The Sacred versus the Secular: Nasr on Science

(Library of Living Philosophers: Seyyed Hossein Nasr, L. E. Hahn, R. E. Auxier and L.

W. Stone (eds.)
(Chicago: Open Court Press, !!"), pp. ##$%#&).

'(rahi) *a+in

,asr-s .or/ on science is disco)0orting 0or )an1. His de0ense o0 traditiona+
sciences is seen (1 his criti2ues as a nosta+gic appea+ to tradition .ith no rea+
conse2uences 0or the current pro(+e)s surrounding )odern science. His un0+inching
attac/ on the phi+osophica+ 0oundations o0 )odern science )a/es the )odernists uneas1
(oth in the East and the West. 3urther)ore, the e4o+utionar1 historians o0 science
consider his notion o0 's+a)ic science too re+igious and )etaph1sica+, suggesting instead
a +inear course o0 scienti0ic e4o+ution as i0 science .ithout suppositions .ere to (e
possi(+e. Part o0 this pertur(ed situation co)es 0ro) ,asr-s rigorous assertion o0 the
re+igious 4ie. o0 the cos)os at a ti)e .hen re+igion as a 4a+id source o0 /no.+edge is no
+onger ta/en serious+1 e4en (1 its sincere adherents. Sai+ing against the grain, ,asr o00ers
no apo+ogies 0or his reso+ute stance and insists on 2uestioning the recei4ed )eaning o0
science. Conse2uent+1, ,asr-s approach to science 0ro) a re+igious point o0 4ie. suggests
a ne. .a1 o0 +oo/ing at the 4exed 2uestion o0 re+igion and science. 5his essa1, ho.e4er,
.i++ con0ine itse+0 to a critica+ ana+1sis o0 ,asr-s concept o0 science (oth in its traditiona+
sense and )odern 0or).
A 2uic/ +oo/ at ,asr-s .ide%ranging .or/s sho.s that the 2uestion o0 science
occupies a centra+ p+ace in his thought. 3o++o.ing a t.o%0o+d strateg1, ,asr does not
re)ain content .ith the criti2ue o0 )odern Western science, and presents his a+ternati4e
4ie. o0 science on the (asis o0 traditiona+ doctrines. 5he hea41 e)phasis put on the
distinction (et.een the traditiona+ and the )odern, or the sacred and the pro0ane, runs
through ,asr-s .or/ .hich co)prises )an1 0acets o0 traditiona+ and )odern sciences. A
considera(+e nu)(er o0 his .or/s are thus de4oted to the exposition o0 traditiona+
sciences, the )etaph1sica+ and cos)o+ogica+ princip+es on .hich the1 are (ased, and their
)eaning 0or a da1 and age that tends to see the) as no )ore than superstitions and o+d
.i4es- ta+es. 5he second part o0 ,asr-s .or/ is 0ocused on )odern science, its historica+
0or)ation, its phi+osophica+ pre)ises and c+ai)s, and the catastrophic e4ents (rought
a(out (1 the un2uestioned acceptance o0 )odern science and techno+og1. 'n (oth o0 these
0ie+ds, ,asr stands out as a rigorous practitioner o0 the traditiona+ schoo+, and presents a
pro0ound e4a+uation o0 the traditiona+ and )odern natura+ sciences 0ro) the point o0 4ie.
o0 traditiona+ doctrines. 5his can (est (e seen in his insistence on the necessit1 o0 scientia
sacra and the re4i4a+ o0 pre%)odern cos)o+ogies that the traditiona+ ci4i+i6ations ha4e
produced o4er the centuries. 7eing the app+ication o0 a nu)(er o0 )etaph1sica+
princip+es expounded (1 the traditiona+ schoo+ and especia++1 (1 Rene 8uenon, ,asr-s
criti2ue o0 )odern science is according+1 )oti4ated neither (1 a pure+1 uti+itarian
i)pu+se nor (1 a )ere acade)ic and historica+ interest. Rather, his unco)pro)ising
de0ense o0 traditiona+ sciences on the one hand, and re+ent+ess attac/ on the phi+osophica+
c+ai)s o0 )odern science on the other, is to (e seen as an encounter (et.een the
traditiona+ and the )odern at the )etaph1sica+ +e4e+ as it pertains to the do)ain o0 natura+
sciences.
't is, there0ore, i)portant to note at the outset that ,asr-s criti2ue o0 )odern
science is )ar/ed o00 0ro) the current criticis)s +e4e+ed against )odern Western science
(1 its )etaph1sica+ and re+igious stance. According to ,asr, )odern science is an
ano)a+1 not si)p+1 (ecause .e ha4e to pa1 a high price (1 destro1ing the natura+
en4iron)ent (ut (ecause it operates .ithin a serious+1 )isguided 0ra)e.or/ in .hich
e4er1thing is reduced to pure 2uantit1 and (1 .hich the )odern )an is )ade to thin/ that
a++ o0 his pro(+e)s 0ro) transportation to spiritua+ sa+4ation can u+ti)ate+1 (e so+4ed (1
0urther progress in science. 5he high cost o0 the scientistic 0a++ac1 is to )a/e spiritua+
rea+ities appear as unrea+ and redundant, or at +east not re+e4ant to the .or+d%picture
presented (1 )odern science. 'n sharp contrast to this na94e (e+ie0 in science and progress
.hich has co)e under se4ere attac/ especia++1 a0ter Wor+d War '', ,asr ai)s at ana+16ing
and 2uestioning the 4er1 0oundations upon .hich )odern science as the pseudo%re+igion
o0 the )odern age is (ased. 'n this regard, one )a1 argue that ,asr-s .or/ is not so )uch
concerned .ith the phi+osoph1 o0 science in the current sense o0 the ter) as .ith the
)etaph1sics o0 science, 4i6. the )etaph1sica+ 0ra)e.or/ in .hich science, (e it )odern
or pre%)odern, is to (e understood and gi4en its due p+ace in the hierarch1 o0 /no.+edge.
3or ,asr, it is the a4ai+a(i+it1 or a(sence o0 such a )etaph1sics that )a/es science
)odern or traditiona+.
5hus, ,asr-s high+1 critica+ stance to.ards )odern science can (est (e understood
in the +ight o0 his notion o0 sacred science .hich )ight (e descri(ed, 4er1 (rie0+1, as an
app+ication o0 the One and the A(so+ute to the p+ane o0 re+ati4e existence. 'n 0act, ,asr-s
centra+ c+ai) that the rise o0 )odern Western science is not the resu+t o0 so)e ground%
(rea/ing ad4ance)ents in scienti0ic )easure)ent (ut rather a direct conse2uence o0 the
rise o0 a certain phi+osoph1 .hich under+ies the 0or)ation o0 )odern science 0ro) the
":
th
centur1 on.ard can a+so (e read as an extension o0 his 4ie. o0 sacred and traditiona+
sciences .hich share a )etaph1sica+ out+oo/ entire+1 di00erent 0ro) that o0 )odern
science. 5o use a 0a)i+iar distinction 0ro) the conte)porar1 phi+osoph1 o0 science, ,asr
concentrates his criticis)s on the context o0 ;usti0ication rather than on the context o0
experi)ent. 'n other .ords, ,asr-s .or/ on )odern science is not so )uch concerned
.ith the actua+ conditions o0 scienti0ic experi)ent and )easure)ent, a su(;ect dear to
)an1 scientists and phi+osophers o0 science, as .ith the +arger 0ra)e.or/ o0 )eaning in
.hich the 0indings and the phi+osophica+ 0oundations o0 )odern natura+ sciences are to (e
exa)ined.
'n .hat 0o++o.s, ' sha++ gi4e 0irst a (rie0 description o0 ,asr-s de0ense o0 .hat he
ca++s sacred science. 71 0ocusing on the concept o0 scientia sacra, .e .i++ (e a(+e to gain
insight into the )etaph1sica+ 0ra)e.or/ in .hich traditiona+ sciences, .hether Hindu,
Chinese or 's+a)ic, .ere constructed and trans)itted. 5he re+e4ance o0 )etaph1sica+
doctrines o0 .or+d re+igions 0or traditiona+ sciences .i++ thus 0or) an i)portant part o0
our discussion. 5he second part o0 the essa1 .i++ 0ocus on ,asr-s criticis) o0 )odern
Western science .hich, in the e1es o0 ,asr, is the pri)ar1 cause o0 the secu+ari6ation and
desacra+i6ation o0 the order o0 nature. 't is, ho.e4er, extre)e+1 i)portant not to +ose sight
o0 the 0act that ,asr is not opposed to science itse+0 (ut to its phi+osophica+ c+ai)s that
apparent+1 exceed its +egiti)ate (oundaries. *eeping this in )ind, our ana+1sis .i++ a+so
pro4ide us .ith a chance to distinguish (et.een the phi+osoph1 and )etaph1sics o0
science .ith .hich ,asr-s .or/ is pri)ari+1 concerned.
Scientia Sacra Defined and Defended
,asr de0ines scientia sacra as -that sacred /no.+edge .hich +ies at the heart o0
e4er1 re4e+ation and is the center o0 that circ+e .hich enco)passes and de0ines tradition-.
"
Scientia sacra, .hose Latin 0or) ,asr insists on /eeping, denotes the supre)e science o0
)etaph1sics .hich co)prises the principia+ /no.+edge o0 things .hereas sacred science
re0ers to the app+ication o0 sacred /no.+edge to 4arious do)ains o0 rea+it1, ph1sica+ and
spiritua+. An1 science, (e it natura+, )athe)atica+ or inte++ectua+, that p+aces the sacred at
the center o0 its structure is sacred to the extent that it is an app+ication o0 the i))uta(+e
princip+es o0 )etaph1sics to the .or+d o0 change and re+ati4it1.

'n this regard, a++ sacred

sciences are a+so traditiona+ sciences in the sense that the1 app+1 the princip+es o0
traditiona+ )etaph1sics to the scienti0ic stud1 o0 nature and thus can (e ca++ed di00erent
4ersions o0 app+ied )etaph1sics.
<
8rounded in this 4ie., a++ sacred sciences 0ro)
cos)o+og1 to )edicine share a nu)(er o0 cardina+ princip+es .hich ,asr out+ines as
0o++o.s: the sacred sciences construe the .or+d through the pris) o0 a hierarch1 o0 (eing
and /no.+edge. 5he ph1sica+ .or+d is not denied as an i++usion, as maya, or as a shado.
to (e degraded in 0ace o0 the A(so+ute. ,or is it ta/en to (e an u+ti)ate rea+it1 in and o0
itse+0. 't is rather p+aced .ithin a +arger 0ra)e.or/ o0 )eaning and signi0icance that does
not con0ine existence to an1 particu+ar scienti0ic construction. 5he traditiona+ ci4i+i6ations
in .hich the sacred sciences .ere cu+ti4ated insist on the =i4ine origin o0 the .or+d, and
this 4ie. +eads to a c+ear%cut re+ationship o0 hierarch1 (et.een the a(so+ute and the
re+ati4e, the eterna+ and the te)pora+, the necessar1 and the contingent. Since hierarch1
i)p+ies, (1 de0inition, a )u+ti%+a1ered structure, the traditiona+ sciences are essentia++1
anti%reductionist. 5his exp+ains, to a +arge extent, the persistence o0 the idea o0 the -great
chain o0 (eing- across the traditiona+ ci4i+i6ations .hich do not a++o. the reduction o0
rea+it1 into a pure idea or pure )atter as these ter)s are current+1 understood.
#
'nstead o0
re+egating rea+it1 to a +o.er p+ane o0 existence, na)e+1 to )atter, the sacred sciences
ana+16e each do)ain o0 rea+it1 in its o.n +e4e+, thus resting on a )etaph1sica+ 0ra)e.or/
.ithin .hich it is possi(+e to )aintain the 4ision o0 the One and the )an1 .ithout
con0ounding the t.o.
'n this 4ie., nature, the 4er1 su(;ect )atter o0 science, is regarded as a sacred
(eing, as vestigia Dei, or as ayat Allah, e.g., as the signs o0 8od .hich point to the
-s1)(o+ic signi0icance- o0 the .or+d o0 nature. 'n sharp contrast to the )odern 4ie. o0
nature .hich reduces the order o0 nature to e4er+asting change and i)per)anence, the
traditiona+ sciences +oo/ upon nature as the a(ode o0 (oth change and per)anence.
A+though the co))on%sense experience tends to see nature as a perennia++1 changing
structure, the .or+d o0 nature disp+a1s a+so a re)ar/a(+e continuit1, perse4erance and
har)on1 as .e see it in the preser4ation o0 the species and the endurance o0 natura+
0or)s. 3or ,asr, this dou(+e%aspect o0 nature pro4es (e1ond an1 dou(t the =i4ine 2ua+it1
1
Knowledge and the Sacred (A+(an1: S>,? Press, "@A@), p. "<!.
2
The Need for a Sacred Science (A+(an1: S>,? Press, "@@<), pp. "%.
3
,ot a++ traditiona+ sciences are, ho.e4er, sacred. 5here is a+.a1s a hu)an e+e)ent attached to the
0or)u+ation o0 traditiona+ sciences .hich cannot (e ta/en to (e sacred in the strict sense o0 the ter). 3or
,asr-s distinction (et.een the t.o, see The Need for a Sacred Science, p. @&.
4
5he (est historica+ account o0 the great chain o0 (eing is A. Lo4e;o1-s The reat !hain of "eing: A St#dy
of the History of and $dea (,e. ?or/: Harper 5orch(oo/s, "@&!).
in nature: the .or+d o0 nature has not (een +e0t to the in0inite succession o0 hapha6ard and
sense+ess changes .hich ad)it no telos in the cos)os. On the contrar1, nature contains in
itse+0 the princip+es o0 change and per)anence si)u+taneous+1 and points to a -(ig picture-
in .hich a++ o0 its parts are recogni6ed as 0or)ing a )eaning0u+ unit1 and har)on1. As
5itus 7urc/hardt re)inds us, -the 8ree/ .ord cosmos )eans -order-, i)p+1ing the ideas o0
unit1 and tota+it1. Cos)o+og1 is thus the science o0 the .or+d inas)uch as this re0+ects its
uni2ue cause, 7eing.-
$
=e0ined as such, the order o0 nature or the cos)os cannot (e other
than the re0+ection o0 a higher princip+e on the +e4e+ o0 re+ati4e existence.
&B&C

Cos)os as a se+0%disc+osure o0 the =i4ine can (e grasped, according to ,asr, on+1
(1 .hat 3. Schuon ca++s the -s1)(o+ist spirit- .hich has (een +ost in the )odern .or+d.
5he s1)(o+ist out+oo/ shared (1 a++ the traditiona+ sciences is (ased on the
episte)o+ogica+ pre)ise that the rea+it1 o0 things is )ore than ho. it appears to us.
:B:C
Dust as the rea+it1 o0 8od is not +i)ited to His creation, the rea+it1 o0 the natura+ .or+d is
a+so not con0ined to the ana+1sis and c+assi0ication o0 natura+ sciences. 'n 0act, the
)eaning o0 the cos)os can (e )ade exp+icit on+1 .hen one sees it as )ore than its
2uantitati4e su). A crucia+ i)p+ication o0 this pre)ise is o(4ious+1 the re;ection o0
)odern e)piricis): since rea+it1 is not exhausted (1 its experi)enta+ ana+1sis, there has
to (e an -inte++ectua+- princip+e that organi6es and guides .hat is experienced (1 the 0i4e
senses. Le0t unto itse+0, the su) tota+ o0 experi)enta+ data, ho.e4er -thic/- and
in0or)ati4e it )ight (e, does not constitute a .ho+e or unit1 (1 .hich .e can understand
and descri(e the .or+d. 'n 0act, pure e)piricis) as a .a1 o0 dea+ing .ith the .or+d o0
nature is not a possi(i+it1 (ecause there is a+.a1s an e+e)ent o0 inte++ectua+ /no.+edge
in4o+4ed in an1 scienti0ic enterprise underta/en.
A
'n other .ords, the choice o0 the
scientist to dea+ .ith a particu+ar do)ain o0 rea+it1 (1 using certain scienti0ic instru)ents
is not a theor1% and 4a+ue%0ree endea4or. 5he context o0 experi)ent, despite its
operationa+ nature, is a+.a1s the context o0 a nu)(er o0 choices, ;udge)ents and
e4a+uations that the scientist has in the (ac/ground o0 his .or/. 5he tas/ o0 the
)etaph1sics o0 science, as .e o(ser4e it in the .or/ o0 ,asr, is precise+1 to pro4ide and
c+ari01 these principa+ ideas and ;udge)ents through .hich a++ natura+ sciences, .hether
traditiona+ or )odern, 0unction. As a resu+t o0 the presence o0 such a )etaph1sics, the
traditiona+ notion o0 experi)ent in the natura+ sciences has a 0ie+d o0 )eaning co)p+ete+1
di00erent 0ro) and inco))ensura(+e .ith its )odern counterpart. 5hat is .h1 the
traditiona+ sciences .hich ,asr, together .ith the other )e)(ers o0 the traditiona+
schoo+, de0ends against )odern science ha4e ne4er a++o.ed the rise o0 reductionist
5
5itus 7urc/hardt, The %irror of the $ntellect: &ssays on Traditional Science and Sacred Art, tr. (1
Wi++ia) Stoddart (Ca)(ridge: Euinta Essentia, "@A:), p. ":.
6
,asr gi4es a detai+ed ana+1sis o0 this point in his .or/s on 's+a)ic science. Especia++1 his $ntrod#ction to
$slamic !osmological Doctrines has (een de4oted to the concept o0 nature and the )ethods used 0or its
stud1 (1 '/h.an a+%Sa0a, a+%7iruni and '(n Sina.
7
5his episte)o+ogica+ c+ai) has 0ar%reaching conse2uences 0or our re+ationship .ith the .or+d and .ith
other hu)an (eings. >n0ortunate+1, there is no space here to de+4e into this i)portant su(;ect. One )a1,
ho.e4er, re0er to Huston S)ith-s concise discussion in his 'orgotten Tr#th: The Primordial Tradition (,e.
?or/: Harper and Ro., "@&:), pp. @&%"":.
8
'n conte)porar1 phi+osoph1 o0 science, this issue has (een discussed around the 2uestion o0 .hether .e
can ha4e o(ser4ation .ithout theor1. As the rea+ists and the instru)enta+ists a+i/e agree on, scienti0ic
o(ser4ation is a+.a1s theor1%+aden and this does not necessari+1 under)ine the scienti0ic 4a+idit1 o0
o(ser4ation .ithin a particu+ar science.
e)piricis) despite the epoch%)a/ing achie4e)ents o0 traditiona+ sciences in such
experi)enta+ 0ie+ds as )edicine, astrono)1, )echanics and a+che)1.
@

Fodern e)piricis) or .hat 8uenon ca++s -+-experi)enta+is)e )oderne- di00ers
co)p+ete+1 0ro) the traditiona+ notion o0 experi)ent since it is not on+1 reductionist (ut
a+so 0+a.ed in its )ost essentia+ assu)ption that theor1 has to (e chec/ed against the
(ac/drop o0 a nu)(er o0 experi)enta+ conditions. 8uenon puts into 2uestion this 4er1
assu)ption and c+ai)s that to gi4e priorit1 to experi)ent detached 0ro) the theoretica+
setting in .hich it is constructed is to re4erse the re+ation (et.een theor1 and experi)ent.
3or 8uenon, it is the i++usion o0 )odern experi)enta+is) to (e+ie4e that -a theor1 can (e
pro4ed (1 0acts .hereas in rea+it1 the sa)e 0acts can a+.a1s (e exp+ained e2ua++1 .e++ (1
a nu)(er o0 di00erent theories, and it .ou+d not (e possi(+e, as so)e o0 the de0enders o0
the experi)enta+ )ethod +i/e C+aude 7ernard ha4e recogni6ed, to interpret these 0acts
.ithout the he+p o0 so)e -preconcei4ed ideas- .ithout .hich these 0acts re)ain as -(rute
0acts-, de4oid o0 an1 signi0icance and scienti0ic 4a+ue.-
"!
Set against this (ac/ground, the
traditiona+ sciences that e)p+o1 the experi)enta+ )ethod a+.a1s 0unction .ithin a
0ra)e.or/ o0 )etaph1sica+ princip+es the )ost i)portant o0 .hich is, 0or ,asr and the
traditiona+ schoo+, the hierarch1 o0 (eing and /no.+edge.
""
't is the recognition o0 this
hierarch1 that exists o(;ecti4e+1 and independent+1 o0 the /no.ing su(;ect that pre4ents
the traditiona+ sciences o0 nature 0ro) 0a++ing into the trap o0 reductionist e)piricis).
5he traditiona+ notion o0 scienti0ic experi)ent (rings us to another 0unda)enta+
issue in the natura+ sciences, .hich is the 2uestion o0 scienti0ic rea+is). A+though neither
,asr nor the other exponents o0 the traditiona+ schoo+ spea/ a(out rea+is) in ter)s
si)i+ar to the ongoing discussion in conte)porar1 phi+osoph1 o0 science, it is possi(+e to
argue that ,asr ta/es a rea+ist position on the )eaning and 0unction o0 natura+ sciences.
5he co))on%sense de0inition o0 rea+is) as the acceptance o0 an o(;ecti4e .or+d not
dependent on our perceptions is, one )a1 c+ai), uninteresting and e4en (oring
"
, and it
.ou+d not (e .rong to sa1 that it does not 1ie+d an1 su(stantia+ /no.+edge a(out the
structure o0 the .or+d around us. ?et, this see)ing+1 si)p+e truis) entai+s a 0ar%reaching
thesis concerning our consciousness o0 the .or+d.
Putting aside the con0+icting 4ie.s on the su(;ect, .e )a1 characteri6e this
assertion a+ong the 0o++o.ing +ines. According to a 0unda)enta+ axio) expounded (1 the
traditiona+ schoo+, )an is in princip+e capa(+e o0 /no.ing 8od and the .or+d through his
inte++ect .hich is a 8od%gi4en 0acu+t1. 'n sharp contrast to *antianis) and other 0or)s o0
rationa+is), the possi(i+it1 o0 )etaph1sics as an a++%inc+usi4e science ste)s 0ro) the
0acu+t1 o0 the inte++ect .hose 0unction is to integrate and /no. the higher +e4e+s o0 rea+it1.
Whereas reason (1 its nature ana+16es and dissects the .or+d around it into 0rag)ents in
order to 0unction proper+1, the inte++ect s1nthesi6es and integrates .hat has (een
0rag)ented (1 the reason. 5he sa)e princip+e app+ies, one )a1 argue, to the natura+
9
3or an i++ustration o0 this point, see ,asr-s $slamic Science An $ll#strated St#dy (*ent: Wor+d o0 's+a)
3esti4a+ Pu(+ishing Co)pan1 Ltd., "@:&), and Science and !ivili(ation in $slam (Ca)(ridge, "@A:).
10
Rene 8uenon, La !rise d# %onde %oderne, (8a++i)ard, "@#&), pp. :&%::.
11
A+though one )a1 cite tens o0 c+assica+ (oo/s and treatises on the hierarch1 o0 (eing and /no.+edge, t.o
conte)porar1 .or/s are .orth%)entioning here: E. 3. Schu)acher, A #ide for the Perple)ed (,e. ?or/:
Harper and Ro., "@::), especia++1, pp. "$%$G and Huston S)ith, 'orgotten Tr#th: The Primordial
Tradition (,e. ?or/: Harper and Ro., "@&:), especia++1, pp. <#%$@.
12
Fichae+ =e4itt, *ealism and Tr#th, (,e. Derse1: Princeton >ni4ersit1 Press, "@@:), .nd edition, pp. "<%
"#.
sciences in the sense that the 2uantitati4e stud1 o0 the cos)os is co)p+e)ented (1 the
2ua+itati4e and -s1)(o+ist- perception o0 the inte++ect.
"<

,asr-s rea+ist position co)es to the 0ore .ith his depiction o0 science as an
organi6ed (od1 o0 /no.+edge that is in princip+e capa(+e o0 descri(ing the .or+d to us as
it is. 8uided pri)ari+1 (1 the supre)e /no.+edge o0 )etaph1sics, science can and does
in4estigate the rea+it1 o0 ph1sica+ entities as the1 exist o(;ecti4e+1 in the extra%)enta+
.or+d. 5his suggests that scienti0ic theories are not )ere instru)ents o0 operation (1
.hich the scientist constructs a picture o0 the .or+d .ithout ha4ing an actua+ grasp o0 it.
"#
On the contrar1, .hat science presents to us as a .or+d%picture is in 0act a true picture o0
the .or+d pro4ided that it is su(stantiated (1 sound e4idence and that it does not +ose
sight o0 the hierarchic 4ision o0 the uni4erse. As in the case o0 scienti0ic experi)enta+is),
this )ini)a+ or co))on%sense 4ie. o0 scienti0ic rea+is) is supp+e)ented (1 .hat one
)a1 ca++ a -)etaph1sica+ rea+is)- in that the scienti0ic rea+is) in 2uestion is gained not
through the operation o0 the senses and reason a+one (ut pri)ari+1 through the inte++ect
.hich is the +ocus o0 )etaph1sica+ /no.+edge 0or inte++ectua+ as .e++ as natura+ sciences.
5he 0act that science can present to us a true picture o0 the .or+d is to (e seen not as an
exc+usi4e (ri++iance o0 scienti0ic theories or experi)enta+ de4ices (ut as a possi(i+it1 o0
the inte++ect (ecause it is through the inte++ect that .e )a/e sense o0 the .or+d .ith .hich
the sciences are concerned. Said di00erent+1, .hat )a/es the 2uantitati4e stud1 o0 the
uni4erse possi(+e is the inte++ect-s a(i+it1 to understand the rea+it1 o0 things as the1 are,
na)e+1 as the p+ane o0 re+ati4e existence in 0ace o0 the A(so+ute, to the extent possi(+e
.ithin the con0ines o0 hu)an a(i+it1.
"$
't is this )etaph1sica+ co)ponent that separates
rea+is), as it is de0ined here, 0ro) (oth positi4is) and ph1sica+is).
"&

13
5he distinction (et.een reason and inte++ect on the one hand, and their unit1 at a higher +e4e+ o0
consciousness on the other, are the t.o 0unda)enta+ tenets o0 the traditiona+ schoo+. 3or ,asr-s exposition
o0 these ter)s, see his Knowledge and the Sacred, chapter ".
14
3or ,asr-s criti2ue o0 scienti0ic instru)enta+is) .hich is a 4ersion o0 anti%rea+is), see %an and Nat#re:
The Spirit#al !risis in %odern %an (A7C 'nternationa+ 8roup, 'nc., "@@:), pp. $%:. At this point, it
shou+d (e )entioned that 8+1n 3ord-s de0ense o0 's+a)ic science, .hich is (ased on his interpretation o0
,asr, appears to rest on a )isreading o0 ,asr. 3ord de0ines science as a socia+ construction o0 natura+
pheno)ena )ediated (1 the scienti0ic co))unit1 and societ1 .ith no c+ai) to o(;ecti4it1 %% a thesis
pro)u+gated, inter alia, (1 *uhn and 3e1era(end. 'n this sense, e4er1 scienti0ic tradition, )odern Western,
's+a)ic or Chinese, is entit+ed to (e science not.ithstanding their con0+icting c+ai)s o0 truth and 4a+idit1. 't
is not di00icu+t to see the anti%rea+ist co)ponent in this assertion: 's+a)ic science is a 4a+id science not
(ecause it is (ased on the scienti0ic stud1 o0 nature (ut (ecause it is one o0 such socia+ constructions that .e
co++ecti4e+1 agree to ca++ -science-. As ' ha4e tried to sho. here, ,asr does not su(scri(e to such an anti%
rea+ist interpretation o0 science. 3or 3ord-s argu)ent, see his -A 3ra)e.or/ 0or a ,e. Hie. o0 's+a)ic
Science- in +Adiyat Halab An Ann#al Devoted to the St#dy of Arabic Science and !ivili(ation, (A+eppo: 5he
>ni4ersit1 o0 A+eppo, "@:A%"@:@), 4o+s. H'%H, pp. &A%:#.
15
'n a 0a)ous pra1er, the Prophet o0 's+a) as/s 8od to -sho. hi) the rea+it1 o0 things as the1 are in
the)se+4es- (arini ha,ai, al-ashya .ama hiya). 5his pra1er .hich has (een e+a(orated upon (1 )an1
Fus+i) scho+ars and phi+osophers suggests that the u+ti)ate rea+it1 and )eaning o0 things can (e attained
on+1 through the aid o0 =i4ine guidance. P+aced .ithin a +arger context, the sa)e princip+e app+ies to the
proper understanding o0 the order o0 nature.
16
5here is no intrinsic or necessar1 connection (et.een rea+is) in science and (e+ie0 in progress.
,e4erthe+ess, historica++1, the )a;orit1 o0 those .ho ta/e the rea+ist position ha4e a++o.ed so)e /ind o0 a
(e+ie0 in progress .hich accounts 0or the +inear de4e+op)ent o0 natura+ sciences. 71 contrast, )ost o0 the
anti%rea+ists and instru)enta+ists, nota(+1 *uhn, 3e1era(end and Han 3raassen, ha4e re;ected the idea o0
progress (1 rep+acing cu)u+ati4e de4e+op)ent in science .ith paradig) shi0ts that a+ter the 4er1 de0inition
o0 science. 'nteresting+1 enough, (oth 8uenon and ,asr re;ect the idea o0 progress as an intrinsic 2ua+it1 o0
,asr-s ground%(rea/ing .or/ on 's+a)ic science can (e ta/en as an exa)p+e to
i++ustrate the 0oregoing points.
":
5he 's+a)ic natura+ sciences cu+ti4ated in 's+a)ic
ci4i+i6ation (1 Fus+i) scientists .ere (ased on a care0u+ and ana+1tic stud1 o0 nature
.ithin the )atrix o0 the 's+a)ic re4e+ation. 5he essence o0 this re4e+ation is al-tawhid, the
princip+e o0 unit1 pro0essed (1 e4er1 )e)(er o0 the 's+a)ic co))unit1, .hich under+ies,
as ,asr repeated+1 states, the unit1 and interre+atedness o0 the .or+d o0 nature. A+though
al-tawhid in its ordinar1 sense re0ers to the theo+ogica+ dictu) that there is no di4init1 (ut
8od, its onto+ogica+ and )etaph1sica+ )eanings enter the picture as a coro++ar1 o0 it (1
construing the .or+d o0 nature as issuing 0orth 0ro) a sing+e source, e.g., 0ro) the =i4ine.
3or ,asr, the pri)ar1 goa+ o0 's+a)ic sciences 0ro) )edicine to geo)etr1 is to disc+ose
this under+1ing unit1 and to sho. -the unit1 and interre+atedness o0 a++ that exists-.
"A
Seen
0ro) this point o0 4ie., rea+it1 presents itse+0 to us as a .e++%/nit unit1 in .hich the
indi4idua+ o(;ects as the su(;ect )atter o0 science are +ocated.
"@
A supposed+1 -pure-
ana+1sis o0 the natura+ .or+d into its constituent parts does not he+p us understand these
discrete parts (ecause each ana+1sis, .hether scienti0ic or phi+osophica+, is carried out
.ithin a context in .hich the ter)s o0 the ana+1sis are gi4en. 3urther)ore, each part (1
de0inition re2uires a .ho+e or unit1 in re+ation to .hich a+one it can (e ca++ed -part-. 5he
distinct characteristic o0 's+a)ic sciences, c+ai)s ,asr, is to ad)it this pre%conceptua+ and
re+ationa+ unit1 as a gi4en 0act and re4ea+ the (a+ance (et.een the .ho+e and the part, and
(et.een the one and the )an1. 5his is a+so one o0 the 0unda)enta+ di00erences (et.een
the )etaph1sica+ 0ra)e.or/ o0 's+a)ic science and its )odern counterpart.
!

3o++o.ing the sa)e +ine o0 argu)ent, it is possi(+e to contend that the -0acts- o0
science are not deri4a(+e 0ro) an ana+1sis .hich is thought to (e detached and iso+ated
0ro) the )u+ti%+a1ered contexts o0 )eaning. 'n 0act, as ,asr insists on the necessit1 o0 an
a++%inc+usi4e )etaph1sica+ )atrix in .hich an1 scienti0ic acti4it1 is to (e conducted,
science, (e it traditiona+ or )odern, represents a pri)e exa)p+e o0 .hat R1+e ca++s -thic/
description-, 4i6. the ana+1sis o0 the +a1ers o0 )eaning .ithin .hich an acti4it1 is carried
out. ,o., one o0 the )erits o0 's+a)ic science is to un4ei+ the persistence o0 such +a1ers
o0 )eaning that run through the 4arious +e4e+s o0 scienti0ic acti4it1 .hi+e at the sa)e ti)e
exp+icating the tacit unit1 and interre+atedness o0 natura+ pheno)ena. 5he -uni01ing
perspecti4e o0 's+a)-
"
in .hich the 's+a)ic sciences are deep+1 rooted de0ines the -0acts-
o0 science not as ato)istic 2uanta (ut as re+ationa+ entities that tie the entire cos)os
natura+ sciences. 'n this regard, 8uenon goes e4en 0urther and descri(es the de4e+op)ent o0 che)istr1 0ro)
a+che)1 and astrono)1 0ro) astro+og1 as -degeneration- rather progress and e4o+ution %% degeneration in
the princip+es that )a/e a+che)1, astro+og1 or the science o0 the sou+ (ilm al-nafs) traditiona+ sciences. 5he
denia+ o0 progress in natura+ sciences as this ter) is understood current+1 is o(4ious+1 the +ogica+ resu+t o0
the )etaph1sica+ out+oo/ that ,asr expounds and de0ends as a pro)inent )e)(er o0 the traditiona+ schoo+.
3or 8uenon-s re)ar/s, see La !rise, pp. :@%A".
17
,asr has authored a nu)(er o0 i)portant .or/s on 's+a)ic science. See his $slamic Science - An
$ll#strated St#dy (*ent: Wor+d o0 's+a) 3esti4a+ Pu(+ishing Co)pan1 Ltd., "@:&), An Annotated
"ibliography of $slamic Science (Lahore: Suhai+ Acade)1, "@A$) < 4o+s, Science and !ivili(ation in $slam
(Ca)(ridge, "@A:), An $ntrod#ction to $slamic !osmological Doctrines (Ca)(ridge, "@&#). ,asr has a+so
.ritten )an1 artic+es on the )eaning o0 's+a)ic science and its re+ation to )odern Western science.
18
Science and !ivili(ation in $slam, p. .
19
'(id., p. $.
20
'n addition to ,asr-s a0ore)entioned .or/s on 's+a)ic science, see a+so his (rie0 treat)ent in A /o#ng
%#slim+s #ide to the %odern 0orld (Ca)(ridge: 5he 's+a)ic 5exts Societ1, "@@<), pp. A$%"!.
21
$slamic Science, p. #.
together.

A crucia+ i)p+ication o0 this -)etaph1sics o0 re+ationa+it1-, i0 ' )a1 use such a

ter), is the denia+ o0 pure and si)p+e ideas .hich the e)piricists such as Hu)e ha4e
concei4ed o0 as the constituti4e e+e)ents o0 hu)an thought. 5he so%ca++ed pure and
si)p+e ideas o0 hu)an )ind a+.a1s assu)e a -thic/- setting in .hich the1 are 0or)ed and
expressed. 5he sa)e ho+ds true 0or the sense%data andIor sense%perception .hich is
a+.a1s e)(edded in a context o0 inte++igi(i+it1 +arger than )ere sensation. 'n 0act,
according to the idea o0 asalat al-w#1#d, the pri)ac1 o0 (eing o4er essence (mahiyyah),
.hich ,asr expounds in )an1 o0 his .ritings, 7eing is the standing condition o0 a++
/no.+edge. 'n other .ords, e4er1 act o0 /no.ing, .hether (ased on the senses or the
inte++ect, presu)es a +arger context o0 inte++igi(i+it1 pro4ided (1 the a++%inc+usi4e rea+it1
o0 7eing. 't is on the (asis o0 this -existentia+- ground rather than so)e ph1sica+ or ether%
+i/e e+e)ent that .e can ta+/ a(out the cos)os as an interre+ated unit1.
5his su(stanti4e unit1, ho.e4er, (eco)es co)prehensi(+e on+1 through the aid o0
the inte++ect .hich integrates 4arious do)ains o0 rea+it1 as opposed to 2uantitati4e
ana+1sis .hich re)ains at the steps o0 0rag)entation and dissection. 3or ,asr, the
re)ar/a(+e achie4e)ents o0 's+a)ic sciences .ere )ade possi(+e (1 the a4ai+a(i+it1 o0
such a co)prehensi4e out+oo/ that has deter)ined (oth the context o0 experi)ent and o0
;usti0ication o0 the traditiona+ natura+ sciences.
<B<C
5his is a+so the de)arcation +ine
(et.een the sacred and )odern science that has adopted an entire+1 di00erent perspecti4e,
to .hich .e no. turn.
Modern Science: the Triumph of the Secular
't is no. co))on .isdo) that the rise o0 )odern science .as not a natura+ resu+t
o0 so)e techno+ogica+ ad4ance)ents that too/ p+ace in Western Europe in the "&
th
and
":
th
centuries. 5he 0or)ation o0 )odern science .as rather the end%resu+t o0 a nu)(er o0
phi+osophica+ and )etaph1sica+ changes that ha4e a+tered hu)anit1-s 4ie. o0 nature and
science in an unprecedented .a1. 'n this sense, )odern science represents a radica+ shi0t
0ro) the traditiona+ notion o0 scientia%% a shi0t 0ro) the sacred e4a+uation o0 nature to a
secu+ar and pro0ane 0ra)e.or/ in .hich pure 2uantit1 is ta/en to (e the rea+it1. With this
ne. out+oo/, nature is di4ested o0 its s1)(o+ic and sacred )eaning, and the scientist
(eco)es the so+e ar(iter o0 truth. 3or ,asr, the +egiti)ation crisis o0 )odern science
ste)s 0ro) this ne. and -a+ien- perspecti4e that has +ed, a)ong other things, to such
g+o(a+ ca+a)ities as the en4iron)enta+ crisis and nuc+ear .ar0are. According+1, ,asr-s
re+ent+ess attac/ on )odern science is 0ocused on the ana+1sis and criti2ue o0 the errors o0
this phi+osophica+ pur4ie. rather than (eing a senti)enta+ attac/ on )odern science itse+0
as it is co))on+1 and )ista/en+1 assu)ed. 'n this regard, ,asr-s encounter .ith the
inte++ectua+ pre)ises o0 secu+ar Western science can (e interpreted as an archeo+og1 o0
)odern science .hose roots go (ac/ to the ":
th
centur1 scienti0ic re4o+ution.
3i4e )ain traits o0 )odern science co)e to the 0ore in ,asr-s critica+ ana+1sis. 5he
0irst is the secu+ar 4ie. o0 the uni4erse that sees no traces o0 the =i4ine in the natura+
order. ,ature is no +onger the vestigia Dei o0 Christian cos)o+og1 (ut a se+0%su(sistent
entit1 that can (e encapsu+ated exhausti4e+1 in the 2uantitati4e 0or)u+ae o0 natura+
22
Sadr a+%=in Shira6i, one o0 the greatest )etaph1sicians o0 the post%A4icennan 's+a)ic phi+osoph1, on
.ho) ,asr has .ritten extensi4e+1, depicts the natura+ pheno)ena as -pure re+ations- (idafa mahda) .hen
seen in re+ation to the a(so+ute (al-m#tla,) and the necessar1 7eing (al-wa1ib), .hich is 8od.
23
A thorough sur4e1 o0 's+a)ic sciences ranging 0ro) geograph1 and natura+ histor1 to ph1sics and
astrono)1 is to (e 0ound in Science and !ivili(ation in $slam.
sciences.
#
5he second 0eature is the )echani6ation o0 the .or+d%picture upon the )ode+
o0 )achines and c+oc/s. Once couched in ter)s o0 )echanistic re+ations, nature (eco)es
so)ething a(so+ute+1 deter)ina(+e and predicta(+e %% a )uch needed sa0et1 6one 0or the
rise o0 )odern industria+ societ1 and capita+is). 5he third aspect o0 )odern science is
rationa+is) and e)piricis) as .e ha4e a++uded to (e0ore. 5he 0ourth trait is the +egac1 o0
Cartesian dua+is) that presupposes a co)p+ete separation (et.een res cogitans and res
e)tensa, 4i6., (et.een the /no.ing su(;ect and the o(;ect to (e /no.n. With this
c+ea4age, the episte)o+ogica+ a+ienation o0 )an 0ro) nature co)es to co)p+etion (1
+ea4ing (ehind a torrent o0 pseudo%pro(+e)s o0 )odern phi+osoph1, the notorious )ind%
(od1 pro(+e) (eing a specia+ case in point.
$
5he +ast i)portant aspect o0 )odern science
is in a sense a cu+)ination o0 the 0oregoing 0eatures, and it is the exp+oitation o0 nature as
a source o0 po.er and do)ination %% a 0act not un/no.n to )odern capita+ist societ1.
,o. .e can see, in a (rie0 )anner, ho. these aspects o0 )odern science 0igure in ,asr-s
critica+ ana+1sis.
What ca)e into (eing .ith the Scienti0ic Re4o+ution .as a ne. .a1 o0 +oo/ing at
the .or+d in the deepest sense o0 the ter). ,ature .as no +onger concei4ed as a (eing o0
sacred signi0icance .ith its o.n +i0e c1c+e and unit1 not to (e destro1ed (1 )an-s desire
to esta(+ish a 0a/e paradise here on earth. 5he hu)anist idea+ o0 (ringing do.n hea4en to
the terrestria+ do)ain .as dee)ed possi(+e on+1 (1 turning nature into a stage in .hich
the destin1 o0 )an/ind .as to (e decided in iso+ation 0ro) the =i4ine dictu)s o0
Christianit1 or an1 other re+igion. 5he historic (rea/ a.a1 0ro) the re+igious 4ie. o0 the
uni4erse )ar/s the incu(ation o0 )odern secu+aris) that c+ai)s to account 0or a++ the
di)ensions o0 nature (1 reducing it to pure 2uantit1 and a sou+%+ess )achine. 3or ,asr,
this secu+ar 4ie. o0 the uni4erse under+ies the )ost essentia+ characteristics o0 )odern
science. Once trans+ated into the +anguage o0 pure 2uantities, nature (eco)es de4oid o0
an1 intrinsic )eaning and inte++igi(i+it1 .here(1 a++ the 2ua+itati4e aspects associated
.ith the natura+ pheno)ena such as (eaut1, har)on1, telos and inte++igi(i+it1 turn into
.hat 8a+i+eo ca++ed the -secondar1 2ua+ities-, na)e+1 the su(;ecti4e 0ee+ings o0 hu)ans
.ith no corresponding rea+it1 in the extra%)enta+ .or+d.
&
8a+i+eo-s distinction (et.een
the pri)ar1 and secondar1 2ua+ities has a+so +aid the 0oundations o0 )odern e)piricis):
rea+it1 is .hat can (e )easured 2uantitati4e+1, and it is on+1 through the channe+ o0
24
'n a 0a)ous anecdote o0 the histor1 o0 science, Lap+ace, exp+aining his )ode+ o0 the uni4erse to
,apo+eon, dec+ares 8od as a -redundant h1pothesis-. 3or Lap+aceJs 0a)ous rep+1 that K' had no need o0 that
h1pothesisJ see, Roger Hahn, KLap+ace and the Fechanistic >ni4erseJ in od and Nat#re, ed. =a4id
Lind(erg and Rona+d ,u)(ers, (7er/e+e1 and Los Ange+es: >ni4ersit1 o0 Ca+i0ornia Press, "@A&).
25
Rort1 goes so 0ar as to attri(ute the -in4ention o0 the )ind- to =escartes and his cogito .hich has co)e to
(e the source o0 )odern theories o0 /no.+edge and the i++%0or)u+ated )ind%(od1 pro(+e). See his
Philosophy and the %irror of Nat#re, (,e. Derse1: Princeton >ni4ersit1 Press, "@:@), p. ":00.
26
5he distinction (et.een the pri)ar1 and secondar1 2ua+ities )ade (1 8a+i+eo is one o0 the 0oundations o0
the Scienti0ic Re4o+ution. 5his issue .as +ater ta/en up in phi+osoph1 (1 Hu)e and (eca)e one o0 the
pi++ars o0 )odern e)piricis). 3or the i)portance o0 this distinction, one )a1 re0er, a)ong others, to the
0o++o.ing: R. 8. Co++ing.ood, The $dea of Nat#re, (Ox0ord: Ox0ord >ni4ersit1 Press, "@#$), pp. "!%"!$G
Wo+0gang S)ith, !osmos and Transcendence "rea.ing Thro#gh the "arrier of Scientistic "elief, ('++inois:
Sher.ood Sugden L Co)pan1, "@A#), pp. "$%"&G A+exander *o1re, 'rom the !losed 0orld to the $nfinite
2niverse, (7a+ti)ore: 5he Dohns Hop/ins >ni4ersit1 Press, "@$:), pp. AA%"!@G S. H. ,asr, *eligion and the
3rder of Nat#re, (Ox0ord: Ox0ord >ni4ersit1 Press, "@@&), pp. "<&%"<AG 'an 7ar(our, *eligion and Science
Historical and !ontemporary $ss#es, (San 3rancisco: Harper San3rancisco, "@@:), pp. @%":G E. 7urtt, The
%etaphysical 'o#ndations of %odern Physical Science (,e. ?or/: =ou(+eda1 Anchor 7oo/s, "@<), pp.
A<%@".
e)pirica+ science that access to -rea+it1- de0ined as such can (e gained.
:
Hence, science
dea+s .ith a do)ain o0 rea+it1 .ith no )eaning and 4a+ue in and o0 itse+0. As
Co++ing.ood right+1 points out, this 4ie. exc+udes 8od as .e++ as )an 0ro) the .or+d o0
nature in that (oth 8od and )an are seen as con0erring )eaning upon nature e) post
facto, thus rendering nature into inert )atter.
A
Conse2uent+1, this +eads to the
g+ori0ication o0 the hu)an )ind as the so+e +ocus o0 )eaning and 4a+ue, and thus s+ips
into a gross su(;ecti4is). ,asr re;ects this su(;ecti4is), insists on the intrinsic 2ua+ities
o0 nature, and )a/es the (o+d episte)o+ogica+ c+ai) that the .or+d o0 nature, or the
externa+ .or+d, disp+a1s certain 2ua+ities intrinsic to itse+0, .hich cannot (e con0ined to
the 0ee+ings or the cognition o0 the /no.ing su(;ect. Said di00erent+1, the 2ua+ities that .e
associate .ith the natura+ pheno)ena are not si)p+1 the resu+ts o0 so)e ps1cho+ogica+
states (ut rather to (e seen as constituti4e o0 .hat .e experience.
@
P+aced .ithin this
0ra)e.or/, the .or+d o0 nature appears to (e o0 sacred 2ua+it1 in and o0 itse+0 and not
necessari+1 dependent on our perceptions o0 it.
5his 4ie. has i)portant i)p+ications 0or the so%ca++ed -(are 0acts-, the te)p+e o0
a++ the positi4ists, that supposed+1 rep+ace the )etaph1sica+ and phi+osophica+
suppositions o0 pre%)odern sciences .ith the -0acts- o0 natura+ pheno)ena. As ' ha4e
stated ear+ier, the )1th o0 neutra+ 0act 0ree 0ro) an1 context o0 )eaning and 4a+ue has to
(e a(andoned as inade2uate. 5his, then, puts into 2uestion one o0 the 0unda)enta+
pre)ises o0 the secu+ar 4ie. o0 nature that the -(are 0acts- o0 science +ea4e no space 0or
re+igious or artistic truth and that .hat is out there in the .or+d o0 nature is no )ore than
aggregates o0 che)ica+ and (io+ogica+ e+e)ents upon .hich the hu)an )ind antecedent+1
con0ers )eaning. As ,asr repeated+1 states, the pro;ection o0 nature as pure materia is a
re0+ection o0 the secu+ar out+oo/ o0 )odern science in .hich a -supposition+ess- encounter
.ith the .or+d is pushed to the +i)its o0 re+egating nature into a structure o0 (rute 0acts
.ith no )eaning and e4en practica+ use.
't is not a di00icu+t step to ta/e 0ro) a nature concei4ed as inert and essentia++1
de4oid o0 )eaning to a nature constructed upon the )ode+ o0 )achine and, +ater .ith
,e.ton, o0 c+oc/. 5he purpose o0 this ana+og1, as .e a++ /no., .as to pro4e the precision
o0 )odern natura+ sciences and to su(stantiate )an-s c+ai) 0or a(so+ute do)ination o4er
nature. 5he )1th o0 the deter)inate and predicta(+e state o0 things .as a necessar1
assu)ption 0or the operation o0 natura+ sciences %% a )1th shattered (1 the rise o0
2uantu) )echanics and su(%ato)ic studies.
<!
'n an1 case, nature had to (e construed as a
)achine in the 0u++ sense o0 the ter) so that the rise o0 industria+ societ1 cou+d go ahead
27
3or an account o0 8a+i+eo-s distinction 0ro) this point o0 4ie., see Her(ert 7utter0ie+d, 5he Origins o0
Fodern Science "<!!%"A!!, (,e. ?or/: 5he 3ree Press, "@&A), pp. @@%"!.
28
Co++ing.ood, i(id., p. "!<.
29
On the traditiona+ schoo+-s 4ie. o0 2ua+it1 and 2uantit1 as t.o phi+osophica+ categories, see Rene
8uenon, 5he Reign o0 Euantit1 and the Signs o0 the 5i)e, tr. (1 Lord ,ort(ourne, (Lu6ac and Co)pan1
Ltd)., "@$<, pp., "@%<.
30
5he idea o0 deter)inis) and prediction has (een in0+uentia+ not on+1 in the natura+ sciences (ut a+so, and
)ore pernicious+1, in the socia+ sciences. 5he (est exa)p+e o0 this is socia+ =ar.inis) and (eha4ioris) as
e4idenced in the .or/ o0 Pa4+o4 in the 0or)er So4iet >nion and that o0 7. 3. S/inner in the >nited States.
Set against the (ac/ground o0 their ideo+ogica+ assu)ptions, (oth the experi)ents o0 Pa4+o4 and S/inner-s
7e1ond 3reedo) and =ignit1 present an interesting exa)p+e o0 .i++ to po.er and do)ination: (oth c+ai)
to ha4e disco4ered the -techno+og1 o0 (eha4ior- %% a )uch%needed de4ice 0or an1 oppressi4e po+itica+
s1ste). 3or Wi++ia) 7arrett-s ana+1sis o0 this ano)a+1, see his 5he '++usion o0 5echni2ue: A Search 0or
Feaning in a 5echno+ogica+ Ci4i+i6ation, (,e. ?or/: Anchor 7oo/s, "@:@), pp. xi%x4.
.ithout an1 serious o(;ection 0ro) re+igion or societ1, (oth o0 .hich .ere a+read1 )ade
su()issi4e to the undisputed authorit1 o0 science. 'nteresting+1 enough, the 4er1 )ode+
through .hich the (are 0acts o0 nature .ere to (e disco4ered pro4ed to (e a c+ear
indication o0 the phi+osophica+ out+oo/ adopted (1 )odern science: -)achine- or -c+oc/- is
certain+1 not a pheno)enon to (e 0ound in nature (ut rather an in4ention o0 )odern
industria+ societ1. ,asr sees the disastrous e00ects o0 the )echanistic 4ie. o0 the cos)os
in this )isconcei4ed (e+ie0 in science that has +ed to the ec+ipse o0 traditiona+ ideas and
4a+ues on the one hand, and to a nu)(er o0 )odern disasters on the other. 'n addition to
that, ,asr a+so insists that thin/ing a(out nature in ter)s o0 )achines is not the (est .a1
to dea+ .ith natura+ pheno)ena. As the histor1 o0 pre%)odern sciences sho.s, it is
possi(+e to stud1 and )a/e use o0 nature .ithout su(scri(ing to a )echanistic .or+d%
4ie. in .hich the intrinsic 4a+ue o0 nature and e4er1thing in it is dee)ed inconse2uentia+
0or the progress o0 hu)an societ1.
5he third i)portant trait o0 )odern science is, 0or ,asr, rationa+is) and
e)piricis) .hich, in spite o0 their historica+ ri4a+r1, co)p+e)ent each other in a nu)(er
o0 surprising .a1s. 3irst o0 a++, (oth rationa+is) and e)piricis) as the t.o progenies o0
the En+ighten)ent re;ect the great chain o0 7eing, na)e+1 the hierarchic 4ie. o0 the
uni4erse .hich +ies at the heart o0 traditiona+ sciences. 'nstead, )odern rationa+is)
constructs a .or+d%picture .ithin the +i)its o0 reason a+one .hi+e e)piricis) ta/es a
si)i+ar position (1 reducing rea+it1 to the +east co))on deno)inator, i.e., the sense
experience. 5he phi+osophica+ roots o0 En+ighten)ent hu)anis) can thus (e traced (ac/
to this episte)o+ogica+ strait%;ac/et i)posed upon our perception o0 the .or+d (1
rationa+is) and e)piricis). Second+1, (oth o0 these schoo+s ta/e the /no.ing su(;ect, the
cogito o0 =escartes, to (e the so+e possessor o0 )eaning and inte++igi(i+it1 thus pa4ing the
.a1 0or a su(;ecti4ist episte)o+og1. A+though the cos)o+og1 o0 )odern science at the
hands o0 8a+i+eo supposed+1 in4a+idated the Christian 4ie. o0 the uni4erse that regarded
the .or+d as the center o0 the cos)os, )odern episte)o+og1 put the )odern )an (ac/ at
the center (1 assigning to hi) the ro+e o0 (eing the Pro)ethean -creator- o0 the .or+d.
<"
5hird+1, (oth rationa+is) and e)piricis) adopt .hat E. ,age+ ca++s the -4ie. 0ro)
no.here- standpoint according to .hich )an is disengaged 0ro) the .or+d in .hich he is
ine+ucta(+1 inc+uded and a(+e to see the .or+d (1 hi)se+0 0ro) a 8od%+i/e 4antage
point.
<
As ' ha4e )entioned ear+ier, )odern rationa+is), according to ,asr and the
traditiona+ schoo+, rests on a serious )isunderstanding o0 the notion o0 -reason- .hen it
re+egates the inte++ect to ca+cu+ation and ana+1sis. Fodern e)piricis), on its part, 0a++s
into a si)i+ar predica)ent (1 repudiating an1 princip+e higher than sense perception.
5he 0ourth distinguishing characteristics o0 )odern science is c+ose+1 re+ated to
(oth rationa+is) and e)piricis), and this is the +egac1 o0 Cartesian (i0urcation .hich
dra.s an onto+ogica+ and episte)o+ogica+ a(1ss (et.een the /no.ing su(;ect and the
o(;ect to (e /no.n. With this rupture, the /no.ing su(;ect is 4ei+ed onto+ogica++1 0ro)
the .or+d surrounding it and (ound to +oo/ at e4er1thing as an -other- inc+uding nature
31
5he tragic conse2uences o0 Pro)ethean hu)anis) ha4e (een noticed (1 )an1 phi+osophers o0 the West
as .e++ as the East. ,asr has .ritten on the su(;ect extensi4e+1, e)p+o1ing a rigorous+1 critica+ +anguage.
A)ong others, Heidegger, in his ce+e(rated attac/ on hu)anis) in Letter on Hu)anis), o00ers a scathing
criticis) o0 Western hu)anis) .hich has turned )an, according to hi), into a s+a4e o0 his o.n in4entions.
32
-5he atte)pt is )ade to 4ie. the .or+d not 0ro) a p+ace .ithin it, or 0ro) the 4antage point o0 a specia+
/ind o0 +i0e or a.areness, (ut 0ro) no.here in particu+ar and no 0or) o0 +i0e in particu+ar at a++.- 5ho)as
,age+, Forta+ Euestions, (Ca)(ridge, "@:@), p. !A.
and -other )inds-. Historica++1, the episte)o+og1 o0 -othering-, the ine4ita(+e o00shoot o0
Cartesian dua+is), has (een one o0 the /e1 0actors 0or the a+ienation o0 )an 0ro) nature
and the destruction o0 the natura+ en4iron)ent. 't is not surprising to see that the
deci)ation o0 natura+ resources coincides .ith the rise o0 co+onia+is) and Orienta+is),
(oth o0 .hich are grounded in the creation o0 -others- as the una4oida(+e costs o0 Western
do)ination. ,asr sees the roots o0 this )odern predica)ent in the Cartesian heritage and
argues 4er1 strong+1 0or .hat .e )a1 ca++ an -episte)o+og1 o0 unit1-, according to .hich
the unit1 (et.een the inte++ect and the inte++igi(+e is to (e reasserted in order to ha4e a
genuine re+ationship .ith the .or+d o0 nature as .e++ as .ith other hu)an (eings.
<<B<<C
5he +ast (ut (1 no )eans the +east i)portant aspect o0 )odern science )ight (e
descri(ed as an ine+ucta(+e outco)e o0 the preceding 0actors that .e ha4e ;ust out+ined.
5his pertains to the 4er1 context in .hich )odern science is pursued and supported (1
go4ern)ents, institutions and corporations. At this point, one o0 the )ost apparent
+eit)oti0s o0 )odern science is its connection .ith po.er and do)ination that has
recei4ed a g+o(a+ pre4a+ence .ith the conso+idation o0 .or+d capita+ist econo)1. Science
as a .a1 o0 gaining po.er and contro+ o4er nature and other hu)an (eings is certain+1 a
4er1 strong i)pu+se that +ies at the heart o0 )odern scienti0ic enterprise. An i)portant
outco)e o0 this ne. spirit has (een the .edding (et.een science and techno+og1 to the
extent that one can hard+1 spea/ o0 -pure science- an1)ore that .i++ not (e succu)(ed to
the de)ands and conditions o0 consu)erist econo)1. Putting aside the extre)e+1 +i)ited
nu)(er o0 scientists .ho sti++ see their 4ocation as a pursuit o0 truth and /no.+edge,
near+1 the entire (od1 o0 )odern science is dri4en (1 a .i++ to po.er .hich )ani0ests
itse+0 in the ne4er%ending techno+ogica+ no4e+ties 0inanced (1 go4ern)ent 0unds and
internationa+ corporations. Fan1 criti2ues o0 )odern science ha4e .arned against the
dangers o0 rapid techno+ogica+ change that creates a state o0 un(ounded dependenc1 on
the one hand, and an irre)edia(+e sense o0 dis+ocation on the other.
<#B<#C
,asr sees the
roots o0 this predica)ent in the 4er1 assu)ptions o0 )odern science and its stance
33
5he idea o0 the unit1 o0 the inte++ect and the inte++igi(+e is one o0 the 0unda)enta+ teachings o0 traditiona+
phi+osoph1 and p+a1s an i)portant ro+e in ,asr-s .ritings on /no.+edge. 3or ,asr-s treat)ent o0 the
su(;ect, see the 0irst chapter o0 *no.+edge and the Sacred, pp. "%&#. 'n the =e Ani)a (#<!a), Aristot+e
re0ers to this idea (1 sa1ing that -in the case o0 o(;ects .ithout )atter, that .hich thin/s and that .hich is
(eing thought are the sa)e, 0or theoretica+ /no.+edge and its /no.a(+e o(;ect are the sa)e.- See =e
Ani)a, trans+ated (1 H. 8. Apost+e as Aristot+e on the Sou+ (5he Peripatetic Press, "@A"), p. $". 5he )ain
inspiration o0 's+a)ic phi+osopher, ho.e4er, co)es 0ro) the Enneads H .here P+otinus gi4es a detai+ed
exp+anation o0 the su(;ect. A+though '(n Sina re;ects, curious+1 enough, the unit1 o0 the inte++ect and the
inte++igi(+e, +ater )1stics and phi+osophers such as Suhra.ardi, '(n a+%Ara(i and Sadr a+%=in Shira6i ha4e
continued to e+a(orate on the su(;ect. Sadr a+%=in Shira6i has e4en .ritten a treatise ca++ed 'ttihad a+%-a2i+
.a-+%)a-2u+ (BOnC the >nit1 o0 the 'nte++ect and the 'nte++igi(+e) pu(+ished in Fa;)ua%1i rasai+%i 0a+sa0i%i
Sadr a+%Futa-a++ihin, ed. (1 Ha)id ,a;i 's0ahani (5ehran: 'ntisharat%i Hi/)et, "@@&), pp. &#%"!<. So)e
scho+ars ha4e c+ai)ed that the idea o0 the unit1 o0 the inte++ect and the inte++igi(+e can (e traced (ac/ to
4arious passages in Phedon, 5i)aeus and the Repu(+ic .here a -so+idarite d-existence- is esta(+ished
(et.een the 'deas and the sou+. 3or a .e++%in0or)ed essa1 on this su(;ect see, D. Pepin, -E+e)ents pour une
histoire de +a re+ation entre +-inte++igence et +-inte++igi(+e che6 P+ato et dans +e neop+atonis)e-, Re4ue
Phi+osophi2ue A", ("@$&), pp. <@%&#. 3or a recent state)ent o0 the pro(+e) in a co)parati4e .a1, see F.
Hairi ?a6di, 5he Princip+es o0 Episte)o+og1 in 's+a)ic Phi+osoph1: *no.+edge (1 Presence, (A+(an1,
S>,? Press, "@@).
34
5here is a considera(+e +iterature on the conse2uences o0 +i4ing in a techno+og1%(ound societ1. A)ong
others, one )a1 re0er to Phi+ip Sherrard, 5he Rape o0 Fan and ,ature: An En2uir1 into the Origins and
Conse2uences o0 Fodern Science, (8o+goono6a Press, "@A:)G Dac2ues E++u+, 5he 5echno+ogica+ Societ1, tr.
(1 Dohn Wi+/inson, (,e. ?or/: Hintage 7oo/s, "@&#)G Wi++ia) 7arrett, 5he '++usion o0 5echni2ue.
to.ards nature that has +ed to its desecration and deci)ation. According+1, an1 p+ausi(+e
so+ution 0or the persisting pro(+e)s caused (1 )odern science and techno+og1 can (e
achie4ed not (1 (etter engineering or 0urther progress (ut (1 reconsidering the entire
perspecti4e o0 the )odern .or+d%4ie. o4er nature, hu)an +i0e and its )eaning.
<$B<$C

71 .a1 o0 conc+usion, ' .ou+d +i/e to state t.o points on the i)p+ications o0
,asr-s 4ie. o0 science. ,asr-s criti2ue o0 )odern secu+ar science is (ased, as .e ha4e
seen, on his con4iction that the phi+osophica+ 0oundations o0 )odern ph1sica+ sciences
are )arred in a serious .a1 and that their )isdeeds can (e countered on+1 (1
redisco4ering the sacred 4ie. o0 the cos)os. O(4ious+1, this in0erence has a nu)(er o0
interesting conse2uences 0or the current re+ationship (et.een re+igion and science, into
.hich .e cannot go .ithin the +i)its o0 this stud1. One i)portant resu+t, ho.e4er, is that
)odern science, (ecause o0 the secu+ar 0ra)e.or/ it adopts, cannot (e regarded as a
continuation o0 traditiona+ or pre%)odern sciences as it is assu)ed (1 )an1 historians o0
science.
<&
As ' ha4e pointed out ear+ier, the )ain di00erence (et.een traditiona+ and
)odern sciences is one o0 perspecti4e and perception, not technica+ ad4ance)ent. 5his
(eing the case, the atte)pts to do4etai+ the 0indings o0 )odern science .ith the spiritua+
teachings o0 traditiona+ re+igions, as it has (eco)e a .idespread 0ashion in the recent
decades, are destined to 0ai+ un+ess .e set out to rede0ine the )etaph1sica+ underpinnings
o0 science as a .a1 o0 co)ing to ter)s .ith the .or+d o0 nature. Without underta/ing this
co+ossa+ tas/, our e00orts .i++ do no good than e+e4ating science to a se)i%re+igious truth
or turning re+igion into a scienti0ic trope.
<:B<:C
*eeping this in )ind, ,asr-s critica+ .or/,
as it )a1 see) too radica+ and unco)pro)ising to so)e, is +i/e+1 to (e a secure starting
point 0or a )ore co)prehensi4e and p+ausi(+e discourse on the re+ation (et.een re+igion
and science.
With his un1ie+ding stance, ,asr a+so opens up a ne. a4enue 0or 0acing up to the
cha++enge o0 )odern science .ithout sacri0icing the traditiona+ ideas and 4a+ues, and 0or
re;ecting the tota+i6ing c+ai)s o0 )odern secu+ar .or+d4ie. .hich continues e4er
increasing+1 to do)inate e4er1 0acet o0 hu)an +i0e. Considering the current positions
ta/en on science, .hich has (een either tota+ su()ission in the case o0 )odernis) or an
inchoate re;ection in the case o0 post)odernis) and its associates, ,asr-s critica+
approach o00ers a 4erita(+e a+ternati4e to (oth extre)es, in4iting us to a serious
de+i(eration o4er the 4er1 ter)s o0 the 2uestion o0 science. 'n this sense, the reassertion
o0 the re+igious 4ie. o0 the uni4erse and its )eaning 0or natura+ sciences is indu(ita(+1 o0
pri)e i)portance not on+1 0or the 0o++o.ers o0 an1 particu+ar re+igion (ut 0or the .ho+e o0
societ1. ?et, it is to (e hoped that the necessar1 steps in this direction are ta/en care0u++1
(e0ore .e +ose the 4er1 ground on .hich .e stand.
35
,asr has de4oted t.o separate (oo/s on the ana+1sis o0 this crucia+ su(;ect. See his Fan and ,ature: 5he
Spiritua+ Crisis in Fodern Fan and Re+igion and the Order o0 ,ature, especia++1 the +ast chapter. See a+so A
?oung Fus+i)-s 8uide to the Fodern Wor+d, pp. "@!%"@, 0or the di00erence (et.een science and
techno+og1.
36
Re+igion and the Order o0 ,ature, p. ":00G and A ?oung Fus+i)-s 8uide to the Fodern Wor+d, pp. "A"%
.
37
=ar.inis) is pro(a(+1 the (est exa)p+e to i++ustrate this point. A+though ,asr gi4es credit to the
scienti0ic e4idence against the theor1 o0 e4o+ution, his )ain criti2ue is )etaph1sica+ and phi+osophica+
throughout. See his *no.+edge and the Sacred, chapter :. 3or a si)i+ar +ine o0 argu)ent, see 5itus
7urc/hardt, 5he Firror o0 the 'nte++ect: Essa1s on 5raditiona+ Science and Sacred Art, tr. (1 Wi++ia)
Stoddart (Ca)(ridge: Euinta Essentia, "@A:), pp. <%#$G and Os)an 7a/ar (ed.), Criti2ues o0 the 5heor1 o0
E4o+ution (*ua+a Lu)pur: 5he 's+a)ic Acade)1 o0 Science, "@A:).