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()
()
()
Where
()
and
()
are the predicted RMS velocities and
and
are
the known Two Way Travel Time (TWTT) associated with depth (TVDSS). The accuracy of
the depths derived using this method is dependent on the interval of stacking velocity reading
input. The error in the depths generally increases towards the centre of two provided readings.
The scatter plot of the stacking velocity value, V
int
plot and the average velocity are
included in Appendix F. A time-depth conversion table and curve based on the interval
velocity at 5 ms TWTT interval is also included in Appendix E.
Industrial Training Report
Muhammad Hasif Syazwan 14912 29
System Accuracy
Positioning System
The positioning of the vessel and survey equipment within the absolute coordinated reference
system was made possible using the Starfix HP and MRDGPS navigation system. The
Starfix.HP systems have been proven to give very accurate height observations with 95%
reliability percentage for vertical accuracies of 20 cm (HP). Starfix HP provides decimetre
level horizontal positioning accuracy at over 500 km range from reference station.
Accuracy in positioning depends upon the prevailing atmospheric conditions, the quality of the
base station coordinates provided, location of system antennae and the number of satellites
observed / available for the region. The above conditions were maximised as much as possible
during the survey operation to ensure precise and accurate navigation and positioning.
Industrial Training Report
Muhammad Hasif Syazwan 14912 30
Seismic System
There are two types of resolution of interest in seismic systems: the vertical resolution (VR)
and the horizontal resolution (HR). The vertical resolution is defined as the point at which the
system has the ability to distinguish two pinching beds.
Theoretically, for the shallow geophysical seismic system the vertical resolution is
estimated to be of the dominant signal wavelength of the acoustic source. Once the thickness
of the unit is less than the wavelength, reflections between the upper and lower interfaces can
no longer be individually distinguished.
For the multichannel 2D high resolution seismic data the vertical resolution is a function
of frequencies, bubble pulse ringing, time depth conversion estimates, towing configuration
stability, the hydrophone characteristics and plotting accuracy. The vertical resolution of a
multichannel 2D high-resolution seismic system is defined as one quarter of the wavelength
().
VR = /4
Although the theoretical resolution may be defined by this relation, the actual recorded data
will be of lower resolution. Vertical resolution for the 4 x 4 array hull-mounted sub-bottom
profiler data is about 0.2 m and 2.0 m for the 2D high-resolution seismic data in the shallow
geological zone.
The horizontal resolution of sub-bottom shallow geophysical seismic system and multichannel
2D high-resolution seismic source depends on frequency (or wavelength, ) and the depth to
the reflector of concern. The acoustic pulse that insonifies a circular area on the seabed
describes the horizontal resolution of the source. The radius of this circle, known as the Fresnel
Zone (FZ), is dependent upon the dominant frequency of the acoustic source, the depth of the
reflector and the speed of the acoustic pulse.
Industrial Training Report
Muhammad Hasif Syazwan 14912 31
A simplified method of obtaining the diameter of the FZ is:
FZ = (2z)
1/2
Where;
FZ = Diameter of Fresnel Zone
= Wavelength
z = Depth to reflector
The horizontal resolution of the multichannel 2D high-resolution seismic streamer (SHR)
depends on the group separation (x) and it is given as:
SHR = x / 2
32
5.4 Results & Discussions
The data obtained from the 2D High Resolution seismic survey was processed with a basic seismic
processing flow. One (1) seismic line from the field is used to illustrate the processing conducted.
Below is the summary of survey parameters.
ACQUISITION
Acquisition contractor: Fugro
Acquisition mode: Single streamer cable, single array source
Sample Rate : 1.0 ms
Recording Length : 2.5 sec
Group Interval : 12.5 m
Shot Point Interval : 12.5 m
No. of Channels : 96
Nominal Fold : 48
STREAMER CONFIGURATION
Streamer Type : SeaMUX 24 Channel
Active Streamer : 1200 m
Group Length : 12.5m
Streamer Depth : 2.5 m +/- 0.5 m
Streamer Noise : Coherent Noise - ahead or behind - 10ub
Feather Angle : Max 7 deg
Near offset : 15.0 m
No. of Birds / Spacing : 9 / 150 m
Compasses at Bird no : 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9
RECORDING
Tape Format : SEG-D 8036 24 bit
Media Type : 3490E
System : SeaMUX 2000 System
Filter Delay : 29 ms
Gun Delay : 30 ms
LC Filter : 4.5 Hz, 6 dB/octave
HC Filter : 412 Hz, 215 db/octave
Near Trace : Channel 4
Aux. Channel : Ch1 (FTB), Ch3 (NF), Ch4 (FF)
ENERGY SOURCE PARAMETER
Gun Array : 4 x 40 cu. inch sleeve gun clusters
Gun Depth : 2.5 m +/- 0.5 m
Gun Timing : Max +/- 0.5 ms
Gun Pressure : Not less than 2000 psi
33
5.4.1 Project Deliverables
Below is the overall processing flow that was used for the processing of Line 10 from a certain field.
34
Loading the seg-D onto Uniseis
Objective: Loads raw data from storage (hard-disk or tape) onto Uniseis software for processing.
Description: The first step done is to load the SEG-D data onto the processing software in this case
Uniseis. SEG-D is a common raw data format of seismic data during acquisition recording. There are
also other seismic data formats such as SEG-A, SEG-B, SEG-C, etc. The final product of the
processing will be in SEG-Y which is commercially accepted in the oil and gas industry.
Produce Demultiplexed Raw Data
Objective: Display demultiplex data
Description:. Demultiplex data or DMX for short is the raw data which has been transcribed into
internal data format. Re-sequencing arranges the data from 101 onwards regardless on numbering
during survey. The first re-run of the line would begin with 1101, while a second re-run will start with
2101.
35
Figure 8: Demultiplexed Data of Line 10 shows the raw data that has been sequenced. As can be seen, the raw data is mixed up with the low
frequency noise.
36
Source and Receiver Static Corrections
Objective: Removes depth corrections and equipment delay
Description: System delay by gun and recording and depth corrections are made to the raw data.
System delay is obtained from field QC logs while the depth correction uses the equation below:
The frequency filter can also be specified at this point but at this point only frequencies that are too
low and too high are filtered. This is so that no relevant signal is left out.
Table 3: Parameters Table for Static Correction
Parameters Values
System Delay 57 ms
Depth Correction 3.91
Low Cut Slope; Low Cut Filter 18 DB/oct ; 5 Hz
High Cut Slope; High Cut Filter 72 DB/Octave; 412 hZ ;
37
Figure 9: Example of the raw data after static correction.
Low frequency noise previously present in the demultiplex file has been removed with filter
38
\
Figure 10: Zoomed-in Raw SHOT file for Line 10.
The top most received signal indicates the direct arrival while the sharp spikes below them show first return. The Near Trace Offset estimation is
important to ensure these do not overlap.
Indicates First
Return
Indicates Direct
Arrival
39
Near Trace Gather(NTG) Files
Objective: To obtain a general view of the geology in the area and check for gun miss-fires.
Description: NTG files plots one of the near channels in shot domain. Gun misfires is when gun fires
too early, too late or does not fire at all. This is indicated on the NTG section if displacments are seen
on the section.
Figure 11: Line 10 NTG Display:
As can be seen from the image, there are no displacements seen meaning the gun and recording system
is functioning accordingly.
40
Brute Stack
Objective: Enables us to have an outlook on the general condition of our seismic data and determine
the processing flow needed.
Description: Stacks data from all channels for the entire line and allows us to gain an initial
assumption on the geology and condition of our data. Two formats can be obtained from stacking
which is either Equalized or True Amplitude. True amplitude shows the compensation of signals that
have been attenuated or grown weaker as the signal travels further with depth. The signals are
predicted to be this way if attenuation did not occur. The true amplitude section allows us to identify
anomalies (unusual events) in the section since the amplitudes that stand out can be seen clearly.
Equalized form has also had the signals compensated due to attenuation and also equalized the signals.
This evens out the amplitudes making it easier to interpret the lithology, structures and stratigraphy.
Parameters involved:
1) Time Varied Gain (TVG): This is one of the scaling methods that adjust compensation or gain
recovery of the signals. The values it can be set to are dependent on the processing software used. In
the case of Unises, it ranges ranging from -5 to 5 for time and velocity respectively. The best signal
compensation is picked based on trial rounds.
2) Normal Move-Out correction: Normal Move-Out Corrections (NMO) is done to pre-stack data.
NMO basically uses a velocity function and calculates the NMO hyperbola at every time for every
offset of dipping seabed. It then shifts each sample back to the true "zero-offset" or true geometry
form. In the beginning, the velocity function that NMO is based on depends on the inserted velocities
by assumption. The basic rule of thumb is that velocity increase with depth in normal geology. The
velocity file is re-inserted with more accurate values once velocity picking is done.
3) Muting: Its purpose is to remove the stretched move-out caused by NMO. These regions of
velocities are not accurate and may cause even false structures to appear. Another purpose is to remove
direct arrivals (signals that do not travel through the subsurface) and leave on the data ranging from the
seabed and below intact. Muting may look like cutting of data for cosmetics, but it actually allows us
to be focused on the appropriate signals and not confused by the noise or unwanted signals.
41
Figure 12: Line 10 Equalised Brute Stack.
The amplitudes have undergone compensation then equalization. That is why all amplitudes seem nearly constant throughout the section.
This allows easier detection of structure, horizon and to predict lithology.
42
Figure 13: Line 10 True Amplitude Brute Stack.
Shows the original amplitude of the seismic after compensation. Anomalies are detected by comparing the amplitudes to the seabed since the seabed
usually has the highest reflection.. If the amplitude is comparable or higher than the seabed(supposedly is the strongest reflector), it can be
considered an anomaly.
43
Figure 14: Trial of Time Varied Gain
The five (5) sections above reveal different values of Time Varied Gains(TVG). The time and velocity values are (0,1), (1,-2, (1,0), (1,2) and (1,3) f
respectively. Among the five sections, the fourth and fifth sections have been over-compensated since noise starts to appear while the first and
second section is under-compensated The third section has been picked as the overall best as the signals are quite clear and noise is absent from the
data.
Noise
44
Figure 15: Normal Move-Out Gather
The move-out velocities. To show the true geometry of the seabed and subsequent layers, the velocities are adjusted or stretched. The more the
stretch the more inaccurate the velocity, and the more false the geometry,
Seabed being
stretched
45
Figure 16: Muting of Line 10
The above section shows two(2) sections, the left before muting and the right after muting. In the left figure, muting has been done to remove the
stretched velocities due to move-out on the upper left of the section and also the noise above the seabed. Muting can also be done based on water
bottom, CDP or;manual mute picking.
Muted region from
350ms for 96
th
trace
Noise above seabed has
been muted at 35ms
46
Time Frequency Denoise TFDN
Objective: Reduces noise and de-spikes data.
Description: Noise is considered as unwanted signals in our data. Among the sources of noise in the
survey can be either swell noise or equipment noise. Swell noise usually ranges from 20 to 25 Hz
while equipment noise can go as high as the the frequency of the survey. Detecting and eliminating
noise is important so that we do not interpret the noise as signals instead. Noise signals are usually in
isolated groups and follow a certain pattern.
47
Figure 17A: Data before Denoised
48
Figure 17B: Denoised data.
As can be seen, the spking above has been removes and the signal below has been enhanced since the overall scale has been lowered.
49
Velocity Picking
Objective: Collects Root Mean Square (RMS) velocity to correct NMO/
Description: Almost all processing sequences require an accurate average in velocity to operate. A
velocity file is prepared that lists the average velocity over time for the seismic line in question.
Initially, predicted velocities are input in the velocity file as a temporary use. These velocities can give
an early prediction since generally velocities increase with depth since the layers increase in density
with depth.
In order to establish the velocity field for the seismic line, a suite of velocity functions at
discrete positions along the line need to be determined. This is done through velocity analysis or
generally known as velocity picking. There are several methods of velocity picking as follows: The
velocities picked improve the move-out gather and provides more accurate geometry of the layers.
After velocity is picked, the data is re-stacked to use the corrected normal move-out.
i. Semblance display: An energy concentration display; usually with red being the area with
concentrated velocity. Semblance is used to pick the interval velocity.
ii. Gathers: Normal Move Out gathers that follow a hyperbolic shape of the velocity function
iv. Stack: A compilation of the signals across all channels.
Modern computer-aided velocity analyses make use of all the techniques above. From here, the
velocities of the intervals are picked and the values are transferred into the velocity file which had
been filled with assumed velocities before velocity picking .
50
Figure 18: Image of Shot Gather during velocity picking
During velocity picking, the best gather is the with the least stretch. This gives the most accurate
velocity. (Refer to yellow box with green line)
51
Figure 19: Image of Energy Samblance during Velocity Picking
Velocity increases with depth unless there are anomalies such as shallow gas, etc. Anomalies such as
salt domes cause a sharp increase in velocity if present.
Locations of high velocity
concentration are picked
based on the red colour spots.
A stair like structure is
achieved since the general rule
of thumb is that velocity
increases with depth.
52
Figure 20: Stack of the seismic line
The stack allows us to keep track of reflectors picked and also gives us a larger perspective on the
anomalies in the seismic. The stronger reflectors may indicate a change in the sequence while an
isolated group of amplitudes may indicate anomalies.
An interval of 80
CDP(500m) is chosen for
the velocity picking. The
interval used is usually up
to the client
During picking, the horizon acts
as a guide to pick the velocity.
53
Deconvolution Before Stack
Function of Deconvolution Before Stack:
i) Remove reverberations
ii) Compress wavelets to make the reflection more visible and enhance continuity
iii) Remove multiples
Description: 2 important parameters to take note are operator length and gap. The operator length
should be long enough to include at least two "bounces" of the maximum reverberation time to be
removed. A gap meanwhile is inserted into the filter that prevents the filter from changing the data
close to every reflector. A gap of 1 sample or less implies spiking deconvolution, any higher gap
implies predictive deconvolution. The gaps normally used extend from 2-10 samples of data and cause
less spectral whitening (and associated noise).
Predictive deconvolution is mainly used to eliminate multiples which usually appear at
intervals. A model is made to replicate these intervals and the deconvolution acts based on the model.
Spiking deconvolution is a general deconvolution that is applied across the section mainly to compress
wavelets so that they are more visible.
Parameters: Operator length: 40ms; Gap 8 ms
54
Figure 21: Trial of Different Gaps and Operator Lengths
There are 7 section in total with an operator length of 40ms, 50ms , 60ms , 70ms , 80ms , 100ms , 120ms and a gap of 8ms respectively. The
changes are very subtle to see cganges in the multiple. Thus focusing on an anomaly (the circles) makes it easier to see that the rightmost section
enhances the visibility of the reflection
Multiple of
seabed
55
Figure 22: Deconvolved True Amplitude Stack; 40ms operator length; 8ms gap
56
Figure 23: Deconvolved Equalised Stack; 40ms operator length; 8ms gap
57
Migration
Function of Migration is to:
i) Correct dip and position of dipping layers
ii) Collapse of diffractions
iii) Improve Resolution
Description: Migration is the process of reconstructing a seismic section so that reflection events are
repositioned under their correct surface location and at a corrected vertical reflection time. Seismic
migration is the procedure by which an image of the correctly positioned subsurface reflecting
interfaces is obtained from the seismic section. Migration is the process that moves the data on the
stacked seismic section to its correct position in both time and space. Even after NMO corrections.
reflections from dipping events are plotted in their wrong locations. To rectify this, the points need to
be moved "up-dip" along a hyperbolic curve with the shape of this hyperbola depending on the
velocity field. Migration works best in areas with dipping seabed and complex geology but it should be
applied in whatever case since it can improve resolution and as experienced processors quote;
insignificant migration is better than no migration at all.
There are several types of migration namely for different needs of the processor: Each of these
migrations has a nuique algorithm
i) Time Migration: Needed when the stacked section contains diffractions or structural dip. This
migration is valid for vertically varying velocities and acceptable for mild lateral velocity variations.
ii) Depth Migration: Needed when the stacked section contains structural dip and large lateral
velocity gradients.
iii) Pre-stack Partial Migration (PSPM): Post-stack migration is acceptable when the stacked section
is equivalent to a zero offset section. This is not the case for conflicting dips with different stacking
velocities or large lateral velocity gradients. PSPM or dip move-out (DMO) provides a better stack that
can be migrated after stack. However, PSPM only solves the problem of conflicting dips with different
stacking velocities.
iv) Full time migration before stack: The output is a migrated stack. No intermediate un-migrated
stacked section is produced.
58
Figure 24: Image of before/after migrated stack. Individual points on the stack are placed back in their correct location by hyperbolic velocity
function. As can be seen in the section that there are slight different placements of the data.
59
Output Seg-Y
Finally, after going through the processing sequence that has been set, the seg-Y output that is
produced is ready to be interpreted by an interpretation geophysicists. However, since a very basic
flow of processing was used in this particular case, the seg-Y outputs obtained were mainly a trial run
in order to understand and appreciate the processing. Processing is actually an art of producing the best
quality data for interpretation with the fewest amount of steps involved. This is always the biggest
challenge for every seismic processor.
For the seismic interpretation, an experienced processing house was appointed to carry out the
the processing and it is their Seg-Y outputs which be used in the interpretation. The processing flow
used by the processing house is as follows:
1. Reformat 2.5s, 1ms, 96 channels
2. System delay -55.67ms
3. Source and receiver static correction
4. Geometrical spreading correction VVT +5dB gain
5. Low cut filter 15Hz/18dB/Oct
6. 2 passes of swell noise attenuation and De-spiking
8. Linear noise attenuation (cut 400m/s) starting time below 500ms
9. Tau-P DBS, Gap length 12ms, operator length 120ms
10. Zero phasing applied
11. Q compensation Amplitude and phase Q 170 and reference frequency 250Hz + 10 dB gain
12. Velocity analysis every 500m grid
13. Kirchhoff PSTM with 1km, 75 degree dip
14. Final angle mute 40degree
15. Scaling 500ms gate
16. Final raw stack and Equalized stack were produced.
60
Figure 25: Line 10 Finalised SEG-Y(Equalized)
61
Figure 26: Line 10 Finalised SEG-Y(True Amplitude)
62
5.4.2 Data Gathering / Analysis
After the processing of the lines were completed, the next part was to interpret the processed seismic
line. The interpretation done involved the stratigraphy and geological structures, anomalies present and
also drilling prognosis.
Intermediate Geology
The acquisition of the 2D high-resolution multichannel seismic data was carried out in generally good
weather conditions and the 2.5 seconds data are of good quality with penetration down to
approximately 2 seconds.
Limitation of interpretation
The high-resolution 2D seismic data was analysed for potential hazards that may affect drilling at the
proposed well location.
The distribution of survey line intervals is such that only events of great enough size can be
identified. Discrete shallow gas pockets that fall between survey lines or smaller than the minimum
line intervals (100 m) are not likely to have continuities identifiable from the seismic dataset.
Geological structures and amplitude events within seismic attenuation zone are not likely to be
identified from the seismic dataset. The signal attenuation is generally associated with the chaotic
reflection area.
63
Intermediate Stratigraphy
Based on the acoustic characteristics of the high-resolution seismic data, the intermediate
geological zone has been divided into seven (7) separate sequences, namely Sequences I to VII,
separated by acoustically coherent reflectors, namely Horizons H1 to H6. The unit boundaries
are defined based on changes in the seismic reflection characteristics of each sequence and / or
prominent reflecting horizons (or unconformities, if any).
The general stratigraphy and structure of the survey area is best described by 2D high-
resolution seismic sections, in equalised migrated form.
Sequence I (Shallow Geological Zone)
Sequence I is the youngest deposits and relatively thinner sequence, which is acoustically semi-
transparent, characterised by generally weak parallel with well-laminated internal reflections.
Several buried channels near seabed are the most significant features observed within Sequence
I. The extents of these buried channels are not clearly defined due to limited resolution of the
2D seismic section but these occur generally within 50 m below seabed.
The base of Sequence I is marked by a moderate to high amplitude reflector, Horizon H1.
Several normal faults are observed to extend up to this sequence.
This Sequence I is interpreted to consist of clayey SILT and predominantly CLAY with SAND
intervals.
64
Sequence II
Sequence II is characterised by moderate to strong seismic impedance, with dipping reflectors
to northwest, intermittent reflections and some chaotic internal reflectors. This sequence is
inferred to consist of possible CLAY and SAND layers. Numerous normal faults could be
observed within Sequence II on the seismic sections, which are attributed to differential
compaction. Occasional strong reflectors are observed within this sequence but this amplitude
event is interpreted as due to lithological change.
A continuous and relatively coherent seismic reflector defined as Horizon H2 identifies the base
of this sequence.
Sequence III
Sequence III is characterised by moderate seismic impedance, reflectors that are dipping to
northwest with some irregular to intermittent internal reflectors. Occasional strong reflectors
are observed within this sequence but this amplitude event is interpreted to be lithologically
related. Numerous normal faults cut through the sequence and show displacement in reflectors.
It is interpreted to consist of possible CLAY interlayered with SAND.
The base of Sequence III is marked by a coherent reflector namely Horizon H3.
Sequence IV
Sequence IV is interpreted to consist of possible CLAY, grading to CLAYSTONE, interlayered
with SANDSTONE. It is characterised by moderate to high seismic impedance with reflectors
that are sub-parallel and dipping to northwest. The reflectors show displacements along
numerous faults that cut through the sequence. Occasional strong reflectors are observed within
this sequence but this amplitude event is interpreted as lithologic change. The base of Sequence
IV is marked by a strong and coherent reflector namely Horizon H4.
65
Sequence V
Sequence V is characterised by moderate to strong, well defined, laminated, northwesterly
dipping reflectors. This sequence is inferred to consist of possible CLAY, grading to
CLAYSTONE, interlayered with SANDSTONE.
The layers have been displaced by several normal faults that extend from shallower sequences.
The base of Sequence V is marked by a relatively strong reflector, namely Horizon H5.
Sequence VI
Similar with Sequence V, Sequence VI is characterised by moderate to strong, well defined,
laminated and northwest dipping reflectors. This sequence is displaced by several normal faults
that extend from shallower depth within the survey area.
Sequence VI is interpreted to consist of possible SANDSTONE interlayered with
CLAYSTONE. A coherent reflector, namely Horizon H6, marks the base of Sequence VI.
Sequence VII
Sequence VII is interpreted as the deepest sedimentary sequence seen on the data below
Horizon H6 down to the limit of the seismic record.
The upper half of Sequence VII shows similar seismic characteristics to the overlying
sequences, where moderate internal reflections with occasionally medium to strong internal
reflector are observed. The lower half of this sequence exhibits generally discontinuous
internal reflectors, which is associated with noise. Several normal faults were observed cutting
through the upper half of Sequence VII and extended upward to Sequence II. There may be
other faults within the sequence that could not be resolved due to lower resolution or noise.
The faults are attributed to differential compaction of the deeper sedimentary sequences.
This sequence is interpreted to consist of possible CLAYSTONE, SILTSTONE and
SANDSTONE.
66
It is to be expected that the degree of sediment compaction and consolidation would increase
with depth, and that this would be associated with a general increase in shear strength.
The predicted intermediate zone lithology at the proposed well locations is shown in the table
below
Table 4: Predicted Intermediate Lithology at the Proposed and Revised Well Location.
Horizon/
Sequence
Proposed Location Revised Location
Predicted Lithology
TWTT
[ms]
Depth
[m BSL]
TWTT
[ms]
Depth
[m BSL]
Seabed 53 41 50 39
Sequence I
Clayey SILT and predominantly
CLAY with SAND intervals
Horizon H1 111 89 97 77
Sequence II CLAY and SAND layers
Horizon H2 264 224 158 128
Sequence III CLAY interlayered with SAND
Horizon H3 480 442 398 355
Sequence IV
CLAY interlayer with
SANDSTONE grading to
CLAYSTONE
Horizon H4 898 924 845 860
Sequence V
CLAY interlayer with
SANDSTONE grading to
CLAYSTONE
Horizon H5 1234 1383 1231 1382
Sequence VI
SANDSTONE interlayer with
CLAYSTONE
Horizon H6 1412 1653 1410 1663
Sequence VII
CLAYSTONE, SILTSTONE and
SANDSTONE
67
Geological Structure
The general lithology across the entire survey area comprises uniform, conformable and
unconformable sequences of normally consolidated sediments. Sedimentary layers within the
intermediate geological zone are generally well defined. These include buried shallow channels
within the upper sequence (Sequence I) and predominantly laterally homogeneous sedimentary
sequences at the lower segment that dip to the northwest (Sequences II to VII). Sequences II to
VII appear to have been deposited in low-energy environment (deep water), which was
followed by episodes of high-energy deposition of sediments that formed Sequence I and
created several buried channels in the shallower section.
The buried channels within Sequence I indicate episodes of intermittent high-energy (shallow
water), post-depositional environment resulting in the formation of overlapping channels.
However, the extents of these buried channels are not clearly defined due to limited resolution
of the 2D seismic section.
Faults generally cut through the sequences throughout the whole survey area, mostly
concentrated within Sequences II to V. The interpreted faults strike northeast-southwest and
dip towards either northwest or southeast. The bottom extent of the faults could not be traced
due to decrease in seismic resolution, which makes small offsets not visible on time sections,
and seismic signal attenuation. For the same reason, other faults that may be present within
Sequence VII could not be resolved because of lower resolution and noise. The faults are
attributed to differential compaction of deeper sequences, possibly including Sequence VII, due
to the combined weight of the overlying sequences.
68
The fault intersection at each of the proposed location is summarised in table below:
Table 5: Summary of Fault Intersections at the Proposed and Revised Well Locations.
Well Location Depth of fault extending below well surface location
Proposed Iron Duke Blk
10
417 ms TWTT (373 m BSL)
1163 ms TWTT (1283 m BSL)
Revised Iron Duke Blk 10
None
Caution is advised while drilling through these fault intersections at the proposed well location.
On the other hand, none of the faults extends below the surface location of the revised well
location. Other faults that may occur within Sequence VII could not be resolved on the data
due to lower resolution at these depths. Faults may cause loss of fluid circulation.
Below are images of digital seismic lines passing through/ nearby the proposed Iron Duke Blk
10 well location and revised well location.
Proposed Well Location (offset 7 m NW) SW
NE
Seabed
500 m
H2
H3
H4
Survey Area
H5
H6
Sequence I
Sequence II
Sequence III
Sequence V
Sequence VII
Sequence VI
Sequence IV
H1
Acoustic Masking
Example of equalized seismic section, SW-NE mainline ID-2D-L10, passing near the proposed well location. FIGURE 27
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
NW SE
Survey Area
500m
Proposed Well Location (offset 2 m NE)
Seabed
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
Sequence I
Sequence II
Sequence III
Sequence V
Sequence VII
Sequence VI
Sequence IV
Acoustic Masking
Example of equalized seismic section, NW-SE cross line ID-2D-L59, passing near the proposed well location. FIGURE 28
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
Example of equalized seismic section, NW-SE cross line ID-2D-L61, passing near the revised well location. FIGURE 29
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
Seabed
Sequence I
Sequence II
Sequence III
Sequence V
Sequence VII
Sequence VI
Sequence IV
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
NW SE
500m
Revised Well Location
Survey Area
72
Amplitude Anomalies and Risk Assessment
Three (3) levels of amplitude anomalies were found within the survey area between 57 ms and
441 ms TWTT (44 399 m BSL). The probability of these anomalies being gas related (gas
risk classification) is based on the following criteria.
Table 6: Amplitude Anomalies and Risk Assessment.
Probability of Being Gas Related Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators & Seismic Attributes
Low
Moderate amplitude with 1 or 2 DHI's or very high
amplitude alone
Moderate
High amplitude with 2 other gas diagnostics
High High amplitude with 3 or 4 other gas diagnostics
Features (other than high amplitude ) considered in gas hazard classification:
Negative phase and/or phase reversal at edges of anomaly
Acoustic masking of underlying horizons
Velocity or time sag of underlying horizons (Pull-down effects)
Significant frequency loss immediately below the anomaly
Flat spots, gas/water contacts, and any other hydrocarbon indicators
Sedimentary/geological structural evidence e.g. faults, good structural reservoirs
In addition, size, orientation and vertical connectivity (faults) to deeper
accumulations were also considered in the classification
Anomaly Group 1 [57 97 ms TWTT (44 77 m BSL)]
Anomaly Group 1 is mostly associated with the base of buried channel within Sequence I and
appears as a widespread area and small patches within the survey area. The moderate to high
seismic amplitude show phase reversal among dipping and intermittent reflectors, reverberation
and attenuation of deeper reflectors. Several faults possibly extends to the large anomaly to the
west of the proposed well location but could not be reliably traced because of reflector
distortion and attenuation. While faults are known to be good conduits for gas migrating
upwards, there are no gas-related, anomalous reflectors identified along the faults in the deeper
section.
73
Therefore, the anomaly is more likely to be related to accumulation of biogenic gas at the base
of the buried channel. Possible gas seepages through the seabed from the widespread anomaly
to the west of the proposed location should be verified from anomalies on the sub-bottom
profiler data and related features on the seabed, such as pockmark clusters, that may be seen on
the side scan sonar data.
Overall, this anomaly group is classified as moderate to high probability of being gas related.
Moderate gas probability is attributed to some small patches including below the proposed
well location, but the large anomaly to the west of the proposed location is considered to have
high gas probability. While the biogenic gas may not be pressurised at these shallow depths,
gas is known to weaken sediments within which it occurs. Strength of shallow soils in this area
could vary significantly.
Anomaly Group 1 extends below the proposed well surface location at a depth of 66 ms TWTT
(52 m BSL) but none is found below the revised well surface location. The nearest Anomaly
Group 1 to the revised Iron Duke Blk 10 well location is at about 68m to the NE at a depth of
68 ms TWTT (53m BSL).
Anomaly Group 2 [239 259 ms TWTT (201 219 m BSL)]
Anomaly Group 2 occurs within Sequence II and characterised by moderate amplitude without
any evidence of masking effect or velocity pull down. It is mainly identified within the upper
half of Sequence II throughout the survey area and is probably related to accumulation of
biogenic gas within the sequence.
Overall, this anomaly group is classified as low probability of being gas related.
The anomaly occurs as a single elongated patch near the NW limit of the survey area with the
nearest distance of approximately 2680 m WNW of the proposed Iron Duke Blk 10 well
location at depths of 240-355 ms TWTT (202-312 m BSL). The same nearest anomaly is found
at about 3405 m to the NW of the revised well location.
74
Anomaly Group 3 [332 441 ms TWTT (290 399 m BSL)]
Anomaly Group 3 occurs within the top half of Sequence III and characterised by moderate
amplitude with evident phase reversal and attenuation of deeper reflectors. It is probably
localised accumulation of biogenic gas or organic materials associated with a thin interval of
locally dipping and irregular layers in the upper segment of Sequence III. It is found as two
small patches near the north eastern and south western corners of the survey area.
Overall, this anomaly group is classified as low probability of being gas related.
The nearest occurrence of the anomaly is found at approximately 1921 m SW of the proposed
Iron Duke Blk 10 well location at depths of 318-390 ms TWTT (276-346 m BSL). The same
anomaly is nearest to the revised well location at a distance of 2222 m to the SW.
The summary of gas probability is summarised in the following table:
Table 7: Gas Probability for the Proposed and Revised Well Locations.
Anomaly
Group
Depth
ms TWTT
(m BSL)
Closest distance
and direction from
the proposed Iron
Duke Blk 10 well
location
Closest distance
and direction from
the revised Iron
Duke Blk 10 well
location
Characteristics
Probability of
gas
1
57 97
(44 77)
At location
66 ms TWTT (52
m BSL)
68m NE at 68 ms
TWTT
(53m BSL)
Moderate to high
amplitude, phase
reversal, reverberation,
seismic attenuation,
association with channels
Moderate to
High
(Biogenic
gas)
2
239 259
(201 219)
2680 m WNW 3405 NW
Moderate amplitude ,
phase reversal
Low
3
332 441
(290 399)
1921 m SW 2222 m SW
Moderate amplitude,
phase reversal, seismic
attenuation
Low
Proposed Well Location (offset 7 m NW) SW NE
Seabed
500 m
Survey Area
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
Anomaly Group 3
Anomaly Group 3
Example of relative amplitude seismic section, SW-NE mainline ID-2D-L10, passing near the proposed well location. FIGURE 30
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
SW NE
Survey Area
500m
Proposed Well Location (offset 7 m NW)
Anomalies Group 1
Anomaly Group 3
Anomaly Group 3
Seabed
Anomalies Group 1
Example of relative amplitude seismic section, SW-NE mainline ID-2D-L10, passing near the proposed well location
(Top 1.1 ms TWTT BSL).
FIGURE 31
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
NW SE
Survey Area
500m
Seabed
Proposed Well Location (offset 2 m NE)
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
Example of relative amplitude seismic section, NW-SE cross line ID-2D-L59, passing near the proposed well location. FIGURE 32
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
NW SE
Survey Area
Proposed Well Location (offset 2 m NE)
Seabed
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
500m
Example of relative amplitude seismic section, NW-SE cross line ID-2D-L59, passing near the proposed well location
(Top 1.1 ms TWTT BSL).
FIGURE 33
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
Example of relative amplitude seismic section, NW-SE mainline ID-2D-L61,
passing near the revised well location
FIGURE 34
T
w
o
W
a
y
T
r
a
v
e
l
T
i
m
e
(
T
W
T
T
)
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
Anomalies Group 1
Revised Well Location
Survey Area
NW SE
80
Top Hole Drilling Conditions
Both the proposed and revised wells are located on a relatively flat seabed, underlain by high-
energy deposits within the upper sequence (Sequence I), and relatively low-energy deposits
within the lower sequences (Sequences II to VII), with predominantly laterally homogeneous
sedimentary sequences that gently dip to the northwest.
The potential hazards below the surface location of the proposed well include shallow gas
associated with shallow, buried channels and normal faults. However, none of these hazards
occurs below the revised surface location of the well. The following drilling constraints have
been forecast below the proposed and revised well surface locations:
Table 8: Summary of Drilling Constraints Below the Proposed and Revised Well
Surface Locations.
Proposed Well
Location
Potential
constraints
Description
Well Location
Fault
Faults extend below surface location of well at 417 ms TWTT (373 m
BSL) and 1163 ms TWTT (1283 m BSL). Potential loss of fluid
circulation at the fault intersections.
Amplitude Anomaly
Anomaly Group 1 extends below the surface location of the proposed
well at 66 ms TWTT (52 m BSL). Moderate to high probability of
encountering gas (possibly biogenic) but not expected to be
overpressured due to shallow depth. Gas could have weakened the
shallow sediments.
Revised Well
Location
Fault No fault extending below surface location of well
Amplitude Anomaly
No amplitude anomaly extends below surface location of well; the
nearest amplitude anomaly is Anomaly Group 1, 68m NE at 68 ms
TWTT (53m BSL)
Tophole prognosis for the proposed Iron Duke Blk 10 well location and revised Iron Duke Blk
10 well location are shown in Figure 35 and 36.
250 m 0
TOPHOLE PROGNOSIS FOR THE
PROPOSED WELL LOCATION
PICKED
REFLECTOR
VERTICAL
DEPTH
BSL
[m]
BML
[m]
S
E
Q
U
E
N
C
E
THICK-
NESS
[m]
INFERRED LITHOLOGY
AND COMMENTS
INTERPRETED
SHALLOW GAS
HAZARD
SE
BML=Below Mud Line BSL=Below Sea Level
FIGURE 35
X = 550 383.0 m
Y = 573 113.0 m
SEISMIC SECTION AT PROPOSED
WELL LOCATION
LINE ID-2D-L59
1) All depths and thickness below seafloor are
approximate and are based on stacking velocities
provided by client
2) All measured depth is vertical depth (VD).
High Potential For Encountering Gas
Moderate Potential For Encountering Gas
Low Potential For Encountering Gas
Legend
Negligible Potential For Encountering Gas
Notes:
NW
Clayey SILT and predominantly CLAY with sand
intervals
I 48
H2
TWTT
[ms]
0 41 53
183 224 264
Seabed
Possible CLAY interlayered with sand
II 135
III 218
Possible SANDSTONE interlayered
with CLAYSTONE
IV
VII
Data Limit
H1 48 89 111
3273 3314 2400
270
1612 1653 1412
1234 1342 1383
1661
H5
H6
Possible CLAY and sand layers
TWTT
[ms]
300
600
900
1000
200
400
500
100
700
800
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
H3 401 442 480
H4 883 924 898
V
VI
Possible CLAY interlayered with
SANDSTONE grading to CLAYSTONE
482
459
Possible CLAYSTONE, SILTSTONE
and SANDSTONE
FAULT 1242 1283 1163
FAULT 332 373 417
Possible CLAY interlayered with
SANDSTONE grading to CLAYSTONE
Anomaly Group 1
TOPHOLE PROGNOSIS FOR THE
REVISED WELL LOCATION
PICKED
REFLECTOR
VERTICAL
DEPTH
BSL
[m]
BML
[m]
S
E
Q
U
E
N
C
E
THICK-
NESS
[m]
INFERRED LITHOLOGY
AND COMMENTS
INTERPRETED
SHALLOW GAS
HAZARD
NE
BML=Below Mud Line BSL=Below Sea Level
FIGURE 36
X = 551 062.0 m
Y = 572 845.0 m
SEISMIC SECTION AT PROPOSED
WELL LOCATION
LINE ID-2D-L02
1) All depths and thickness below seafloor are
approximate and are based on stacking velocities
provided by client
2) All measured depth is vertical depth (VD).
High Potential For Encountering Gas
Moderate Potential For Encountering Gas
Low Potential For Encountering Gas
Legend
Negligible Potential For Encountering Gas
Notes:
SW
Clayey SILT and predominantly CLAY with sand
intervals I
38
H2
TWTT
[ms]
0 39 50
89 128 158
Seabed
Possible CLAY interlayered with sand
II 51
III
Possible SANDSTONE interlayered
with CLAYSTONE
IV
VII
Data Limit
H1 38 77 97
3275 3314 2400
281
1624 1663 1410
1231 1343 1382
1651
H5
H6
Possible CLAY and sand layers
TWTT
[ms]
300
600
900
1000
200
400
500
100
700
800
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
H3 316 355 398
H4 821 860 845
V
VI
Possible CLAY interlayered with
SANDSTONE grading to CLAYSTONE 505
522
Possible CLAYSTONE, SILTSTONE
and SANDSTONE
Possible CLAY interlayered with
SANDSTONE grading to CLAYSTONE
Anomaly Group 1
227
83
5.4.3 FINDINGS
Based on the high-resolution 2D seismic data interpretation at the proposed well
location, conclusions of the hazard assessment are as follows: The 2D high-resolution seismic
data indicates that the geology within the survey area consists of high-energy deposits within
the upper sequence (Sequence I), and relatively low-energy deposits within the lower
sequences (Sequences II to VII), with predominantly laterally homogeneous sedimentary
sequences that gently dip to the northwest.
There are numerous shallow, buried channels within Sequence I, but their extents are not
clearly defined due to limited 2D seismic data resolution in the shallow zone. One of the
channels extends to the proposed well location but not at the revised well location. Several
faults cut through Sequences II to V. The interpreted faults strike in northeast-southwest
direction and dip towards either northwest or southeast. Two faults extend below the surface
location of the proposed well at depths of 417 ms TWTT (373 m BSL) and 1163 ms TWTT
(1283 m BSL). Caution is advised while drilling through these fault intersections because
these may cause loss of fluid circulation.
None of the faults extends below the revised well surface location.
Anomaly Group 1 extends below the proposed well surface location at a depth of 66 ms
TWTT (52 m BSL). The anomaly in general is considered to have moderate to high
probability of being related to biogenic gas within the whole area but with moderate
probability of gas within the channel at the proposed well location. Biogenic gas may not be
pressurised at these shallow depths but the gas could have weakened the sediments within
which it occurs. There is no anomaly that extends below the revised Iron Duke Blk 10 well
surface location.
The tophole drilling condition at the proposed well location and revised location are shown in
Figure 35 and 36.
.
84
5.5 Conclusion and Recommendation
5.5.1 Impact
From the survey it can be said that the project has given large information on the
geohazards that are present within the survey corridor. Through the survey, among the
geohazards identified are biogenic gas, weakened sediment layers channels and numerous
normal faults. A summary of the potential constraints during drilling are noted in the table
below:
Table 9: Summary of drilling constraints at proposed well locations.
Proposed Well
Potential
constraints
Description
XXX
Amplitude anomaly
- Intersecting Anomaly Group 1 at 66 ms TWTT (51 m BSL)
beneath location. High probability of being gas related.
Fault
Intersecting faults at 417 ms & 1163 ms TWTT (373 m & 1284 m
BSL). Potential loss of fluid circulation at the intersection.
Based on the results and discussion made, caution is advised if drilling through
proposed well location with vertical well since intersection with faults will cause fluid loss.
Another recommendation is to assume a weakened sediment layer while drilling through
anomaly Group 1 since biogenic gas while not pressurized, may have cause the pores in the
sedimentary layer to be filled with gas.
If the geohazard zones are defined based on the report cannot be avoided or not
possible to avoid, mitigating measures will be undergone to reduce the impact in the certain
level that can be accepted. Thus, the risk can be reduced to safer level. High risk can finally
avoided and project can be run smoothly. The project makes known of the geological features,
stratigraphy and anomalies in the area. It is comprehensive information for offshore
exploration and appraisal well. This project is very vital to ensure well planning and safe
drilling operations.
85
5.5.2 Relevancy to the objectives
Based on the report it can be said that the survey has fulfilled all of its three (3) prime
objectives. The first objective which is to understand the acquisition of seismic data from
offshore has been studied thoroughly in terms of their parameters. The acquisition is the most
important part of any project since the processing and interpretation of data cannot change the
quality of the data obtained. This being said, what controls the acquisition is actually the
parameters used before acquiring data. An example would be that if the near-offset is set
inaccurately, then the direct arrival and first return of the data would be mixed up and even the
best processing cannot solve this problem. Thus, the parameters such as group interval, shot
interval, sample rate and near offset have been carefully looked into.
The second objective of processing the data has also been successfully achieved.
Processing is not a magical sequence that can make the data of the highest quality by itself. In
the end, it depends on how good the acquisition geophysicist has done his job first. However,
in this particular case, the acquisition was done well and the processing from SEG-D to SEG-
Y had been carried out successfully. Although a very basic flow was used, but it has made a
author appreciative of the challenges faced in processing data to make it easier for
interpretation and ultimately the detection of geohazards.
Last but not least is the third objective which is to delineate possible constraints or
hazards in the intermediate geological section which are relevant to the proposed well location.
The 2D high resolution seismic has been interpreted with the help of senior interpretative
geophysicists. Geohazards that have been identified are pockets of biogenic gas and also
normal faults that intersect with the well location. Recommendations have been made in
regards to this matter and the client has full authority to decide on their next course of action.
Since all these objectives have been achieved, the project has been highly relevant and
in fact could save the lives of the people working offshore as well as spare millions of dollars
in cash by avoiding the hazards concluded from the project.
86
5.5.3 Suggested Future Work for Expansion and Continuation
For the continuation and expansion of this project, an extensive analogue survey is also
highly recommended. The 2D high resolution survey carried out is able to cover up to 2.5 s in
depth which is unlike an analogue survey that only covers the seabed and shallow areas.
However, the seismic survey also gives less resolution prowess since resolution decreases with
penetration. This is even more importance since the presence of biogenic gas can be further
confirmed with an analogue survey.
The analogue survey should include a side scan which will allow an interpretation of
the seabed features. This is to make-sure that no hazardous debris, pipelines, trawls is found
within a safe range of the proposed well location. Carbonate or rock outcrops that appear on
the seabed can also be hindered. Besides that, a Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP) allows us to
confirm the existence of biogenic gas in the shallow subsurface especially involving Anomaly
Group 1. The presence of shallow gas within the shallow areas can also be detected as they are
known to travel especially in an area of multiple faulting such as this one. SBPs are able to
give us better resolution of the shallow subsurface since it sacrifices penetration.
Another method which gives more certainty in the interpretation is carrying out well
logging which will give gamma ray readings. The data can then be correlated to see whether
it matches with the earlier interpretation. In the end, the analogue survey and also drilling a
borehole log would be the most effective method to confirm and further evaluate the findings.
87
5.6 Safety training and value of the practical Experience
5.6.1 Lesson Learnt and Experience gained
During 28 weeks of Industrial Internship, there were many lesson learnt gained in FGMSB.
These include leadership, teamwork, business understanding, safety exposure and others that
will be discuss below. Industrial internship is a great program that gives a lot of chances to
the students to understand and experience the real working life.
FGMSB has provided the author with vast experiences during industrial internship from
technical and non-technical activities These include the Geophysical Site Survey Project, and
pipeline surveillance which requires the author to learn from the basic of both project type
The projects especially site survey project requires high understanding of basics geophysics
and geology which all of these are used to interpret the geological hazards within the site
survey. In completing the project, author managed to use several software that are related to
the site survey project. Most of the software are Fugro in-house software which includes
Starfix Workbench (Sonar Map) for Bathymetry and Side Scan Sonar, Starfix Interp for Sub
Bottom Profiler and SMT Kingdom Suite which are third party software that used for 2D
High Resolution Multi-channel Seismic Data Interpretation. The author also had a chance to
do 3D seismic interpretation by using SMT Kingdom Suite software. All of this software
gives the author a lot of experienced in term of Interpretation and technical part. Throughout
this project, the author involves in all geophysical data interpretations and analysis, data
examples until the reporting part.
Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) in FGMSB is a crucial part that all of the staffs
regardless their level, have to learn . Dealing with international Oil and Gas Company, HSE
is the top requirement for every job involved. The main HSE objectives and targets are zero
fatality, zero lost time injury and zero environmental incidents. This company apply HSE in
all activities and places including offshore and also in the office. Anything that possible cost
harmful to people will be bring to the meeting and action will be taken immediately. Other
than that, the author learnt about Fugro Management System, Fugro HSE Policy, Hazards,
Risk Management and Nine (9) Fugro Golden Rules of HSE. Throughout this internship
training, the author experienced HSE practiced in work environment.
88
5.6.2 Leadership, Teamwork and Individual Activities
Industrial Internship training in FGMSB gives the author a big opportunity to develop soft
skills especially in leadership and team work skills.
During the completion of this site survey project, the author was attached with an experience
geophysicist. Teamwork is highly practiced as we need to discuss a lot of things in order to
make any decision. Making decisions is one of the crucial parts in data interpretation as we
have to give and explain the reasons of the decisions. However, Most of the decision making
are basically come from discussions among several geophysicist and senior geophysicist
which lead to team work among us. From the discussions, besides improving author's
discussion skill and confident, author gained valuable skills in this project especially in data
interpretation.
During the project involvement, the author learnt about proactivtity and communication
skills, which lead to the successful of the project undertaken. The author gained these
valuable skills individually because the company did not give 100% guidance on the project.
The author need to find the way individually and it gives a lot experienced about individual
skills.
Besides going through the office works, the author also experienced in handling outside
activity such as futsal match, which involved all the office staffs especially men. This activity
can strengthen relationship between staffs, besides the author can develop leadership and
communication skills.
For individual activities, the author needs to prepare data examples for every geophysical
data for the better understanding to the client. All the data examples need the individual skills
in collecting and presenting of the data itself.
89
5.6.3 Ethics and Management skills
Throughout the industrial internship training, the author learnt about management of
FGMSB. The author has attended the Quality Management System Induction Program that
was set for every new workers or trainees in this company. During this program, the author
has learnt about International Organization for Standard (ISO), Quality Management System,
Fugro Survey SEA Process Model, QMS Document Structure, Quality Policy and Objectives,
Control of Documents, Control of Records and Continual Improvement. All of these
knowledge are used during all the activities involved in the office. On top of everything,
quality of works is the most important things when working in this company as the
management will evaluate the staffs on their working performance. To achieve this high
quality of working, author learnt on how to produce a high quality of project especially in
interpretation and data examples. All works done must be adequated with Fugro quality
management system and documentation. This is required to reach ISO requirements.
Other than that, the author learnt about time management and work ethics in this company.
The jobs that the author involved is strictly need to achieve the time allocated by the client.
The author learnt about using time wisely to finish the project with good quality of data
interpretations. Other than that, the author learnt about work ethic and professionalism in
handling problem and manages the task given by the supervisor. This company has taught the
author about professionalism in communication skills, work task and reliable work
environment.
90
5.6.4 Problems or Challenges Faced and Solution Taken
In the period of completing the industrial internship training, there were some problems arose
from technical and non-technical perspectives. The first problem was to adapt with the new
working environment. It was hard to adapt because the author had to communicate and work
with elder and more experience staffs who have different point of view in giving opinions.
Time management, communication and work skills are also the problems faced by the author.
In seven (7) moths duration of Industrial Internship make the author understand and mature
enough to deal with the stated problems. To adapt with new environment culture of working,
the author take a few weeks to familiarize with industrial process, terms used and activities
involved. In order to solve the problems, the author always asked and discussed with the
staffs regarding the matter especially in geohazard survey process and system as the author
has no experience in this field.
Besides, time management also is another issue that the author needs to face and solve during
industrial internship basically in finishing the project interpretation and reporting itself. Most
of the time, the author need to finish the tasks given by geophysicists and learnt new software
used for the project interpretation. With the helps of some geophysicists, the author managed
to learnt and finished the task given by the geophysicist and supervisor on time.
One of the vital problems faced by the author is communication skills where the author have
to communicate with staffs from different background. However, with all great exposures
given to the author in handling various tasks or works, the author now can communicate with
full confidence to the management committees, geophysicists and senior geophysicists and
able to voice up opinions during discussions involved. Now, the author is able to
communicate to various individuals with different background and different nature of works
excellently.
91
6.0 REFERENCE
FUGRO (n.a) Side Scan Sonar Record Interpretation.
FUGRO (n.a) Seismic Reflection Data Interpretation.
FUGRO (n.a) FUGRO General Business Principles.
ICG (2010). Offshore Biohazards. Retrieved on 27 November 2013 from
http://www.ngi.no/en/Geohazards/Research/Offshore-Geohazards/.
Laura Brothers et al (2010). Development in the Gulf of Maine: Avoiding Geohazards and
Embracing opportunities. Retrieved on 27 November 2013 from
www.digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu Retrieved on the 20
th
of July 2014
Laurent Hellequim et al. (2003). Processing of High-Frequency Multibeam Echo Sounder Data
for Seafloor Characterization in IEE Journal of Ocaeanic Engineering, Vol. 28. 2003.
H. Paul Johnson (2001). The Geological Interpretation of Side-Scan Sonar. School of
Oceanography University of Washington, Seattle.
B.W. Flemming (1976). International Hydrographic Review: Side-scan Sonar : A Practical Guide.
National Research Institude of Oceanology Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Stellenbosch, South Africa.
92
7.0 APPENDICES
A) Digital Field QC Log
B) Digital Offset Diagram
C) Profiles of Seawater Velocity and Temperature against Depth
D) Tidal Conditions during Survey
E) Time Depth Conversion Curve
F) Scatter Plot
CONFIDENTIAL
Type : Odom ET MK II Tape Format : SEG-D 8036 24 bit Sample Rate
Draught : Media Type : 3490E Recording Length
Velocity : 1542 m/s System : SeaMUX 2000 System Group Interval
Tx Freq. : 38, 200 kHz Filter Delay :29 ms Shot Point Interval
Heave Comp. : DMS 3.05 Gun Delay :30 ms No. of Channels
LC Filter : 4.5 Hz, 6 db/octave Nominal Fold
Type: : Starfix SEIS 9.1 HC Filter : 412 Hz, 215 db/octave
Near Trace : Channel 4
Type : Starfix Aux. Channel : Ch1 (FTB), Ch3 (NF), Ch4 (FF)
SOL EOL SOL EOL FFN
ID-2D-L54 1 17:18 17:48 101 514 99
File
Positioning
Date Line Name Tape No
Time (Local) Fix
Navigation
Hull-Mounted Echo Sounder Recording Parameter Acquisition Parameter
Seismic Acquisition QC Log
Client : UTP Project : 2DHR Seismic Survey Campaign
Page 1
CONFIDENTIAL
Streamer Parameter
: 1.0 ms Streamer Type : SeaMUX 24 Channel Modul Gun Array : 4 x 40 cu. inch sleeve gun clusters
: 2.5 sec Active Streamer : 1200 m Gun Depth : 2.5 m +/- 0.5 m
: 12.5 m Group Length : 12.5m Gun Timing : Max +/- 0.5 ms
: 12.5 m Streamer Depth : 2.5 m +/- 0.5 m Gun Pressure : Not less than 2000 psi
: 96 Streamer Noise : Coherent Noise - ahead or behind - 10ub (monitored on electronic device)
: 48 Feather Angle : Max 7 deg
Near offset : 15.0 m Streamer Noise : First few Shots - 14 ub
No. of Birds / Spacing : 9 / 150 m Burst - 20 ub
Compasses at Bird no : 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 Random - 5 ub
HDG Total
LFN (deg)
Min Max Min Max SOL EOL Timing Error
516 135 2.2 2.9 7.5P 8.4P 8.170 5.130 0
END OF SURVEY
File
Nav shot /
File missed
Streamer Depth Feather Angle Noise (b)
Acquisition Parameter Energy Source Parameter
Seismic Acquisition QC Log
2DHR Seismic Survey Campaign Site : Certain Job No.:
Page 2
CONFIDENTIAL
: 4 x 40 cu. inch sleeve gun clusters Y = Yes N / B = Bad, Not To Be Process (NTBP)
M = Marginal AB = Line Aborted
: Not less than 2000 psi
(monitored on electronic device)
First few Shots - 14 ub
Misfires : No more than 5 consecutive
Total : 7% of total no. of shots per line
Total Total Total
Misfire Autofire Gun Bad %
0 0 0.00%
Line name in tape and soft copy header change to ID
--2D-L54. High noise Channel no. 70
Y
Acc. Geo Comments
Bad Traces
1) None at Start of days survey.
2) No more than 2 at SOL
3) If a trace bad in first km, it will be deemed to have been bad at SOL
Misfire / Bad Shot
Vessel: BANANA BOAT
Energy Source Parameter Acceptance
Seismic Acquisition QC Log
S.FINAL
Page 3
Offset Distances from Datum
Sensors X Y
Streamer Tow Point -2.830 -25.890
CDP Tow Point 1.185 -26.005
Gun Tow Point 5.200 -26.120
CDP Point 1.185 -93.620
Note :
1. Drawing is not to scale.
2. Measurements are in metres.
3. Bird no. 1, 3, 5, 7 & 9 are model 5011 compass bird,
Bird no. 2, 4, 6, & 8 are model 5010 Digibird
4. Group interval = 12.5m, Shot interval = 12.5 m
5. Cable Length= 1200 m
6. Gun to the center of first active channel = 15.0 m
7. Stern to 1st CDP 66.46 m
DIGITAL OFFSET DIAGRAM
27.16 m
4 x 40 Cu inch sleeve gun
COG
96 channels streamer
@ 12.5m
Centre of the first active channel
58.96 m
5.200 m
First CDP
Near offset: 15.0 m
25 m stretch
Tail buoy
75 m rope
Ch. 3
Ch. 15
Ch. 27
Ch. 39
Ch. 93
Lead in
66.46 m
Ch. 51
Ch. 63
Ch. 75
Ch. 87
2.830 m
73.96 m
1.04 m
5.74 m
1.185 m
1.27 m
27 28 29 30 31 32
1540.0 1540.2 1540.4 1540.6 1540.8 1541.0 1541.2 1541.4 1541.6 1541.8 1542.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
TEMPERATURE (C)
VELOCITY (m/sec)
W
A
T
E
R
D
E
P
T
H
(
m
)
V
E
L
O
C
I
T
Y
P
R
O
F
I
L
E
T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E
P
R
O
F
I
L
E
Client : Brunei Shell Petroleum Company Sdn/. Bhd.
Project : 2013 BSP 2D High Resolution Survey Campaign
Job No : S2928
Vessel : MV Amarco Tiger
Location : Iron Duke Blk 10 Area Date/Time (Zone) : 16/07/2013, 01:27
SOUND VELOCITY PROFILE
( SVP # 1 / Brunei )
Velocity Probe : Midas SVX2
Serial No : 27530
Temperature
Minimum : 28.36C
Maximum : 29.49C
Mean : 29.40C
Velocity
Minimum : 1540.88m/s
Maximum : 1541.69m/s
Mean : 1541.13m/s
Depth : 43.8m
APPENDIX C Graphical Representation of the Predicted Tides (Lumut) During the Period of Survey Operations
PREDICTED TIDES - LUMUT
CLIENT : BRUNEI SHELL PETROLEUM COMPANY SDN BHD
PROJECT : HIGH RESOLUTION 2D SEISMIC SURVEY FOR THE IRON DUKE BLK 10 AREA
VESSEL : M/V AMARCO TIGER/ 11 -12, 16 17, 31 AUG, 1 & 8 - 12 SEPT 2013 REPORT NO. : S2928/2013/04
IRON DUKE
TIME / DEPTH CONVERSION CURVE (metre)
Report No. S2928/2013/04
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200
3400
02
1
0
4
2
0
6
3
0
8
4
0
1
0
5
0
1
2
6
0
1
4
7
0
1
6
8
0
1
8
9
0
2
1
0
0
2
3
1
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
B
S
L
)
ms TWTT
Time - Depth Curve
IRON DUKE
SCATTER PLOT, MEAN Vrms and Vint
Report No.S2928/2013/04
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600
m
s
T
W
T
T
Vrms(m/s)
AVERAGE Vrms PLOT
Vrms SCATTER PLOT
INTERVAL VELOCITY PLOT