E

S t a t e

N a t u r a l
V I R O N M E
S e t t i n g
o f

t h e

Soils and
Agriculture

E n v i r o n m e n t

A u d i t

13

Soils and agriculture

Introduction

13.1

The soils of the Edinburgh area are relatively young in geological terms, having begun to develop
at the end of the last Ice Age 10,000 to 15,000 years ago on glacial deposits of a wide variety of
parent materials, though mainly of Devonian and Carboniferous origin (see chapter 12, geology).
These include glacial tills and fluvio-glacial deposits and marine sediment left exposed along the
coast by sea level changes. Where outcrops of igneous rocks occur, the parent material is
weathered in situ or covered by a thin layer of local stony drift. Given this variability it is
difficult to generalise about soil properties in the area where there is a variety in chemical status,
moisture, pH, texture and organic content, determined in part by the overlying vegetation.

13.2

Other than the parent material, those factors which have influenced the nature of soils in the
Edinburgh area include rainfall and temperature which has gradually brought about chemical
changes, through the leaching of inorganic ions, and the establishment of biological matter in the
previously inert material. Topographic factors such as the steepness and length of slopes or the
occurrence of water-collecting hollows; and biotic factors (vegetation, microbes and soil fauna,
and human activities) are also significant.

13.3

Generally soils in the area, as in the rest of the east of Scotland, are more mineral rich (in the
range of 13.5 % to 33% or humose) and less acidic (pH4 and above) than those in the west of
Scotland which have a higher organic content and are more acidic.

13.4

Mineral rich gley soils occur throughout the area. These are created through waterlogging,
either as a result of poor drainage or relief. They are characterised by blue-grey and red
mottling colours caused by anaerobic conditions which result in the reduction and oxidation of
iron. In more upland areas such as the Pentland Hills soils generally become shallower, peatier,
stonier and less fertile. This is because, as rainfall increases and temperature decreases with
height, many of the chemical and biological processes involved in soil formation become slower.
Macaulay Classification (see Map 1)

13.5

The Land Capability for Agriculture (LCA) system has as its objective the integration of
detailed information on soil, climate, and relief in a form that will be of value to land use
planners, agricultural advisers, farmers and others involved in optimising the use of land
resources. The classification was developed by the Macaulay Institute to describe the
agricultural potential of land based on the degree of limitation imposed by its biophysical
properties. It is based primarily on climate, a number of soil properties, (for example depth and
stoniness), wetness, erosion risk and slope. Also included are the overall pattern, i.e. variability,
and, in one of the classes (Class 6), vegetation cover is also taken into account. The
classification is supported by a series of guidelines to ensure that classification by different users
and in different areas will be as objective and consistent as possible.

13.6

The classification is a hierarchical one, with three levels of detail: classes, divisions and units.
There are seven classes ranging from Class 1 (land capable of producing a very wide range of
crops) through to Class 7 (land of very limited agricultural value) and, as is clear from these
descriptions, the system is optimised for flexibility of cropping and hence of use. Classes 3 to 6
are subdivided on the basis of potential flexibility of use and productivity of the land, while the
nature of the limitation (for example, climate, soil wetness) is indicated as a subscript to the
division. Only classes and divisions are used in the 1:250,000 scale maps although the method
has been used at larger scales.

13.7

In terms of the Macaulay classification, 1:50,000 maps show that much of the city is what is
termed unclassified owing to the fact that it is built-up (Map 1). The main undeveloped areas
where soils have been classified include rural west Edinburgh and to a less extent parts of the
south and east of the city. Most of this area is fairly high grade quality agricultural land (Class 3
or above) which would be capable of producing a moderate to very high range of arable crops.
There are only a few pockets of Class 1 agricultural land in the area between Cramond and

Kirkliston. The lowest grades of land include areas of the Pentland Hills (although even the
lower slopes including areas to the south of Currie and Balerno, could produce a narrow range of
crops) and the coastal strip to the west of Cramond.
Map 1 : Land Capability for Agriculture

ssource : Macaulay Land Use Research Institute

Soils and land use

13.8

Approximately half of the City of Edinburgh Council area comprises built-up land. Such areas
are often located on the best quality soils because these are usually associated with other
environmental factors like good drainage, a flat surface for building, and shelter. The soils are
effectively rendered unusable and even if they are re-exposed at some time in the future, their
characteristics will have been drastically altered.

13.9

Although more an issue for the landward areas of the Lothians rather than the city itself, in terms
of mining and other extractive industries, soil was in the past regarded as a hindrance to be
removed in order to get at the valuable resource under the surface. There were then far fewer
controls than at present on the environmental impacts of development and on disposal of waste
materials the consequences of this are obvious in many parts of the region.

13.10 In recent years legislation has been greatly improved to protect land and there is a growing
interest in the reclamation and restoration of derelict areas. Such areas can be reclaimed by
importing topsoil and spreading it over the land surface. A more practical solution is to use the
existing material and establish vegetation that can adapt to the conditions. The rate of
improvement may be increased by adding organic waste by-products, including animal slurry,
sewage sludge and other recycled organic wastes. Many of the large oil shale bings in West
Lothian have been restored in this way.
13.11 The unbuilt portion of the City of Edinburgh Council area includes significant areas of
agricultural land where arable and pasture dominate. However the Pentland Hills are
characterised by upland hill farms, which typically depend on the rearing of sheep. Throughout
the countryside belt around Edinburgh soils have been affected by agricultural practices such as
forest clearances, woodland planting, grazing, drainage and arable crop rotation.

Agricultural activity
13.12 The number of agricultural holdings in the City of Edinburgh fell from 140 in 1995 to 125 in
2001, and has remained broadly stable since then (Table 1). In 2006 there were 126 holdings,
extending to 13,222 hectares. This represents just 0.24% of the total Scottish holdings and land
area, excluding common grazing land. The small percentage reflects Edinburghs compact size
and predominantly urban character. However, the environmental significance of farming is
much greater than these figures might suggest. In fact agricultural holdings account for just over
half (50.4%) of the local authority area. The average size of holding is only slightly smaller
than the Scottish average (104.9 hectares compared with 107.9 hectares), and is larger than the
average for Edinburgh and the Lothians (86.0 hectares).
Table 1 : Trends in the number of agricultural holdings in Edinburgh, 1995 - 2006
1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

140

140

136

135

135

129

125

126

125

127

125

126

Source : Parliamentary Question (ref. S2W 24656)

13.13 The countryside to the west and south of Edinburgh makes a significant contribution to the
landscape setting of the city and helps to provide a diversity of wildlife habitats, as well as
supporting the local and national economy. Farming is an activity with considerable potential to
transform the landscape and the balance of nature, for better or for worse. Some practices
associated with large scale commercial farming can radically change the landscape and damage
local ecosystems and biodiversity for example monocultural planting, the removal of field
boundaries, intensive use of fertilisers and pesticides and introduction of exotic species and
hybrids. However, in recent years the farming sector has become much more aware of its
environmental responsibilities, and this has been reinforced by legislation and advice, aimed at
minimising harmful environmental impacts, and promoting good practice.

13.14 In recent years a number of practical projects have been implemented locally within Edinburgh,
both to manage farmland more proactively for the benefit of wildlife, whilst also enhancing
community involvement and improving understanding of farming, food, wildlife and the
countryside in general. The Edinburgh & Lothians Greenspace Trust (formerly the Edinburgh
Green Belt Trust), the Farming & Wildlife Advisory Group and the Scottish Agricultural College
have been particularly instrumental in promoting many of these schemes. Recent examples are
the creation of new hedge boundaries and woodland planting at Gogarbank, and the development
of an interpretative farm nature trail at West Craigie.
13.15 Such initiatives have underpinned progress towards objectives set out in the Edinburgh
Biodiversity Action Plan. The 2004-2009 update of the Action Plan notes that 6.5 km. of
hedgerows have been restored or managed for wildlife, 6 ponds have been created on farmland,
and 24 km. of grass margins, conservation headlands and waterside margins have been developed
for wildlife benefit (since 2000). Field boundary trees have also been planted, and a number of
dykes have been restored.
13.16 Being close to a major city has particular consequences for agricultural activity. On the one
hand it has to contend with the close proximity of large numbers of people and heightened
demand for recreational access to the countryside. Potentially the greater interface between
town and country can give rise to higher levels of vandalism, littering, theft and other problems,
although these can be reduced with greater mutual understanding.
13.17 On the other hand, proximity to a large centre of population also opens up opportunities to
educate and improve understanding of environmental issues. It also opens up market
opportunities, perhaps for people to harvest their own produce (pick your own) or to sell fresh,
local produce (including organic produce) directly to consumers. The weekly farmers market
in Edinburgh city centre has already achieved notable success in this regard, being acclaimed as
the best such market in Britain (Country Life Magazine, 2006, and National Farmers Retail &
Markets Association, 2007).
13.18 Approximately three-quarters of Edinburghs farmland is managed for arable and vegetable
crops, with the remainder being predominantly improved grassland supporting stock rearing.
Due to confidentiality restrictions the annual Scottish Agricultural Census does not publish
detailed information for the City of Edinburgh. However, it does provide an insight into
farming activities in the wider Edinburgh & Lothians area. Table 2 gives information on the
scale and type of agricultural activity in the Lothians, including trends since 2001, and shows
how these compare with Scottish trends.
13.19 The Lothians make particularly significant contributions towards Scottish wheat and poultry
production, accounting for 16.5% and 14.3% of the national totals respectively. Until recently
the area was also an important centre for pig rearing. However, both poultry and pig rearing
have declined rapidly since 2001, much more so in the Lothians than Scotland as a whole. The
decline in pig rearing has been particularly dramatic, and this is undoubtedly linked to the closure
of a major food processing facility in the area. Barley is the single most imortant crop in the
Lothians, accounting for about 35% of the total planted area. However, if recent trends continue
it will soon be overtaken by wheat. The area under oilseed rape has been growing, but is still a
relatively minor part of the total acreage.
13.20 There has been a reduction in the number of cattle, compared with a small increase at national
level. The number of sheep has also fallen, though more slowly than the national trend. In
contrast the number of horses has increased quite rapidly, albeit from a low base.
13.21 The amount of set-aside land has fallen significantly since 2003, with the Lothian figure
reducing from 70.8 sq.km. to 54.0 sq.km. in 2007. Set-aside land is land where farmers agree
not to grow food crops, in return for payment of a subsidy. The scheme was introduced by the
European Commission in 1992, primarily to avoid over-production and maintain commodity
prices. A secondary objective was to encourage habitats which allow wildlife to thrive, although
active management for conservation purposes was not an essential requirement. Recently there
has been a move towards growing biofuel plants and other non food crops on set-aside land.

Recent increases in food prices are also likely to result in more land being brought back into
active production.
Table 2 : Agricultural activity in Edinburgh and the Lothians, 2001 - 2007
Edinburgh & Lothians

Scotland

2001

2007

change

2001

2007

change

1,292

1,309

+1.3%

60,959

61,918

+1.6%

.. of which arable

637

612

-3.9%

9,743

9,222

-5.3%

.. grassland over 5 yrs old

262

271

+3.4%

8,948

9,191

+2.7%

.. rough grazing

308

329

+6.8%

33,758

34,017

+0.8%

.. woodland

54

67

+24.0%

2,029

2,799

+37.9%

144.7

169.3

+17.0%

797.1

1,027.4

+28.9%

.. barley

232.0

178.5

-23.1%

3,368.0

2,786.4

-17.3%

.. oats

7.6

3.2

-57.9%

215.8

208.7

-3.3%

.. oilseed rape

23.7

30.8

+30.0%

348.6

363.3

+4.2%

.. potatoes

23.0

23.3

+1.3%

296.6

293.2

-1.1%

.. crops for stock feeding

9.7

8.8

-9.3%

243.7

247.2

+1.4%

.. veg. for human consumption

6.4

8.1

+26.6%

106.0

117.8

+11.1%

.. set-aside land

67.3

54.0

-19.8%

900.6

679.3

-24.6%

6.5

5.3

-18.5%

295.4

286.7

-2.9%

.. beef cattle

30.7

30.2

-1.6%

1,023.8

1,039.5

+1.5%

.. total cattle

54.0

51.6

-4.4%

1,905.3

1,898.5

-0.4%

.. sheep

241.7

235.0

-2.8%

8,109.9

7,498.2

-7.5%

.. pigs

63.8

26.0

-59.2%

596.5

456.7

-23.4%

.. poultry

2,475.7

2,013.7

-18.7%

16,057.2

14,129.0

-12.0%

.. horses

1.5

2.3

+53.3%

24.1

32.6

+35.3%

1,800

1,578

-12.3%

26,360

25,938

-1.6%

.. of which full-time

1,339

1,130

-15.6%

15,785

13,269

-15.9%

.. part-time

357

297

-16.8%

6,986

7,062

+1.1%

.. casual or seasonal

104

151

+45.2%

3,589

5,607

+56.2%

total agricultural land (sq.km.)

land under wheat (sq.km.)

no. of dairy cattle (thousands)

total employed agric. labour

Source : Scottish Government Rural and Environment Statistical Services : Scottish Agricultural Census

Agri-environmental grant schemes

13.22 The Scottish Government operates a number of agri-environmental schemes whereby grants are
made available to promote farming practices which contribute to long-term environmental goals,
but which may incur high start-up costs or lower returns. This includes the promotion of organic
farming. As Table 3 shows, there has been virtually no take-up of these schemes in Edinburgh
itself. There has been some interest in the wider Lothian area (especially East Lothian),
although this is still generally a small proportion of the Scottish total.
Table 3 : Number of agri-environmental grant awards in Edinburgh & the Lothians
Scheme / area

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Total

11

13

20

34

25

104

Midlothian

23

West Lothian

11

Lothians total

13

16

28

48

34

140

4.4%

7.0%

2.7%

2.9%

2.5%

0.2%

2.7%

295

227

1,044

1,681

1,352

503

5,102

Edinburgh

n/a

n/a

n/a

East Lothian

n/a

n/a

n/a

Midlothian

n/a

n/a

n/a

West Lothian

n/a

n/a

n/a

Lothians total

n/a

n/a

n/a

Lothians as % of Scotland

n/a

n/a

n/a

0.0%

7.7%

3.1%

3.6%

Scotland

n/a

n/a

n/a

46

52

97

195

Edinburgh

n/a

n/a

n/a

East Lothian

n/a

n/a

n/a

Midlothian

n/a

n/a

n/a

West Lothian

n/a

n/a

n/a

Lothians total

n/a

n/a

n/a

Lothians as % of Scotland

n/a

n/a

n/a

4.4%

2.3%

3.9%

3.7%

Scotland

n/a

n/a

n/a

68

44

51

163

Rural Stewardship Scheme

Edinburgh
East Lothian

Lothians as % of Scotland
Scotland
Organic Aid Scheme (OAS)

OAS Maintenance (OASM)

source : Scottish Government Rural and Environment Statistical Services special information request

Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ)

13.23 Much of Edinburgh lies within a designated nitrate vulnerable zone (NVZ), where special
controls are in place to limit the pollution of watercourses through leaching of agricultural
nitrates, including both organic and inorganic fertilisers (See map 2). These include capping the
overall amount of nitrate application, restricting where and when application can take place (e.g.
avoiding periods of heavy rainfall or seasons when crop uptake of nitrogen is low), and imposing
controls over the storage of slurry etc. NVZs are designated under the European Commissions
Nitrates Directive 91/676/EEC and the Protection of Water Against Agricultural Nitrate Pollution
(Scotland) Regulations 1996. They cover land draining to any watercourses where nitrate from
agricultural sources occurs at concentrations approaching or over 50mg/litre, or causes eutrophic
conditions (subject to harmful algal growth).
Map 2 : Edinburgh, East Lothian and the Borders Nitrate Vulnerable Zone

Source : Scottish Executive Environment & Rural Affairs Department

Urban farming
13.24 The concepts of urban farming and edible buildings / cities have recently gained ground,
recognising the many advantages that can derive from turning over more land in urban areas to
quasi-agricultural productive use. The advantages include :
Supplementing commercially available food with fresh, wholesome, local produce (with
reduced food miles);
Creating green oases within the built-up area, which act as sanctuaries both for people and
for wildlife;
Providing an outlet for healthy outdoor activity, contributing to better physical and mental
health;
Providing a focus for community involvement, and encouraging a sense of ownership and
pride in the local neighbourhood;
Educational value for people of all ages : contributing to better understanding of food
production and the natural environment in general.
13.25 All this is in the context of significant rises in world food prices over the last year (2007/08),
putting a premium on the future security of food. Given the increased competition for food
supplies and the potential effects of climate change on some of the main food producing areas, it
is likely that attention will increasingly turn to the scope for greater food production close to
major urban populations. Edinburgh needs to make sure that it is in the vanguard of this
movement.
13.26 Edinburgh already has a large number of allotments which are in high demand (as detailed in
chapter 16). It has a City Farm at Gorgie (established 1982) which provides a much valued
hands on educational resource. This is a great boon for children and families who would
otherwise have only very limited awareness of countryside and farming issues. The farm has a
wide range of livestock as well as herb, vegetable and organic gardens.
13.27 In March 2008 work started to create the new Persevere Community Garden on waste land at
North Junction Street in Leith. This will feature an orchard, with a number of unusual species of
apple trees. The project is being promoted by local community groups, Greener Leith and Leith
Open Space Group.
13.28 The national food and farming campaign group Sustain has argued for an expansion of the food
production capacity of our towns and cities, not only by expanding allotments but by identifying
under-used sites and looking at innovative approaches such as growing crops on green roofs. (see
for example : www.sustainweb.org/pdf/edible_buildngs.pdf )