Failure Theories

Introduction
Whenacomponentissubjecttoincreasingloadsiteventuallyfails.Itiscomparativelyeasytodeterminethepointoffailure
ofacomponentsubjecttoasingletensileforce.Thestrengthdataonthematerialidentifiesthisstrength.Howeverwhen
thematerialissubjecttoanumberofloadsindifferentdirectionssomeofwhicharetensileandsomeofwhichareshear,
thenthedeterminationofthepointoffailureismorecomplicated...

MetalscanbebroadlyseparatedintoDUCTILEmetalsandBRITTLEmetals.Examplesofductilemetalsincludemildsteel,
copperetc.Castironisatypicalbrittlemetal.

Ductilemetalsunderhighstresslevelsinitiallydeformplasticallyatadefiniteyieldpointorprogressivelyyield.Inthelatter
caseaartificialvalueofyieldingpasttheelasticlimitisselectedinlieuoftheyieldpointe.g2%proofstress.Atfailurea
ductilemetalwillhaveexperiencedasignificantdegreeofelongation.

Brittlemetalsexperiencelittleultimateelongationpriortofailureandfailureisgenerallysudden.

Aductilemetalisconsideredtohavefailedwhenithassufferedelasticfailure,thatiswhenamarkedplasticdeformation
hasbegun.Anumberoftheoriesofelasticfailurearerecognisedincludingthefollowing:
Maximumprincipalstresstheory.....Canbeused-withcautionforbrittlemetals
Maximumshearstresstheory
Distortionenergytheory.....Favouredforductilemetals
Constantdistortionenergytheory

Themaximumprincipalstresstheory..
ThetheoryassociatedwithRankine.
Thistheoryisapproximatelycorrectforcastironandbrittlematerialsgenerally.

Accordingtothistheoryfailurewilloccurwhenthemaximumprincipalstressinasystemreachesthevalueofthemaximum
strengthatelasticlimitinsimpletension.Forthetwodimensionalstresscasethisisobtainedfromtheformulabelow(ref
pageonMohrscircle).

ThedesignFactorofSafetyforthetwodimensionalcase=
FoS=ElasticLimitfromtensiletest/highestprincipalstress.

TheMaximumShearStressTheory..
ThetheoryassociatedwithTrescaandGuest.

Thisisveryrelevanttoductilemetals.Itisconservativeandrelativelyeasytoapply.Itassumesthat
failureoccurswhenamaximumshearstressattainsacertainvalue.Thisvaluebeingthevalueofshear
strengthatfailureinthetensiletest.Inthisinstanceitisappropriatetochoosetheyieldpointaspractical
failure.Iftheyieldpoint=Syandthisisobtainedfromatensiletestandthusisthesoleprincipalstress
thenthemaximumshearstressSsyiseasilyidentifiedasSy/2.(reftonotesonMohrscircle)..Mohr's
Circle

Ssy=Sy/2
Inthecontextofacomplicatedstresssystemtheinitialstepwouldbetodeterminetheprinciplestressi.e.
1,1&3-
inorderofmagnitude1>2>3..
thenthemaximumshearstresswouldbedeterminedfrom
MaximumShearStress=
max=Greatestof(1-2)/2:(2-3)/2:(1-3)/2=(1-3)/2
Thefactorofsafetyselectedwouldbe
FoS=Sy/(2. max)=Sy/(1-3)
Thetheoryisconservativeespeciallyiftheyieldstrengthismorethen50%ofthetensilestrength..
Forthesimplecaseofatensilestressxcombinedwithashearstress xy.ThedesignFOS+
FoS=Sy/(x
2
+4. xy
2
)
1/2

Foracaseofacomponentwith1>2bothpositive(tensile)andwith3=0thenthemaximumshear
stress=(x-0)/2

DistortionEnergyTheory
AlsocalledShearStrainEnergyTheoty
ThistheoryisalsoknownastheVonMises-Henckytheory

Detailedstudieshaveindicatedthatyieldingisrelatedtotheshearenergyratherthanthemaximumshearstress..

Strainenergyisenergystoredinthematerialduetoelasticdeformation.Theenergyofstrainissimilartotheenergystored
inaspring.Uponcloseexamination,thestrainenergyisseentobeoftwokinds:onepartresultsfromchangesin
mutuallyperpendiculardimensions,andhenceinvolume,withnochangeangularchanges:theotherarisesfromangular
distortionwithoutvolumechange.Thelatteristermedastheshearstrainenergy,whichhasbeenshowntobeaprimary
causeofelasticfailure..

Itcanbeshownbystrainenergyanalysisthattheshearstrainenergyassociatedwiththeprincipalstresses1,1&3at
elasticfailure,isthesameasthaninthetensiletestcausingyieldatdirectstress

Sywhen:
(1-2)
2
+(2-3)
2
+(1-3)
2
>=2Sy
2

Intermsof3dimensionalstressesusingCartesianco-ordinates
(x-y)
2
+(y-z)
2
+(z-x)
2
+6.( xy
2
+ yz
2
+ zx
2
)>=2Sy
2

Intermsofplanestressthisreducesto..
(x
2
-x.y+y
2
+3. xy
2
)>=Sy
2

Intermsofsimplelinearstresscombinedwithshearstress..
FactorofSafetyFOS=Sy/(x
2
+3. xy
2
)
1/2

StrainEnergyTheory..
ThetheoryassociatedwithHaigh.

Thistheoryisbasedontheassumptionthatstrainsarerecoverableuptotheelasticlimit,andtheenergy
absorbedbythematerialatfailureuptothispointisasinglevaluedfunctionindependentofthestress
systemcausingit.Thestrainenergyperunitvolumecausingfailureisequaltothestrainenergyatthe
elasticlimitinsimpletension..

Thefollowingrelationshipcanbederivedfromthistheory.(Syistheyieldpointinsimpleshearand=
poissonsratio.)
FailureOccurswiththistheorywhen....
M(1-2)
2
+(2-3)
2
+(1-3)
2
+2.(1.2+2.3+1.3)Sy

Theories of Failure
Failure is generally perceived to be fracture or complete separation of a member. However, failure may also
occur due to excessive deformation (elastic or inelastic) or a variety of other reasons.
Failure Modes
3

Excessive elastic deformation Yielding Fracture
stretch, twist, or bending
buckling
vibration
plastic deformation at room temperature
creep at elevated temperatures
yield stress is the important design factor
sudden fracture of brittle materials
fatigue (progressive fracture)
stress rupture at elevated temperatures
ultimate stress is the important design
factor
During the latter part of the 19th century and continuing up to the present, a number of basic failure theories
were proposed and tested on a few materials.
1
Most of the theories were based on the assumption that failure
occurs when some physical variable such as stress, strain, or energy reaches a limiting value.
Deformation:
Elastic deformation is temporary (reversible) and involves bond stretching.
Plastic deformation is permanent (irreversible), and involves bond breaking.
Fracture is catastrophic.
http://www.matse.psu.edu/matse81/Spring%202003/LectureNotes/
Classification System for Mechanical Failure Modes
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Manifestations of Failure
elastic deformation
plastic deformation
rupture or fracture
material change
metallurgical
chemical
nuclear
Failure-Inducing Agents
force

Commonly Observed Mechanical Failure Modes
Force and/or Temperature-Induced Elastic Deformation
Yielding
Brinnelling
Ductile Rupture
Brittle Fracture
Fatigue
high-cycle fatigue
low-cycle fatigue
thermal fatigue
surface fatigue
steady
transient
cyclic
random
time
very short
short
long
temperature
low
room
elevated
steady
transient
cyclic
random
reactive environment
chemical
nuclear
Failure Locations
body type
surface type


impact fatigue
corrosion fatigue
fretting fatigue
Corrosion
direct chemical attack
galvanic corrosion
crevice corrosion
pitting corrosion
intergranular corrosion
selective leaching
erosion corrosion
cavitation corrosion
hydrogen damage
biological corrosion
stress corrosion
Wear
adhesive wear
abrasive wear
corrosive wear
surface fatigue wear
deformation wear
impact wear
fretting wear
Impact
impact fracture
impact deformation
impact wear
impact fretting
impact fatigue
Fretting
fretting fatigue
fretting wear
fretting corrosion
Creep
Thermal Relaxation
Stress Rupture
Thermal Shock
Galling and Seizure
Spalling
Radiation Damage
Buckling
Creep Buckling
Stress Corrosion
Corrosion Wear
Corrosion Fatigue
Combined Creep and Fatigue