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Insulators 101
Section C - Standards

Tutorial
IEEE Working Group 15.09.09
A.C. Baker



Abstract- High voltage insulators are manufactured to meet
customer specifications and national or international standards.
Proper application recommendations require an understanding of
how the electrical and mechanical ratings are assigned for a
particular insulator and the limitations implied by conformance to
the relevant standard.

Index terms- High voltage insulators, ANSI C29 Insulator Standards,
ceramic insulators, composite insulators, polymer insulators

I. INTRODUCTION
High voltage insulators are commonly manufactured to
meet, or exceed local and international standards. Minimum
requirements for service interchangeability for the defined
insulators with respect to dimensions, and mechanical and
electrical performance of the insulators when subjected to
specified tests, are given in the relevant standards. Though
some users develop their own specifications, that may or may
not exceed the standards, many, implicitly or explicitly,
purchase insulators that minimally meet the standards.
General application recommendations must therefore be based
on the minimum performance limitations implied by the
standards. In the US, high voltage insulators are included in
American National Standards.

II. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS
American National Standards are completely voluntary, and
do not preclude anyone from manufacturing, offering, or using
products not conforming to the standards. They are consensus
standards, which means substantial agreement has been
reached by directly and materially affected interests. American
Standards Committee C29 is the accredited standards writing
body for high voltage insulator standards and has delegations
representing the Electric Light & Power Group (users), IEEE
(independent), NEMA (manufacturers), and other independent
members.

Before a C29 Standard can be approved, it must be subjected
to public review. Anybody can comment on the proposed
standard, and their comments must be evaluated, responded to,
and if appropriate, included in the standard. A decision by the
C29 Committee can be appealed by anyone believing there
was lack of due process in a consideration of their comments.
The objective is to ensure that ANS Standards are developed
in an environment that is equitable, accessible, and responsive
to the requirements of various stakeholders.

III. ANSI C29 INSULATOR STANDARDS
Currently there are 15 C29 insulator standards, and a 16
th
is
under development as shown in Table 1.

Table 1
ANS C29 Insulator Standards
C29 ANS Insulator Standards (available on-line at nema.org)
.1 Insulator Test Methods
.2 Wet-process Porcelain & Toughened Glass- Suspensions
.3 Wet-process Porcelain Spool Type
.4 - Strain Type
.5 - Low & Medium Voltage Pin Type
.6 - High Voltage Pin Type
.7 - High Voltage Line Post Type
.8 -Apparatus, Cap & Pin Type
.9 -Apparatus, Post Type
.10 - Indoor Apparatus Type
.11 Composite Insulators Test Methods
.12 -Suspension Type
.13 -Distribution Deadend Type
.17 -Line Post Type
.18 - Distribution Line Post Type
.19 - Station Post Type (under development)

The standards include definitions where needed to fully
describe the insulator covered, requirements which must be
met, the insulator materials, and dimensions. Marking
requirements are also included to allow for positive
identification and to assist in properly selecting an insulator
for a given application.

Tests specified in the various standards are intended for new
insulators and are of three types:

1) Prototype & design tests that depend on the design,
materials, manufacturing process, and technology for a
given insulator design. These tests are usually only
performed once.
2) Sample tests that are performed on a randomly chosen
sample from a particular lot offered to a customer for
acceptance.
3) Routine tests that are performed on each insulator
produced to eliminate any defects from an offered lot.

978-1-4244-6547-7/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE
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IV. STANDARD RATINGS
Electrical and mechanical ratings given in the standards are
intended to provide guidance for selecting insulators.
However it is necessary to understand how the ratings are
assigned, and how conformance to the standard is
demonstrated, in order to establish the application limits for a
particular type of insulator.

A. Electrical ratings
The electrical ratings assigned depend on the type of
insulator and can include the following:
- Average dry and wet power frequency (60Hz) flashover.
- Critical (50%) impulse flashover, positive and negative.
- Impulse withstand (sometimes referred to as BIL).
- Radio influence voltage (RIV).

Time precludes an in-depth discussion here of test details,
but several comments are critical to understanding these
ratings. Full details are given in the standards, in particular
C29.1, (insulator test methods) and IEEE Std. 4 (high voltage
test techniques).

It is a common practice for insulators to be described in
terms of system voltage, but specified tests are single-phase
tests, and the ratings are assigned in terms of line-to-ground
voltages. The 60 Hz dry flashover performance of an insulator
is a function of dry arc distance (shown in Fig 1) and test
configuration. Wet flashover performance is a function of dry
arc distance, insulator shape and material, and test
configuration.

Fig. 1. Dry Arcing Distance. Shortest distance through the surrounding
medium between terminal electrodes, or the sum of distances between
intermediate electrodes, whichever is shortest, with the insulator mounted for
dry flashover test.

While all tests are conducted in accordance with IEEE Std.4,
the test values are corrected to standard atmospheric
conditions (temperature, barometric pressure, and vapor
pressure) as specified in C29.1, which are different than those
in the IEEE test standard. When the standard conditions in
IEEE Std. 4 were revised to agree with European practice
several years ago, it was decided to not change the standard
conditions in C29 to avoid confusion that could arise due to
the large amount of manufactures literature in circulation, and
existing customer specifications based on the original standard
conditions.

Manufacturers design insulators to have a specified rated
average flashover (designated here as R), and conduct tests in
accordance with the standard obtaining an average test value
(designated here as T). The question is then does the test value
T satisfy the requirements for assigning the rated value R?

There are uncontrollable elements during high voltage tests
such as atmospheric fluctuations, test configuration, water
spray inconsistencies, and so forth that affect the actual test
values obtained. To provide allowance for these deviations, a
factor is assigned for each type of electrical test involved.
For the standard to be satisfied, the requirement is:

/ (1)
where = 0.95 for low-frequency dry flashover tests.
= 0.90 for low-frequency wet flashover tests.
= 0.92 for impulse flashover tests.

Dry low-frequency flashover as a function of the dry arc
distance for suspension and station post type insulators is
shown in Fig. 2. The effects of test variations and
configuration on results are evident.

Fig. 2. Dry 60 Hz flashover voltage as a function of dry arc distance.

The National Electrical Safety Code (ANSI C2) specifies
that line insulation must have minimum rated dry flashover
voltage as shown in Fig. 3 but local conditions such as severe
lightning activity, high levels of atmospheric pollution, sea
coast proximity, etc. may require a higher insulation level.

The customer determines the electrical needs for a
particular application and specifies the requirements for
60 Hz dry & wet flashover
(operating voltage)
Impulse flashover and/or withstand
(lightning/switching surge)
Leakage distance
(contamination)

Letting S denote the customers electrical specification an
insulator is chosen such that

RS (2)
and TR. (3)

3


Fig. 3. ANSI C2 Insulation level requirements
(Ref. ANSI C2-2007, Table 273-1).

B. Mechanical ratings
Mechanical ratings are based on the primary in-service
loading conditions as shown in Table 2 for different types of
insulators.

Table 2
Sample and routine mechanical tests

Most of the loading terms used to describe the mechanical
ratings for insulators are common terms but two require some
discussion.

1. M&E Rating
Suspension insulators are rated in terms of an ultimate
strength based on a combined mechanical and electrical
strength (M&E rating). The M&E strength is determined by
subjecting the insulator to a tensile strength test while
energized at a voltage equal to 75% of the rated dry low
frequency flashover value for the suspension insulator. An
insulated cross-head tensile test machine is required for this
test as shown in Fig.4. The M&E strength is defined as the
tensile load at which the insulator either fails to withstand the
applied voltage or the applied tensile load.

2. Cantilever Rating
Ceramic post type insulators, being brittle, have a well
defined ultimate bending strength in that the test load can be
increased smoothly up to the point of separation. Composite
post type insulators, however, have a resin re-forced fiberglass
rod that provides the mechanical strength to support bending
loads in service. At high test loads the fiberglass rod can
significantly deflect causing the maximum load sustained to
vary as the load profile shown in Fig. 5 for a composite post
under increasing cantilever load demonstrates.


Kinectrics
Fig. 4. Insulated cross-head tensile test machine for conducting M&E tests on
suspension type insulators


Hubbell Power Systems
Fig. 5. Load profile for a composite post insulator undergoing cantilever test.

For composite post type insulator the cantilever ultimate
strength is defined to be the highest load obtained during the
test.

3. Lot acceptance- Mechanical tests on samples
According to C29 standards samples are randomly chosen
from lots of insulators offered for acceptance and are
subjected to selected tests. The primary tests involved are
ultimate strength tests as shown in Table 3.

For ceramic suspension insulators (C29.2) a random sample
of 10 units must be selected from a lot and subjected to the
ultimate strength M&E test. To be accepted, the average
strength and standard deviation s
10
of results for the ten units
obtained must satisfy the conditions:

M&E rating + 1.2S (4)
and s
10
1.72 S (5)

where S is the historical standard deviation for the
manufacturing process. Assuming that the most likely
value for S is s
10
, these requirements can be expressed in
terms of a Normal curve as shown in Fig. 6.

An analysis shows that for a minimally acceptable lot
according to C29.2, 11.5% of the units in the lot could have
strengths less than the rated value. On a -3 sigma basis, the
0
500
1000
1500
0 500 1000
R
a
t
e
d

D
r
y



F
O
V
,

k
V
Nominal Phase-to-Phase Voltage, kV
Std
No.
Insulator
Type
Sample
Test
Routine
Test
C 29.2 Ceramic -Suspension M&E Tension
C29.6 Pin Type Cantilever
C29.7 Line Post Cantilever 4 quad. cantilever
C29.8 Cap & Pin Cantilever
Torsion
Tension
Tension
C29.9 Station Post Cantilever
Tension
Tension,
Cantilever or
Bending Moment
C29.12 Composite Suspension SML Tension
C29.13 Deadend SML Tension
C29.17 Line Post Cantilever
Tension
Tension
C29.18 Dist. Line Post Cantilever Tension
4

low value that could be contained in such a lot depends on the
coefficient of variation (s/) for the manufacturing process
involved as shown in Table 4.

Table 3
Lot acceptance criteria
Insulator
Type
Sample
Ult. Strength test
Lot Acceptance
Criteria
Ceramic
Suspension
C29.2

Combined M&E
10 units

X
10
R +1.2 S
s
10
1.72 S
Ceramic
Line post
C29.7

Cantilever
3 units

X
3
R
no one x
i
.85 R
Ceramic App.
Cap & Pin
C29.8

Cant. Ten. &
Tor. 3 units each

X
3
R
no one x
i
.85 R
Ceramic App.
Post Type
C29.9

Cant. & Ten.
3 units each

X
3
R
no one x
i
.85 R
Composite
Suspension
C29.12
Specified Mech.
Load (SML)
test 3 units



x
i
.R
Comp. Dist. DE
C29.13

SML 3 units

x
i
.SML rating
Comp.
Line Post
C29.17

Cant.1 unit
Ten. 1 unit

Strength R
Comp. Dist. LP
C29.18

Cant.1 unit

Strength R


Fig. 6. Lot acceptance criteria for ceramic suspension insulators (C29.2) .

The acceptance requirements for high voltage post types and
cap & pin type insulators (C29.7, C29.8, & C29.9) are much
less stringent than for suspension types in that a much small
sample size (3 units) is selected for ultimate strength test, with
an average strength equal to, or greater, than rating. In
addition no individual sample unit strength can be lower than
85% of rating. Possible low strengths, again on a -3 sigma
basis, that could be in a lot minimally acceptable are given in
Table 5.

For composite type high voltage insulators, a small sample is
random selected from an offered lot with the requirement that
the relevant ultimate strength test result must be at least equal
to the rated value. Statistical inference concerning the strength

Table 4
Possible low strength for units in a lot minimally acceptable
according to ANSI C29.2.
Coefficient of
Variation
Strength value
at -3 sigma
5% 90% of M&E rating
10% 79% of M&E rating
15% 67% of M&E rating

Table 5
Possible low strength for units in a lot minimally
acceptable according to ANSI C29.7, 8, & 9.
Coefficient
of Variation
Strength values
at -3 sigma
5% 85% of Cantilever rating
10% 70% of Cantilever rating
15% 55% of Cantilever rating

distribution from the entire lot is therefore not feasible.
However, composite insulators have a relatively well defined
damage limit providing good application guidance.

4. Mechanical ratings Application limits
Application limits for insulators based on their ultimate
strength ratings are given in the National Electric Safety Code
and are shown in Table 6.

Table 6
Mechanical ratings Application Limits
NESC ANSI C2 (Table 273-1)
Insulator Type % Strength rating Ref. ANSI Std.
Ceramic
Suspension
50% Combined
mechanical & electrical strength
(M&E)

C29.2 -1992
Line Post 40%
50%
Cantilever strength
Tension/compression
Strength

C29.7-1996
Station Post
4

40%
50%
Cantilever strength
Tension/compression/torsion
strength

C29.9-1983
Station
Cap & Pin
4

40%
50%
Cantilever strength
Tension/compression/torsion
strength

C29.8-1985
Nonceramic
Suspension
50% Specified mechanical load
(SML)
C29.12-1997
C29.13-2000
Line Post 50% Specified cantilever load (SCL) or
specified tension load (STL)
C29.17-2002
C29.18-2003
Station Post 50% All strength ratings
----------

The general application limit is that for the most severe
design load case considered by the line designer the insulator
load must be limited to no more than percentage of ultimate
strength given in Table 6. In many cases the routine
mechanical test required is equal to maximum load allowed in
Table 6.

For large stacking posts and cap & pin apparatus insulators,
and for composite post insulators bending tests on a
production basis may not be feasible and tension routine tests
are specified or permitted.

The application of large composite line posts require a
careful consideration of the applied combined bending loads
5

because composite post insulator can undergo large deflection
in response bending loads as shown in Fig. 7.


Fig.7. Combined loading for composite line post

The total bending moment on the insulator as a result of the
combined loads must be limited to the percentage given in
Table 6. Manufacturers provide loading curves for their posts
and a typical curve is shown in Fig, 8.


Fig.8. Typical combined loading curve for a composite line post giving
vertical (weight) load as a function of compression (wind and line angle) loads
for various longitudinal (along line) loads

5. New developments
Loading and strength regulations for overhead lines have
been evolving over the past several years to coordinate the
strength of line components with maximum service loads on a
statistical basis as shown in Fig. 9.

Component strength here is not its ultimate strength, but
rather a defined limit of permanent damage or deformation;
that is, the maximum load at which irreversible damage to the
line component does not occur.

The damage limit for composite insulators is rather well
understood since early in the development of this type of
insulator, it was thought that long-term creep of the fiberglass
rod was the predominant limiting condition. Extensive studies,
however, have demonstrated that below that point at which
individual fiber fracture starts to occur, loads can be

IEC 60826
Fig. 9 Component strength cumulative distribution function F
R
and probability
density function of maximum loads f
Q
.

maintained for an indefinite time as shown in Fig. 10 where
the damage limit is equal to 60% of the average braking load
for composite suspension insulators.


Fig.10. Composite suspension insulator test loads (from IEC 61109).

Ceramic insulators are brittle and lack an easily defined
damage limit as demonstrated in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11. Stress-strain diagrams for brittle and ductile materials

Ductile material such iron and steel, common materials for
some line components, have a definite yield point close to the
proportional limit for the material. This point can be used o
define a damage limit for such materials. Brittle materials,
such as porcelain and toughened glass, however lack a yield
point and other techniques must be used to establish the point
at which irreversible damage to the material occurs. The
Insulator WG Task Force on Insulator Loading is now
working on this problem.