
s
T
4s 4
2
1

3
s
h
4s 4
2
1

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4
3
2
1
Q
in
from combustion gas
W
P
W
T
feed
pump
steam
turbine
steam generator
condenser
Q
out
to cooling water
.
.
.
.

Working per unit mass of steam circulating, the feed pump work input is given by combining
the SFEE with Tds =dh dp/ and assuming that the water is incompressible:


P
s
P P
s
P
p p dp h h
h h w
1 2
2
1
1 2
1 2
1 ) (
=

= =


where
P
is the isentropic efficiency of the feed pump and is the density of water
The final expression above is more accurate and much more convenient to use than interpolating
for liquid enthalpies in the steam tables.
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The heat input is given by

2 3
h h q
in
=

In large UK power stations built after about 1960,
the boiler pressure became standardised at 150-165 bar (cf. critical pressure of ~220 bar)
the maximum steam temperature at 540-560 C
and both
are limited by metallurgical considerations (in particular, high-temperature creep).

The turbine work output is given by
) (
4 3 4 3 s T T
h h h h w = =
where
T
is the isentropic (not polytropic) efficiency of the whole turbine.



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The heat rejected in the condenser is given by

1 4
h h q
out
=
The pressure in the condenser is set by the cooling water temperature and is usually in the range
40-80 mbar corresponding to saturation temperatures of 29-42 C.

The cycle efficiency is therefore given by

) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
2 3
4 3
2 3
4 3
2 3
1 2 4 3
h h
h h
h h
h h
h h
h h h h
q
w w
s T
in
P T
c

=


The feed pump work ( )
1 2
h h w
p
= can be neglected in the final expression because
w
T
>>w
P





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3.2.1 Additional Notes on the cycle
1. The work input needed to compress the liquid is very much less than that needed to compress
a gas. The effects of irreversibilities (due to design, wear & tear) in the feed pump are far less
than in the compressors of gas turbines. The fact that w
T
>>w
P
is one of the great advantages
of steam plant.
2. Very high pressure is needed to achieve a high temperature of heat input. This high pressure
is applied to literally 'miles' of tubing in the boiler and as a result the tubes are highly stressed.
The tubes are also in a very corrosive environment (flue gases) and so they cannot stand too
high a temperature before suffering from creep, corrosion and eventual failure.
3. The low temperature of heat rejection (almost ambient) increases the efficiency. The cooling
water (which passes through tubes in the condenser) is either drawn from the sea or a river, or
circulates in a separate loop via a cooling tower. There is strict legislation controlling the
temperature at which the cooling water is returned in order to prevent environmental damage.
4. The maximum temperature achieved in steam cycles is about 600C, well below the
temperature in gas turbines. Even so, efficiencies are over 40% - better than most gas turbine
or IC engines. This is mainly due to the low condenser temperature.
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The HP and LP cylinders of a small steam
turbine
5. The pressure ratio across the turbine is so
huge (150/0.04 =3750) that many turbine
stages are required.
6. The HP (high pressure), IP (intermediate
pressure) and LP (low pressure) turbines are
mounted on just one shaft with the electrical
generator at the end. The isentropic
efficiency of the HP and IP turbines are
nowadays very high (90-92%) but the LP
turbine efficiency is lower (85%). This is
mainly because the LP turbine operates with
wet steam typically every 1% of wetness
gives a 1% loss in isentropic efficiency. In
addition, the LP turbine blades are very long
giving greater aerodynamic losses.


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Low Pressure Rotor from a large steam turbine
(approx 150 MW per cylinder)
7. The density falls so much through
the turbines that the volume flow
rate cannot be accommodated in one
cylinder. Therefore, the turbine
might be divided into one single-
flow HP cylinder with 15-20 stages,
one double-flow IP cylinder with
about 12 stages and two, three or
four double-flow LP cylinders each
with 5 or 6 stages.
8. The exit of the LP turbine has to be
very large to accommodate the flow.
Typically the last blades of a large
turbine are about 4m diameter.
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9. The steam leaving the LP turbine is usually in
the two-phase region with a dryness fraction of
about 90 %. The water is mostly in the form of a
fog of minute droplets with diameter of order 1
micron. However, larger droplets, like raindrops,
are formed when the small drops deposit on the
blades and coalesce. The large droplets cause
erosion on the rotating blades of the last stage.

Blade erosion after 2.5 years
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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3.3 General principles for increasing cycle efficiency

Q
out
Q
in
2
1
S
T

Consider the reversible cycle shown above. Heat transfer to the cycle is considered positive so
Q
out
is a negative quantity. From 1 2, the cycle is receiving heat so,

=
2
1
dQ Q
in
,

=
2
1
1 2
T
dQ
S S .
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The mean temperature of heat reception is defined by,

=
2
1
2
1
1 2
) (
T
dQ
dQ
S S
Q
T
in
in
.
From 2 1, the cycle is rejecting heat so,

=
1
2
dQ Q
out
,

=
1
2
2 1
T
dQ
S S .
The mean temperature of heat rejection is defined by,

=
1
2
1
2
2 1
) (
T
dQ
dQ
S S
Q
T
out
out
.
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The cycle efficiency is given by,

in
out
in
out
c
T
T
Q
Q
= + = 1 1 (5)
which is the same as a Carnot cycle operating between
in
T and
out
T .
Equation (5) only holds for reversible cycles. However, for real cycles, it is still desirable to
make
in
T as high as possible and
out
T as low as possible.

There are, therefore, three principal ways in which the thermodynamic performance of power
plant can be improved :
By reducing lost work (and therefore irreversibilities).
By increasing
in
T .
By reducing
out
T .
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Note that in the basic Rankine cycle
the mean temperature of heat reception is well below T
3
. The efficiency is therefore much
less than a Carnot cycle operating with a uniform top temperature of T
3
.
the mean temperature of heat rejection (T
1
=T
4
) is constant and is very close to the ambient
temperature, so it is hard to reduce
out
T .

In order to improve the cycle efficiency, we must increase the mean temperature of heat
reception for a given T
3
. This can be achieved by
1. increasing the boiler pressure,
2. reheating the steam, or
3. using feed water heating.

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3.4 Effect of Boiler Pressure

Increasing p
3 2 1
3 2 1
T
max
s
T

T-s diagram showing the effect of increasing the boiler pressure while maintaining the
maximum steam temperature constant.
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Cycle 2 has
a higher boiler pressure than Cycle 1
has a higher mean temperature of heat reception
has unchanged temperature of heat rejection
increased cycle efficiency.

Cycle 3,
has a boiler pressure greater than the critical pressure of 220 bar
is said to be supercritical
requires a once-through steam generator of different design as boiling no longer occurs
not worth the effort without also increasing the maximum temperature.

Over the last ten years improved materials have allowed the development of supercritical cycles
(particularly by J apanese companies) and several are now operational. Typical pressures and top
temperatures are 275-350 bar and 580-600 C.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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3.5 Steam Reheat
Increasing the boiler pressure
increases the mean temperature of heat reception and therefore efficiency but
tends to result in an increased turbine exhaust wetness fraction resulting in lower turbine
efficiency and more erosion problems.

Reheat in a steam cycle
involves returning the steam, after it has passed through the HP turbine, to the superheating
section of the steam generator. The steam is then routed to the IP and LP turbines.
reduces the wetness fraction at turbine exhaust improving the LP turbine efficiency
increases the specific work output (recall that
cycle
w Tds =

)
can increase the mean temperature of heat reception and therefore efficiency



IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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3
2
1
Q
in
from combustion gas
W
P
W
T,HP
feed
pump
HP steam
turbine
steam generator
condenser
Q
out
to cooling water
.
.
.
.
4
W
T,LP
.
6
5
from combustion gas
reheater
Q
R
.
LP steam
turbine

Single reheat steam cycle

IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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4
2
1
6
3 5
s
T

T-s diagram for a cycle with single reheat.
In a supercritical plant, a second reheat after the IP cylinder is usually necessary to limit the LP
turbine exhaust wetness
2


2
Double reheat has occasionally been used on conventional plant but this is not usual.
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Reheating increases the specific work output as is evident by the increased area enclosed by
cycle on the T-s diagram.

The effect on the cycle efficiency depends on the reheat pressure p
45

High reheat pressure gives a high
in
T for the reheater but only a small extra heat input, Q
in

=h
5
h
4
, leading to a small increase in cycle efficiency.
Low reheat pressure means that
in
T for the reheater is much the same as for the main cycle
so there is no significant improvement in cycle efficiency.
Between these extremes, the optimum reheat pressure for maximum cycle efficiency is usually
about 1/4 of the main boiler pressure. This optimum can only be found by numerical calculation.
The reheat pressure on most UK stations is about 40 bar.

The improvement in cycle efficiency from a single reheat is only 2-3 percentage points.
Although this is not dramatic, it is a useful gain which can be obtained without major
modification to the plant. More importantly, it ensures a longer life for the LP turbine blades.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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h-s diagram showing HP, IP and LP
exapansion lines with reheat at 40 bar
between HP and IP cylinders
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3.6 Feedheating
The feed water is the water feeding the evaporator tubes in the boiler.

In a conventional cycle, the economiser (actually just a water heater)
raises the temperature of the high pressure water delivered by the feed pump to the boiler
saturation temperature.
For a boiler pressure of 150 bar,
the saturation temperature is 342 C,
so
the mean temperature of heat addition in the economiser is very low (around 200 C)
the cycle efficiency would increase if this mean temperature could be increased using
feedheating.
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3.6.1 Direct Contact Feed Heating

DC Feed
Heater
Turbine
W
P1
feed
pump 1
W
T
Q
out
.
.
.
feed
pump 2
B
o
i
l
e
r
C
o
n
d
e
n
s
e
r
b
2a
f
2b
3
4
1
Q
in
.

water (state )
wet saturated
f
steam
(state b
m
)
water (state 2 )
1-m
a

Steam plant with a single stage of direct-contact feedheating
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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b
(m)
(1m)
(1)
2b
f
2a
3
s
T
4
1

T-s diagram for a steam plant with a single stage of direct contact feedheating
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
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In the above plant
A small steam flow rate is extracted from the turbine at state b and is mixed directly with
the feed water at state 2a at approximately constant pressure.
The extracted steam flow rate fraction m is such that the final state of the mixed flows is
saturated liquid water with temperature T
f
at the steam extraction pressure.
The feed water temperature is therefore raised from T
2a
to T
f
without external heat input.
The mixing process is inherently irreversible (
a b
T T
2
> ), but the net effect is an
improvement in cycle efficiency.

Note that, for single or multiple feedheaters
An extra pump is needed for each feedheater to raise the water pressure to the steam
extraction pressure p
f
(so that the pressures are matched for mixing). The last pump brings
the mixture up to boiler pressure.
After the last pump, a reduced heat input in the economiser (at a higher mean temperature)
brings the feed water temperature from T
2b
to the saturation temperature for evaporation.


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For unit mass flow rate through the boiler, if the mass flow rate of steam extracted from the
turbine is m the mass flow rate through the condenser is (1m). Writing the SFEE for the mixing
process in the feedheater

b a f
mh h m h + =
2
) 1 ( . 1
Hence, the mass fraction of steam extracted is

1
1
2
2
h h
h h
h h
h h
m
b
f
a b
a f

=
The heat input is now
( )
f b in
h h h h q =
3 2 3
) (
and the net work output is
) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) )( 1 ( ) (
2 1 2 4 3 f b a b b net
h h h h m h h m h h w + =

T
w
P
w
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Neglecting the feed pump work, the cycle efficiency is therefore given by

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
) )( 1 ( ) (
1 1 3
4 4 3
3
4 3
h h h h
h h m h h
h h
h h m h h
f
b
f
b b
c


=

+


Note that
although the work output has been reduced by m(h
b
h
4
),
the heat input has been reduced by the larger quantity (h
f
h
1
).
the cycle efficiency has therefore been increased.

Also
the temperature of the bled steam (T
b
) is much greater than the temperature of the water
entering the feedheater (T
2a
).
the mixing process in the feedheater is therefore irreversible and results in an unwanted
exergy loss.
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3.6.2 Indirect contact feedheating
Indirect contact feedheaters are simple heat exchangers.
The condensate from one heater is usually throttled down to the pressure of the adjacent one and
the condensate from the last is fed into the condenser.
The throttling results in a small loss but the advantage is that only one feed pump is required.
They are rarely used

water water
bled steam
water

Pump
Boiler
Turbine
Condenser

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3.6.3 Maximum benefit of feedheating
Conceptually, the feed water temperature could be raised to T
f

by a fully reversible process
using an infinite number of feedheaters as indicated in the T-s diagram below

f
3
s
T
4
1

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Note that the point f has been conveniently chosen so that the horizontal constant pressure line
passing through it intersects the turbine expansion line in the wet region.
3
We also postulate that
the turbine expansion 3-4 is isentropic.

The conceptual practicalities of how reversibility can be maintained in the feedheating system
can be ignored if we lump the turbine, condenser and feedheating train into a single control
volume.

The problem then simplifies to one of finding the maximum work obtainable from the control
volume when steam enters at a given state 3 and water leaves at a given state f.


3
The theory also applies if steam is bled from the turbine in the superheated region. However, the analysis
becomes a little tedious as it involves (in principle) an infinite train of compressors and coolers to bring the
state of the bled steam to the saturated state isothermally and reversibly.
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W
max
f 3
Q
out
Q
in
Steam Generator
Reversible
Turbine
Condenser
Feed Heaters
Feed Pumps

This maximum work is given by the decrease in steady-flow exergy (or availability function)
from state 3 to state f. Hence, for unit mass circulating through the steam generator
) ( ) ( ) (
1 3 1 3 3 max f f f
s T h s T h e e w = =
where it has been assumed that the environment is at condenser temperature T
1
(so that there is
no exergy loss associated with the external heat transfer Q
out
). Noting the direction of the arrow
for q
out
, the SFEE is
) (
3 max f out
h h q w = +
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3-31
Hence
) (
3 1 f out
s s T q =
Another expression for q
out
can be obtained by noting that, if the total mass flow rate of steam
extracted for feedheating is m, then the mass flow rate through the condenser is (1m). Hence
) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) )( 1 (
1 3 1 1 4 1 1 4
s s T m s s T m h h m q
out
= = =

Equating the two expressions for q
out
gives

1 3
3
1
s s
s s
m
f

=

Finally, the efficiency of a fully reversible cycle with feedheating is given by

) (
) (
1
) (
) ( ) (
3
3 1
3
3 1 3
f
f
f
f f
c
h h
s s T
h h
s s T h h


=
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Example
boiler pressure =100 bar
condenser pressure =0.05 bar (T
1
=32.9 C)
turbine inlet temperature =550 C
feedwater is heated to 240 C.

The maximum possible cycle efficiency is then
496 . 0
) 8 . 1041 0 . 3500 (
) 710 . 2 756 . 6 ( 0 . 306
1
) (
) (
1
3
3 1
=

=
f
f
c
h h
s s T


This should be contrasted with the maximum cycle efficiency without feedheating
428 . 0
) 8 . 137 0 . 3500 (
) 476 . 0 756 . 6 ( 0 . 306
1
) (
) (
1
1 3
1 3 1
=

=
h h
s s T
c

which is almost 7 percentage points lower.

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In practice
6-9 feedheaters are usually installed on a large steam power plant
The cycle efficiency increases by about 4 percentage points.
The optimum distribution is when the overall temperature rise is shared equally between
the feedheaters.
However, it is only practical to extract steam from the turbine in the inter-stage gap
following a rotating blade row. This constrains the possible bleed pressures, which in turn
fixes the feedheater outlet saturation temperatures.
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3.7 Worked Example
A conventional steam cycle has a boiler pressure of 60 bar and a condenser pressure of 0.04 bar.
There is no reheater and the turbine entry temperature is 450 C. The turbine isentropic
efficiency is 0.85 and the feed pump work may be neglected. Calculate the specific work output
and the cycle efficiency
(i) Without feedheating
(ii) If there is a single stage of feedheating using steam bled from the turbine at a pressure
of 5 bar to heat the feedwater to the saturation temperature.
Assume that the expansion line of the turbine is straight on the Mollier (h-s) diagram.
Without Feedheating
From the tables h
3
= 3303.0 kJ /kg, s
3
= 6.723 kJ /kgK
From the chart h
5s
= 2025.0 kJ /kg
Turbine work 3 . 1086 ) 0 . 2025 0 . 3303 ( 85 . 0 ) (
5 3
= = =
s t t
h h w kJ /kg
Hence h
5
= 3303.0 1086.3 = 2216.7 kJ /kg
From the tables h
1
= 121.4 kJ /kg
Heat input ( ) ( )
1 3 2 3
h h h h q
in
= = 3303.0 121.4 = 3181.6 kJ /kg
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3-35

3
s
T
5s 5 1
2

Cycle efficiency
6 . 3181
3 . 1086
=

=
in
t
in
p t
c
q
w
q
w w
= 0.341
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With Feedheating


4
(m)
(1m)
(1)
2
3
s
T
5
1

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From the steam chart, h
4
= 2825.0 kJ /kg
SFEE for the feedheater,
2 1 4
) 1 ( h h m h m = +

4 . 121 0 . 2825
4 . 121 1 . 640
1 4
1 2

=
h h
h h
m = 0.192
Turbine work
t
w = (h
3
h
4
) +(1m) (h
4
h
5
)

t
w =(3303.0 2825.0) +0.808 (2825.0 2216.7) =969.5 kJ /kg
Heat input ( )
2 3
h h q
in
= 3303.0 640.1 = 2662.9 kJ /kg
Cycle efficiency
9 . 2662
5 . 969
=

=
in
t
in
p t
c
q
w
q
w w
= 0.364

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3.8 The Combustion Process, the Boiler and Overall Efficiency
The efficiency of the steam cycle is not the same as the overall efficiency of the steam plant.

3.8.1 The Combustion Process
To find the overall efficiency of the steam plant, we consider the efficiency with which the heat
released by the combustion process is transferred to the steam.

The best possible situation is shown in the diagram below where the
fuel and stoichiometric air enter at the standard state temperature of T
0
=25 C
products of combustion leave the stack having been cooled down within the plant to 25 C.

Heat input to steam cycle = ] [
0
H m
f

Products
(m
a
+m
f
at 25 C)
Fuel (m
f
at 25 C)
Air (m
a
at 25 C)

Combustion

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Under these conditions, the heat transferred from the combustion to the steam per unit mass of
fuel is the lower calorific value (LCV = H
0
). The SFEE therefore takes the form

0 0 0 0
) ( ] [
p f a a a f f f in
h m m h m h m H m Q + + = =
&

where subscript 0 implies evaluation at 25 C.

In practice, some 10% excess air is always used to ensure complete combustion. This does not
affect the SFEE at all because the extra air both enters and leaves the plant at 25 C.

In reality, the situation is as shown below, the products and excess air leaving the chimney stack
at a temperature T
X
(for exhaust) rather higher than 25 C.

Heat input to steam cycle = Q
in

Products
(m
a
+m
f
at T
X
)
Fuel (m
f
at 25 C)
Air (m
a
at 25 C)

Combustion
.


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3-40
For the same fuel and air mass flow rates, a smaller quantity of
in
Q
&
is transferred to the steam.
This is given by the SFEE which is now written

pX f a a a f f in
h m m h m h m Q ) (
0 0
+ + =
&

which can also be written as

( ) { }
0 0 0 0
0 0
) ( ] [
) (
p f a a a f f f
pX f a a a f f in
h m m h m h m H m
h m m h m h m Q
+ + +
+ + =
&

( )
0 0
) ( ] [
p pX f a f in
h h m m H m Q + =
&


3.8.2 The Boiler Efficiency
The boiler efficiency is defined by

( )
] [
) ( ] [
] [
0
0 0
0
H m
h h m m H m
H m
Q
f
p pX f a f
f
in
boiler

+
=

=
&


] [
) ( ) 1 (
1
] [
] )[ 1 (
1
0
0
0
0
H
T T c A
H
h h A
X pp p pX
boiler

+


+
=
where A is the air/fuel ratio and c
pp
is the specific heat capacity of the products.
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3.8.3 The Overall Efficiency
We can now consider the complete plant (combustion circuit and steam cycle) as an open circuit
power plant as shown below

W
net
Heat from
condenser
Products
(m
a
+m
f
at T
X
)
Fuel (m
f
at 25 C)
Air (m
a
at 25 C)
Combustion
circuit
and
steam cycle

The plant overall efficiency is therefore given by

boiler cycle
f
in
in
net
f
net
ov
H m
Q
Q
W
H m
W
=

=

=
] [ ] [
0 0

The important quantity is therefore the product of the steam cycle and boiler efficiencies.

IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-42
To maximise
ov

maximise
boiler

keep the stack temperature as low as possible
but
problems arise at low temperatures
water vapour in the flue gas condenses in the stack causing corrosion
condensation particularly serious for fuels containing sulphur (sulphuric acid forms)
therefore
stack temperature >dew point temperature
80C for sulphur-free fuels
135C fuels with sulphur (the dew-point of H
2
SO
4
is around 130 C)
typical boiler efficiencies are around 95%.

IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-43
Another problem
with feedheating, the flue gas leaving the boiler must be hotter than the feed water at inlet
to the boiler
boiler feed temperature is typically 200-250 C, which requires a high stack temperature
leading to poor boiler efficiency.
The solution
use heat exchanger to cool the exhaust gas by preheating the inlet air and gives an
acceptably low stack temperature.

Fuel
Products
Air
Q
in
to steam
To stack Air in
Combustion
Air
Preheater

IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-44

Conventional coal fired steam boiler
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-45
3.9 Effect of Cycle Parameters on Efficiency
To increase the cycle efficiency, we can
raise the average temperature at which we at heat
lower the temperature at which we reject heat

Year Boiler
Pressure
(atm)
Condenser
Pressure
(atm)
Max cycle
temperature
(deg. C)
Efficiency
1
T
T
min
max

Power
(MW)
1884 6.4 1 161 4% 14% 0.0075
1895 6.5 0.07 162 8% 28% 0.075
1905 14.6 0.07 197 20 % 33% 5
1938 41 0.05 454 28 % 58% 30
1958 100 0.05 538 36 % 62% 120
1973 157 0.04 565 40 % 64% 660
1995 157 0.04 565 41 % 64% 1200
2000 275 0.04 580 45% 65% 2000
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-46
The most important technical innovations have involved
Increasing the steam pressure and temperature.
The use of feed water heating.
The use of steam reheating.
Improving steam turbine isentropic efficiency (particularly of LP turbines).
Special cycles for use with nuclear power plant.
Special bottoming cycles for use in combined power plant.
The recent introduction of supercritical steam cycles.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-47
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
P
o
w
e
r
S
t
a
t
i
o
n
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
Subcritical
Supercritical
Target
Thermie
Avedore 2
Nordjyllandsvaerket
Fynsvaerket
Ratcliffe
Ferry Bridge
Castle Peak
Drax
Meri Pori
Hemweg


Efficiencies of large coal-fired subcritical and supercritical steam plant.

J apanese companies and Europe (Thermie) are developing supercritical steam plant
boiler exit conditions of 350 bar, 700C and a target plant efficiency of 55%.
they will still be unable to compete in terms of efficiency with the latest combined-cycles
are only likely to find favour when coal is the fuel of choice.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-48
3.10 Exergy Analysis of a typical coal-fired steam power plant

HP, IP and LP Steam Turbines
(single shaft)
Feedheating Train
Air Preheater
Condenser
Economiser
Reheater
Evaporator
Superheater
Electrical
generator

A typical large coal-fired steam plant - single reheat and 7 feedheaters.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-49
Steam-based, multiple feed heated, single stage reheat cycles are
coal-fired or oil-fired
used to generate almost all of Worlds electricity until the mid-1980s
still being built in significant numbers where coal reserves are large & natural gas not
available (needed for combined cycles)
often grouped as four 500 MW, or three 660 MW sets to give ~2000 MW electrical output.

Cycle conditions typically
165 bar and 565C at turbine inlet
steam reheated after the HP turbine at about 40 bar to 565C
7 or 8 feedheaters used to increase the cycle efficiency by 4-5 percentage points.
% 6 . 44 =
cycle


% 4 . 42 = =
cycle boiler overall


IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-50

T-s diagram for the steam cycle and combustion circuit.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-51

Exergy analysis for the steam plant. All values are lost work except for Net Work
Output. Net work plus lost work sum to 100%.
IIA Paper 3A5 Energy & Power Generation/HPH/CAH
3-52

Exergy analysis shows major losses result from
irreversible combustion reaction (as always when fuel is burned)
heat transfer to the steam across large temperature differences (see T-s diagram)
- with only 10% excess air, the combustion temperature approaches 2000 C

Note also
Small loss associated with the steam turbine
Very low exhaust loss (due to use of air preheater)
Heat transferred from the condenser to the cooling water is enormous (high energy flow
rate) but the associated exergy loss is almost negligible (low temperature difference).

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