Chapter 1 - Mole and Atomic Concepts

DAS 12102/12203 Chapter 1 - Mole and Atomic Concepts
MOLE AND ATOMIC CONCEPT

1-1 OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, students will be able to:

distinguish the matter based on their classification and composition
write the symbol for atom and the formula of chemical compound
calculate the atomic mass from percent abundance and mass of atom
produced from mass spectrometer
apply the concept of mole to determine the empirical and molecular formula
apply the mole concept to calculate the quantities of reactant and products in
reaction stoichiometry.
apply the mole concept in stoichiometry reaction for volumetric analysis in
titration reaction.

1-2 INTRODUCTION

1

Matter can be described as anything that has mass and it must take up space.
Depending on its temperature, matter can be a solid, liquid or gas.

Figure 1.1: Physical States of Matter.

1-3 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

The classification of matter is based on:

physical properties such as solid, liquid or gases.
the composition including atom, molecule, substance, element, compound or
mixtures.

Atom

An atom is the smallest particle differentiable as a certain chemical element. When
an atom of an element is divided, it ceases to be that element. The example of
atoms are Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Chlorine
(Cl) and Carbon (C).

Molecule

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure compound that retains a set of
unique chemical properties. A molecule consists of two or more atoms bonded
together. The examples of molecules are Oxygen (O
2
), Hydrogen (H
2
), Chlorine
(Cl
2
), Ozone (O
3
), Water (H
2
O).

Pure Substances

Any sample of matter can be classified as a pure substance or a mixture. A pure
substance can be either an element or a compound. The composition of a pure
substance is definite and fixed. The examples of pure substances are pure water
(compound) and pure gold (element).

Element

A chemical element often called simply element is a substance that cannot be
divided or changed into different substances by ordinary chemical methods. The
smallest particle of such an element is an atom, which consist of electrons centered
around a nucleus of protons and neutrons. The examples of elements are:

Metals Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) and Mercury (Hg).

Gases - Oxygen (O
2
), Chlorine (Cl
2
), Nitrogen (N
2
), Helium (He) and Neon
(Ne).

Non Metals - Carbon (C).

Compound

A chemical compound is a chemical substance formed from two or more elements,
with a fixed ratio determining the composition. For example dihydrogen monoxide
(water) is a compound composed of two hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atoms.

Mixtures
2


A mixture is a combination of two or more substances often chemicals, in which the
substances remain chemically distinct, retaining their particular composition and
properties. There are two types of mixtures:

Heterogeneous mixtures does not have uniform properties throughout: the
composition of one part (or phase). Example:

a mixture of oil and water.
a mixture of nuts and cake

Homogenous mixture is the same throughout. It has uniform composition
and appearance throughout. Example:

a cup of coffee.
a mixture of alcohol and water.
a solution

Figure 1.2: Classification of Matter

3

1-4 ATOM AND IONS

An atom consists of three sub-atomic particles which are electron, proton and
neutron. All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they
contain:

The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom
of an element (Z = p). In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons (p = e).

The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in
the nucleus of an atom of an element. In general the mass number is given
by:

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number + number of neutrons

Figure 1.3: Structure of an Atom

The accepted way to denote the atomic number and mass of an atom
of an element (X) is as follow:

Mass number
X

Atomic number

4

Thus, the denotations of three isotopes of hydrogen atom are

1
1
hydrogen), H (
2
1
(deutrium) ; H
3
1
(tritium) H

Figure 1.4: Isotopes of Hydrogen

EXAMPLE 1

Indicate the number of protons, neutrons, electrons and charge of ion in each of the
following table, assuming the unknown atom as X and Y.

Symbol
+ 3 56
26
Fe

Br
80
35

Proton 23
Neutron 28 14
Electron 21 10
Charge 4+

SOLUTION:

Symbol
+ 3 56
26
Fe

Br
80
35
+ 2 51
23
X
+ 4 28
14
Y
Proton 35 23 14
Neutron 45 28 14
Electron 36 21 10
Charge -1 2+ 4+

EXERCISE 1

Fill in the blanks in Example 1.

5

An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a net electric charge.

Na
+
H
+

H
+

H
+

Cl

O
2

Figure 1.5: Ionization Process

A negative charge is known as an anion and a positively charged is known as a
cation.

Figure 1.6: Cation and Anion

Cations are positively charged ions. Cations are the opposite of anions, since cations
has fewer electrons than protons. Anion are negatively charged ion, which has more
electrons in its electron shell than it has proton in its nuclei. For example:

Na (p = 11, e
-
= 11) Na
+
(cation, p = 11, e
-
= 10) + e
-

Cl (p = 17, e
-
= 17) + e
-
Cl
-
(anion, p = 17, e
-
= 18)

Combination of positive and negative ion produced ionic compound with zero
charge. For example:

Na Na
+
(cation) + e
-
Cl + e
-
Cl
-
(anion)
Na
+
+ Cl
-
NaCl (ionic compound)

6

1-5 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASS

Atomic mass is the mass of one atom expressed in units (atomic mass unit, amu or
u) where 1 amu is equal to 1/12 of the actual mass of carbon-12 (C-12). Atomic
mass is also called as relative atomic mass.

Most elements have several naturally occuring isotopes with different abundance.
The atomic mass shown in the periodic table for an element is actually a weighted
average of the masses of all isotopes of the element and is referred to as the
Average Atomic Mass.

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the average atomic mass of vanadium. The relative abundances and mass of
atom are given :

Isotopes Relative Abundance (%) Mass of atom (amu)
50
V 0.25 49.9472
51
V 99.75 50.9440
SOLUTION:
Average atomic mass = [ ( 49.9472
100
0.25
) x ( 50.9440)
100
99.75
] amu
= (0.125 + 50.817) amu = 50.942 amu

EXERCISE 2

(i) The atomic masses of
69
Ga (60.4 %) and
71
Ga (39.60 %) are 68.94 amu and 70.92
amu respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass for gallium.

Solution : 69.72 amu
(ii) The atomic masses of
10
B and
11
B are 10.0129 amu and 11.0093 amu. Calculate the
natural abundances of these two isotopes. The average atomic mass of B is
10.81amu.
Solution :
10
B = 20% ;
11
B = 80%

Relative Atomic Mass

Relative Atomic Mass is unitless. It is the atomic mass (amu) divided by
12
1
the
mass of one C-12 atom (amu).

Relative atomic mass = atomic mass (amu) x 12
mass of
12
C (12)

Relative Molecular Mass

Relative Molecular Mass is also unitless. It is the mass of a molecule (amu) divided
by
12
1
the mass of one C-12 atom (amu).
7

The most direct and most accurate method for determining atomic and molecular
masses is mass spectrometry.

EXAMPLE 3

Calculate the relative molecular mass of H
2
SO
4
, given relative atomic mass H = 1, S = 32,
O = 16

SOLUTION:

Relative Molecular Mass H
2
SO
4
= 2(atom H) + 1(atom S) + 4(atom O)
= 2(1) + 1(32) + 4(16) = 98

EXERCISE 3

Calculate the relative molecular mass of Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
. The relative atomic mass refers at
periodic table in text book.
Solution : 400

1-6 MOLE CONCEPT

1 mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities
(atom, molecules or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-
12 isotopes. The actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 is determined
experimentally. This number is called Avogadro Number (N
A
). The accepted value is
6.022 x 10
23
.

EXAMPLE 4

How many atoms are in:

(i) 2 moles of Na atom,
(ii) 0.1115 moles of Ca atoms.

SOLUTION:

(i) 1 mole Na atom 6.022 x 10
23
Na atoms

2 mole Na atom 6.022 x 10
23
Na atoms x 2

= 12.04 x 10
23
Na atoms

(ii) 1 mole Ca atom 6.022 x 10
23
Ca atoms

0.1115 mole Ca atom 6.022 x 10
23
x 0.1115

= 6.7 x 10
22
Ca atoms
EXERCISE 4

(i) Calculate how many moles of Sulfur atom are in 1.5 moles of As
2
S
3
.
(ii) Determine the number of moles of arsenic in 0.005 moles of the same compound.

Solution : (i) 4.5 mole (ii) 9.033x10
20
atom
8

Molar mass defined as the mass (in grams) of 1 mole of units (such as atom or
molecules) of a substance.

For 1 mole H
2
SO
4
= 98 gram and contains 6.022 x 10
23
particles of H
2
SO
4
.

For 1 mole gas H
2
= 2 gram and contains 6.022 x 10
23
molecules of H
2
.

To determine how many moles in the substance, the following formula is used:

Mole of substance A = Mass of substance A(g)
Mass of Formula A(g.mol
-1
)

EXAMPLE 5

(i) How many moles of (C
2
H
6
) are present in 0.334g of C
2
H
6
?
(ii) Calculate the mass (gram) of 1.0 x 10
12
Pb atoms.

(Relative atomic mass C : 12, ; H : 1 ; Pb : 207 )

SOLUTION:

(i) Mass of 1 mole ethane :

(2C

+ 6H

) = 2(12) + 6(1) gram = 30 gram (Formula).
30 gram ethane = 1 mol
0.334 gram ethane =
9

(ii) 1 mole Pb = 207 g and contain 6.022 x 10
23
Pb atoms
1.0 x 10
12
atoms = g 10 x 3.44 =
10 x 6.022
g 207
x 10 x 1.0
10 -
23
12
Pb

EXERCISE 5

Calculate :

Mass of 7.88 X 10
20
molecules of ethylene glycol is 0.0681 g. Find the molar mass of
the compound.
(N
A
= 6.022 X 10
23
)

Solution : 0.0192 g

0.334g x 1mole = 0.011 mole of ethane
30g


1-7 NAMES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUND

Compounds, can divided into six categories: binary compounds (non-metals), ionic
compounds, hydrates, polyatomic ions, salts and acid.

Table 1.1: Names of Binary Compound

Chemical Name Symbol
Dinitrogen pentoxide N
2
O
5
Carbon tetrachloride CCl
4
Nitrous oxide N
2
O
Ammonia NH
3

Table 1.2: Names of Ionic Compound

Potassium sulfide K
2
S
Iron(II) sulfide FeS
Calcium chloride CaCl
2
Zinc nitrate Zn(NO
3
)
2
Sodium sulfate Na
2
SO4

Table 1.3: Names of Hydrates

Sodium carbonate decahydrate Na
2
CO
3
.10H
2
O
(washing soda)
Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate MgSO
4
.7H
2
O
(epsom salt)
Calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) CaSO
4
.2H
2
O
Sodium tetraborate decahydrate
(borax)
Na
2
BB
4
O
7
.10H
2
O

Table 1.4: Names of Polyatomic Ions

Chromate Cr
2
O
7
Perchlorate ClO
4
-
Hypochlorite ClO
-
Bicarbonate HCO
3
-
Sulfate SO
4
2-

Table 1.5: Names of Acid

Hydroiodic acid HI
Hydrosulfuric acid H
2
S
Phosphoric acid H
3
PO
4
Phosphorus acid H
3
PO
3
Chlorous acid HClO
2
10

Table 1.6: Names of Salts

Sodium Fluoride NaF
Sodium Sulfite Na
2
SO
3
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO
3
Sodium monohydrogen phosphite Na
2
HPO
3
Potassium chlorate KClO
3

Calculation of Oxidation Number

An oxidation number signifies the number of charges the atom would have in a
molecule (or an ionic compound) if electrons were transferred completely.

For any monatomic ion, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion. thus:

Na
+
ion, oxidation number = +1; and Cl
-
ion, oxidation number = 1.

For any polyatomic, the sum of oxidation numbers of all the elements in the ion must
be equal to the net charge of the ion.

For example sulfate ion, (ion charge = 2). The oxidation number of atom
sulfur, S is calculated based on oxidation number of O = 2
2
4
SO

(S) + 4 ( O) = 2
X + 4( 2) = 2

oxidation number of sulfur (X) = +6

In a neutral molecule, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms must be
zero. For example CO
2
molecule
Y + 2 ( 2) = 0,

Oxidation number C, Y = + 4.

Anion and cation charge that combine in ionic compound must be equal to zero. In
naming compound cation must write first and then follow by anion.

For example: Sodium sulfate substance

Sodium ion, Na
+
(+1), sulfate ion, SO
4
2-
( 2);

2 mole of Na
+
ion (total charge +2) need to balance 1 mole SO
4
2-
( 2)

11

Formula of substance:

2Na
+
+ SO
4
2-
Na
2
SO
4

And the name of ionic compound is sodium sulfate.

EXAMPLE 6

Write the chemical formula and name the compound that produce from the
combination a pair of following ion:

(i) Lead ion, Pb
2+
with nitrate ion,
3
NO
(ii) Potassium ion, K
+
with carbonate ion,
2
3
CO
(iii) Aluminium ion, Al
3+
with sulfate ion,
2
4
SO

SOLUTION:

(i) Combination 1 Pb
2+
with 2 to produce zero charge
3
NO
Formula of substance : Pb
2+
+ 2 Pb(NO
3
NO
3
)
2
.
Name of substance : lead nitrate.

(ii) Combination 2 K
+
with 1 to produce zero charge
2
3
CO
Formula of substance : 2 K
+
+ K
2
3
CO
2
CO
3
.
Name of substance : potassium carbonate.

(iii) Combination 2 Al
3+
with 3
2
4
SO to produce zero charge
Formula of substance: 2 Al
3+
+ 3 Al
2
4
SO
2
(SO
4
)
3

Name of substance : aluminium sulfate.

EXERCISE 6

Write the formula and name the substance produce from the combination a pair of
following ion :

(i) Barium ion, Ba
2+
with iodide ion, I
-

(ii) Sodium ion, Na
+
with nitrade ion, N
3-

(iii) Aluminium ion, Al
3+
with oxide ion, O
2-
.

12

1-8 CHEMICAL FORMULA

A chemical formula provides information on the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols. By composition we mean not only the
elements present but also the ratios in which the atoms are combined. There are 3
types of formulas: molecular formula, empirical formula and structural formula.

Empirical Formula The empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio
of atoms of each element present in compound. For example: acetylene (C
2
H
2
) and
benzene (C
6
H
6
), the simplest ratio C: H = 1:1 and the empirical formula is CH

Molecular Formula The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of
each element present in a molecule.

Structural Formula Structural formula, which show how atoms are bonded to one
another in a molecule.

For example: benzene molecule

Empirical Formula : CH,

Molecule Formula : C
6
H
6

Structural formula: or

CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
For each example, the molecular formula is given in parentheses: acetylene (C
2
H
2
),
glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
) and water (H
2
O).

Experimental Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Given the percent composition, the empirical and molecular formula is determined
according to the following steps :

Write the mass or percentage of each element in the compound
Calculate the number of moles of each element in the compound by dividing
the mass or percentage of the element by the relative atomic mass of the
element.

13

No of moles = Mass in gram
Relative atomic mass
Next, divide each number of moles by the smallest value to obtain the
simplest ratio.
Finally, write the empirical formula of the compound based on the ratio of
elements.

EXAMPLE 7

11.66 g of Fe combines with 5.0 g of O to form a compound. Determine the empirical
formula of this compound.

SOLUTION:

Fe O

Mass

11.6 g

5.01 g

Mole
g 55.85
mol 1
x g 11.6 = 0.209 mol
g 16
mol 1
x g 5.01 = 0.313 mol
Simplest ratio 0209
0209
.
.
= 1
0313
0209
.
.
.= 1.5
Ratio
(whole number)
=1 x 2 = 2 = 1.5 x 2 = 3
Empirical Formula : Fe
2
O
3

EXERCISE 7

Determine the empirical and molecular formular for substance with molar mass equal
to 32g with mass percentage as follows; 87.5% of N and 12.5% of H.
Solution : NH
2

EXAMPLE 8

The empirical formula of a compound is CH. If the molar mass of this compound is
about 78 g.mol
-1
. What is its molecular formula?

SOLUTION:
(CH)n = 78
(12 + 1)n = 78
n = 6
Molecular Formula = (CH)
6
atau C
6
H
6
.

EXERCISE 8

Pure magnetite is composed of an iron-oxygen binary compound. It contains 72.41%
of iron atom and 27.59 % of oxygen atom. Find the empirical formula of the
compound.
Solution : FeO

14

Percent Composition

The percent composition is the percent by mass of each element in a compound.

Percent composition of = n x molar mass of element x 100
an element molar mass of compound

n = the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound.

EXAMPLE 9

Calculate the percent composition of N atom in Ca(NO
3
)
2
. Relative atomic mass:
Ca = 40.08, N = 14, O =16.

SOLUTION:

Relative Molecular Mass = 40.08 + 2 (14 + 16 (3))
= 164.08

EXERCISE 9
15

Calculate the percent composition by mass of atom C and O in following
compound:

(i) CH
3
COOH
(ii) NaHCO
3
Solution : (i) %C = 40 00; %O = 53.33 ;(ii) %C = 14.29 ; %O = 57.1
Percent composition N = mass of N (g) x 100
mass of Ca(NO
3
)
2
(g)
= 2(14) g x 100
164.08 g
= 17.08%

1-9 STOICHIOMETRY OF CHEMICAL REACTION

The stoichiometry relation can be used to give conversion factors for relating
quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Chemical Equations

A chemical equation use chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical
reaction:

2H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O()
Reactant 1
Gas phase
React with Reactant 2
gas phase
To yield Product of liquid
phase

The quantities 2 mole of H
2
, 1 mole of O
2
and 2 mole of H
2
O which are given the
coefficients in equation above are called stoichiometrically equivalent quantities.

Balancing Chemical Equation
In general, we can balance a chemical equation by the following steps.
Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formulas on the left
side and right side of the equation respectively.
Begin balancing the equation by trying different coefficients to make the
number of atoms of each element the same on both sides of the equation. We
can change the coefficients (the number preceding the chemical
formulas). Changing the subscripts would change the identity of the
substance.
First, look for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation
with the same number of atoms on each side: the formulas containing these
elements must have the same coefficient. Therefore there is no need to adjust
the coefficient of these elements at this point.
Next, look for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation
but in unequal number of atoms. Balance these elements.
Finally, balance elements that appear in two or more formula on the same
side of the equation. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have
the same total number of each type of atoms on both sides of the equation
arrow.

EXAMPLE 10
Write the balanced equation for the reaction:

P
4
O
10
+ H
2
O H
3
PO
4
SOLUTION:

From this information, we write :
aP
4
O
10
+ bH
2
O cH
3
PO
4

Write the atom using algebra concept :

Atom P : 4a = c ; atom O : 10a + b = 4c ; atom H : 2b = 3c

The value of a = 1

Reactant aP
4
O
10
become

P
4
O
10
4 atom P

Product of CH
3
PO
4
, have 4 atom P (reactant) write as 4H
3
PO
4

c = 4

To find value of b : 2b = 3c

b =
6
2
4 x 3
=
aP
4
O
10
+ bH
2
O cH
3
PO
4
P
4
O
10
+ 6H
2
O 4H
3
PO
4

Check : P : reactant 4 P = product 4 P
: O : reactant 16 O = product 16 O
: H : reactant 12 H = 12 H
Balanced Equation : P
4
O
10
+ 6H
2
O 4H
3
PO
4

16


EXERCISE 10

Write the balanced equation for the reaction:

(i) KClO
3
KCl + O
2

(ii) NH
4
NO
3
N
2
O + H
2
O

Application in Balancing Chemical Equation

Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction. Whether the units given for reactant (or products) are moles, gram, liter (for
gases) or some other units. We use moles to calculate the amount of product
formed in a reaction. This approach is called mole method, which means simply that
the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the
number of moles of each substance.

No of moles = Mass in gram
Relative atomic mass (g/mol)

The reaction equation:

2CH
3
OH + 3O
2
2CO
2
+ 4H
2
O

The relationship between mole and mass in gram:

Reactant 1 Reactant 2 Product 1 Product 2
2CH
3
OH
17

+ 3O
2
+ 4H
2
O 2CO
2
2 mole 3 mole 2 mole 4 mole
2 x 32 g = 44 g 3 x 32 g = 96 g 2 x 44 g = 88 g 4 x 18 g = 72 g
The conversion steps are:

Gram of
reactant
Moles of
reactant
Moles of
product
Gram of
product


EXAMPLE 11

The balanced equation for the combustion of butane is :
O(c) 10H (g) 8CO (g) 13O (c) H 2C
2 2 2 10 4
+ +
Calculate the mass (g) of CO
2
produced if 1.00 g of butane is completely combusted.

SOLUTION:

Change 1.00 gram of C
4
H
10
to mole :
10 4
2
10 4
10 4
10 4
H C mol 1.72x10
H C g 58.0
H C mol 1
x H C g 1.00

=
Stoichiometry between reactant, C
4
H
10
and product CO
2
is
10 4
2
H C mol 2
CO mol 8

Mole of CO
2
produced =
2
2
10 4
3
10 4
2
CO 6.88x10 H C mol 1.72x10 x
H C mol 2
CO mol 8

=
Gram of CO
2
=
2
2
2
2
2
CO g 3.03
CO mol 1
CO g 44.0
x CO mol 6.88x10 =

EXERCISE 11

Calculate the mass of H
2
released when 6.082 g diborane (B
2
H
6
) completely react with
water using following equation:
BB
2
H
6
(g) + 6H
2
O(c) 2H
3
BO
3
(p) + 6H
2
(g)
Solution : 2.644 g

Reaction Yield

Theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of product that would result if the entire
limiting reagent reacted. The theoretical yield then is the maximum obtainable yield,
predicted by the balanced equation.

Actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction which is
always less than the theoretical yield.

Percent yield which describe the proportion of the actual yield to the theoretical
yield. It is calculated as follows:

EXAMPLE 12
Urea is prepared through the reaction below :
2NH
3
+ CO
2
(NH
2
)
2
CO + H
2
O
In one process, 637 g of NH
3
are treated with 1142 g of CO
2
. Determine:
(i) Limiting reagent.
(ii) The mass of urea formed.
(iii) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?
(iv) Calculate the percent yield if 622 g of mass is obtained.
% yield = Actual yield x 100
Theoretical yield
18


SOLUTION:
(i) From balanced equation:
2 moles of NH
3
react with1 mol of CO
2
or
2[14 + 3(1)] g NH
3
react with 12 + 2(16) g of CO
2
34 g NH
3
react with 44 g of CO
2
637 g NH
3
react with
2
CO g 824.4
3
NH g 34
2
CO g 44
x
3
NH g 637 =
Actual Reactant of CO
2
is 1142 g. Need only 824.4 g, so CO
2
is excessive
.
NH
3
limiting reagent.

(ii) The relation between mole, limiting reagents and products :
2 moles of ammonia produce 1 mole of urea or
2(17) g of NH
3
produce 60 g (NH
2
)
2
CO
637 g of NH
3
produce urea g 1124
3
NH g 34
urea g 60
x
3
NH g 637 =
(iii) Mass of excessive CO
2
reactant= (1142 824.4) g of CO
2
= 317.6 g of CO
2
.

(iv) Percent yield = = x100%
urea g 1124
urea g 622
= 55.34 %.

EXERCISE 12
19

15.3 g of CH
4
and 43.0 g of chlorine gas react to produce 80 % product. From the balanced
equation, determine the reaction yield and calculate the mass of chloromethane, CH
3
Cl
produced. The other product is hydrogen chloride.
Note : Write the balanced equation first!
Solution : 24.5 g

Actual yield x 100%
Theoretical yield

1-10 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSES

To study solution stoichiometry and to know how much of the reactants are present
in a solution and also how to control the amount of reactants used to bring about a
reaction in aqueous solution.

Concentration of Solutions

(i) Gram per liter (g/L) or (g/mL) =

(ii) Parts per million (ppm) =

(iii) Molarity (M), Unit of Standard Concentration

Molarity (M) of Compound A =

=

Moles of solute (mol)
Liters of solution (L)
Concentration of solution (g/L)
Molar mass (g/mol)
Mass of solute (g)
Volume of solution (L)
Mass of component in solution x 10
6
Total mass of solution


(iv) Mole Fraction

Mole fraction is a dimensionless quantity. The mole percentage or molar percentage,
denoted mol% and equal to 100% times the mole fraction, is sometimes quoted instead
of the mole fraction.
20

Mole of component A (n
A
) =

Mole of component B (n
B
) = B

Total number of mole n
T
= n
A
+ n
B
; mole fraction A, X B
A
= n
A
; mole fraction B, X
B
B = n
B
n
T
n
T

Summary = mole fraction of =
component A

Notes:

(ii) is used in small concentration, for example: content of mercury in blood and
content of Pb in water.
Mass of A (g)
Relative atomic mass A (g/mol)
Mass of A (g)
Relative atomic mass A (g/mol)
Moles of A
Sum of moles of all components


EXAMPLE 13

1.2 g of KOH dissolved in 250 cm
3
. Calculate :
(i) concentration of solution in g L
-1

(ii) molarity of solution in mole L
-1

SOLUTION:

(i) Mass of KOH = 1.2 g
Volume of solution = L 0.25
cm 1000
L 1
x cm 250
3
3
=
Concentration KOH, g/L =
L 0.25
g 1.2
= 5.6 g.L
-1
(ii) Molarity =
L
mol

Mole KOH = mol 0.021
KOH g 56
KOH mol 1
x KOH g 1.2 =
Molarity, M KOH = M 0.084
L 0.25
mol 0.021
=
EXERCISE 13

The concentration of cholesterol (C
27
H
46
O) in normal blood is 0.005 M. Calculate mass of
cholesterol (g) in 750 mL normal blood.
Solution : 1.448 g
EXERCISE 14

Given that the balanced equation for the reaction is as below

2 HCl
(aq)
+ K
2
S
(aq)
H
2
S
(g)
+ 2 KCl
(aq)
21

What is the volume of 0.350 M of HCl that will completely react with 475 mL of 0.125 M of
K
2
S?

Solution : 2.947 L

Dilution of Solution

Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one.

The relationship between molarity of solution with volume:

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

M
1
, V
1
are moles of solute and volume before dilution,
M
2
, V
2
are moles of solute and volume after dilution,

MV = moles of solutes

The units of V
1
and V
2
must be the same (mL or L)


EXAMPLE 14

Find the volume of 5 M NaOH solution required to prepare 50 mL of 0.1 M NaOH.

SOLUTION:

Using formula M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

M
1
, V
1
are initial concentration and initial volume
M
2
, V
2
are final concentration and final volume

M
1
= 5 M V
1
=? M
2
= 0.1 M V
2
= 50 mL
V
1
=
1
2 2
M
V M

=
M 5
mL) M)(50 (0.1
= 1 mL

1 mL of NaOH 5 M (add with 49 mL air) required producing 50 mL, 0.1 M NaOH.

EXERCISE 14

Describe how to prepare 1.00 L of 0.646 M HCl solution, starting with a 2.00 M HCl
solution.
Solution : Add 0.323 L of water to 2M of HCl

Acid-Base Titration

Acid-base titration is the determination of the concentration of an acid or base by
exactly neutralizing the acid/base with an acid or base of known concentration.

Neutralization of acid-base produce salt and water. The reaction is:

aHA + bMOH cMA + dH
2
O
acid base salts water

The relation of stoichiometry reaction and titration are:

Mole acid = a (MV)
acid
= a
Mole base b (MV)
base
b

M and V are molarity and volume
acid-base
22


EXAMPLE 15

In an acid-base titration, 15 00 cm
3
of NaOH solution is needed to neutralize
18 00cm
3
of 0.25 M H
2
SO
4
. What is the concentration (in molarity) of the NaOH
solution?

SOLUTION:
First, write the balanced equation for the reaction :

H
2
SO
4
+ 2NaOH Na
2
SO
4
+ 2H
2
O

a = 1, b = 2, M
a
= 0.25 M, M
b
= ? V
a
= 18.00 cm
3
, V
b
= 15.00 cm
3

Molarity of NaOH = 0.6 M

EXERCISE 15

(i) Calculate the concentration of HNO
3
if 68.50 mL is needed to neutralize 25
mL of 0.150 M KOH solution.
(ii) In a neutralization reaction, 0.15 M sulfuric acid react with 0.20 M KOH to
produce K
2
SO
4
(potassium sulfate).
(a) Write the chemical equation for this reaction.
(b) Calculate the volume that neutralize 25 mL of acid.
(c) If 5 x 10
-3
mol of base react with 3.0 x 10
-3
mole of acid, which of the two
reactants is the limiting reagent?
(d) Find the number of mole of salt produced.

Solution : (i) 0.055 M (ii) (b) 37.5 mL (c) KOH (d) 2.5 mmol potassium sulfate

(MV)
acid
= 1 Mbase = 2 x (MV)
acid
= 2 x (0.25M) (18.00cm
3
) = 0.6M
(MV)
base
2 V
base
15.00 cm
3
23

1-11 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1. Classify each of the following as an element, a compound, a homogeneous
mixture or a heterogeneous mixture (a) seawater (b) helium gas, (c) sodium
chloride, (d) a bottle of soft drinks, (e) milk-shake, (f) air in a bottle and (g)
concrete.
2. Give the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the following
species (a) (b) and (c) O
17
8
Hg
199
80
Hg
200
80
3. Write the appropriate symbol for each of the following compounds: (a) Z = 74,
A = 186 (b) Z = 80, A = 201
4. Give the number of proton and electrons in each of the following common
ions: K
+
, Mg
2+
, Fe
3+
, Br
-
, Mn
2+
, and Cu
2+

5. What are the empirical formulas of the following compounds? (a) Al
2
Br
6
(b)
Na
2
S
2
O
4
(c) N
2
O
3
(d) K
2
Cr
2
O
7

6. How many amu are there in 8.4 g?
7. How many moles of cobalt (Co) atoms are there in 6.00 X 10
9
(6 billion) Co
atoms?
8. How many grams of gold (Au) are there in 15.3 moles of Au?
9. How many atoms are present in 3.14 grams of copper (Cu)?
10. Which of the following has a greater mass: 2 atoms of lead or 5.1 X 10
-23
mole
of helium?
11. Calculate the molar mass of the following substance (a) Li
2
CO
3
(b) CS
2
(c)
CHCl
3
(d) C
6
H
8
O
6
(e) KNO
3
and (f) Mg
3
N
2

12. How many molecules of ethane (C
2
H
6
) are present in 0.334g of C
2
H
6

13. Urea [(NH
2
)
2
CO] is used for fertilizer and many other things. Calculate the
number of N, C, O and H atoms in 1.68 X 10
4
g of urea.
14. Peroxyacylnitrate (PAN) is one of the components of smog. It is a compound
of C, H, N and O. Determine the percent composition of oxygen and the
empirical formula from the following percent composition by mass: 19.8% C,
2.50% H, and 11.6% N. What is the molecular formula given that its molar
mass is about 120g.
15. Tin (II) fluoride (SnF
2
) is often added to toothpaste as an ingredient to prevent
tooth decay. What is the mass of F in grams in 24.6 g of the compound?

24

16. What are the empirical formulas of the compounds with the following
compositions? (a) 40.1% of C, 6.6% of H and 53.3% of O. (b) 18.4% C,
21.5% N and 60.1% K.
17. Balance the following equations
(a) N
2
O
5
N
2
O
4
+ O
2

(b) KNO
3
KNO
2
+ O
2

(c) NH
4
NO
3
N
2
O + H
2
O
(d) NH
4
NO
2
N
2
+ H
2
O
(e) NaHCO
3
Na
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2

(f) P
4
O
10
+ H
2
O H
3
PO
4

(g) HCl + CaCO
3
CaCl
2
+ H
2
O + CO
2

(h) Al + H
2
SO
4
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ H
2

18. Silicon tetrachloride (SiCl
4
) can be prepared by heating Si in chlorine gas
Si
(s)
+ 2Cl
2 (g)
SiCl
4(l)
In one reaction, 0.507 mole of SiCl
4
is produced. How many moles of
molecular chlorine were used in the reaction?
19. Fermentation is a complex chemical process of wine making in which glucose
is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide
C
6
H
12
O
6
2C
2
H
5
OH + 2CO
2
Starting with 500.4 g of glucose, what is the maximum amount of ethanol in
grams and liters that can be obtained by this process? (Density of ethanol =
0.789g/ml)
20. The depletion of ozone (O
3
) in the stratosphere has been a matter of great
concern among scientists in recent years. It is believed that ozone can react
with nitric oxide (NO) that is discharged from the high altitude jet plane, the
SST. The reaction is
O
3
+ NO O
2
+ NO
2
If 0.740 g of O
3
reacts with 0.670 g of NO, how many grams of NO
2
will be
produced? Which compound is the limiting reagent? Calculate the number of
moles of the excess reagent remaining at the end of the reaction.

25

21. Consider the reaction
MnO
2
+ 4HCl MnCl
2
+ Cl
2
+ 2H
2
O
If 0.86 mole of MnO
2
and 48.2 g of HCl react, which reagent will be used up
first? How many grams of Cl
2
will be produced?
22. Ethylene (C
2
H
4
), an important industrial organic chemical, can be prepared by
heating hexane (C
6
H
14
) at 800 C
C
6
H
14
C
2
H
4
+ other products
If the yield of ethylene production is 42.5 percent, what mass of hexane must
be reacted to produce 481 g of ethylene?
23. Disulfide dichloride (S
2
Cl
2
) is used in the vulcanization of rubber, a process
that prevents the slippage of rubber molecules past one another when
stretched. It is prepared by heating sulfur in an atmosphere of chlorine.
S
8(l)
+ 4Cl
2(g)
4S
2
Cl
2(l)
What is the theoretical yield of S
2
Cl
2
in grams when 4.06 g of S
8
are heated
with 6.24 g of Cl
2
? If the actual yield of S
2
Cl
2
is 6.55 g, what is the percent
yield?
24. How many grams of KOH are present in 35.0 mL of a 5.50 M solution?
25. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions. (a) 6.57 g of
methanol (CH
3
OH) in 1.50 X 10
2
mL of solution, (b) 10.4 g of calcium chloride
(CaCl
2
) in 2.20 X 10
2
mL of solution, and (c) 7.82 g of naphthalene (C
10
H
8
) in
85.2 mL of benzene solution.
26. Water is added to 25.0 mL of a 0.866 M KNO
3
solution until the volume of the
solution is exactly 500 mL. What is the concentration of the final solution?
27. You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it exactly
to 0.100 M. How much water should you add?
28. Calculate the concentration (in molarity) of NaOH solution if 25.0 mL of the
solution are needed to neutralized 17.4 mL of 0.312 M HCl solution.
29. What volume of of a 0.5 M HCl solution is needed to neutralize each of the
following; (a) 10 mL of a 0.300 M NaOH solution, (b) 10 mL of 0.200 M
Ba(OH)
2
solution.

26

30. The SO
2
present in air is mainly responsible for the acid rain phenomenon. Its
concentration can be determined by titrating against a standard
permanganate solution as follows:
5SO
2
+ 2MnO
4
-
+ 2H
2
O 5SO
4
2-
+2Mn
2+
+ 4H
+
Calculate the number of grams of SO
2
in a sample of air if 7.37 mL of 0.00800
M KMnO
4
solution are required for the titration.
31. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide solution can be conveniently
determined by titration against a standardized potassium permanganate
solution in acidic medium according to the following equation;
2MnO
4
-
+ 5H
2
O
2
+ 6H
+
5O
2
+ 2Mn
2+
+ 8H
2
O
If 36.44 mL of a 0.01652 M KMnO
4
solution are required to oxidize 25 mL of a
H
2
O
2
solution, calculate the molarity of H
2
O
2
solution.

Answers
1. (a) Homogeneous mixture, (b) Element, (c) Compound, (d) Homogeneous
mixture, (e) Heterogeneous mixture (f) Homogeneous mixture, (g)
Heterogeneous mixture
2. (a) neutron = 9 electron = 8 proton = 8
(b) neutron = 119 electron = 80 proton = 80
(c) neutron = 120 electron = 80 proton = 80
3. (a) (b) W
186
76
Hg
201
80
4. K
+
(p= 19, e= 18), Mg
2+
(p=12, e=10), Fe
3+
(p=26, e=23), Br
-
(p=35, e=36),
Mn
2+
(p=25, e=23), C
4-
(p=6, e=10), Cu
2+
(p=29, e=27)
5. (a) AlBr
3
, (b) NaSO
2
, (c) N
2
O
5
, (d) K
2
Cr
2
O
7

6. 5.1 X 10
24
amu
7. 9.96 X 10
-15
mol
8. 3.01 X 10
3
g Au
9. 2.98 X 10
22

10. Pb
11. (a) 73.89 g, (b) 76.14 g, (c) 119.35 g, (d) 176 g, (e) 101.11 g, (f) 100.93 g
12. 6.70 X10
21
C
2
H
6
molecules
27

13. N: 3.37 X 10
26
atoms, C: 1.69 X 10
26
atoms, O: 1.69 X 10
26
atoms,
H: 6.74 X 10
26
atoms

14. C
2
H
3
NO
5

15. 5.97 g F
16. (a) CH
2
O (b) KCN
17.
(a) 2N
2
O
5
2N
2
O
4
+ O
2

(b) 2KNO
3
2KNO
2
+ O
2
(c) NH
4
NO
3
N
2
O + 2H
2
O
(d) NH
4
NO
2
N
2
+ 2H
2
O
(e) 2NaHCO
3
Na
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
(f) P
4
O
10
+ 6H
2
O 4H
3
PO
4

18. 1.01 mol
19. 255.76 g
20. O
3
, 0.709 g NO
2,
6.913 X 10
-3
mol
21. HCl, 23.4 g
22. 3.47 X 10
3
g
23. 8.55 g, 76.6%
24. 10.8 g
25. (a) 1.37 M (b) 0.43 M (c) 0.72 M
26. 0.0433 M
27. 126 mL
28. 0.217 M
29. (a) 6.00 mL (b) 8.00 mL
30. 9.45 X 10
-3
g

31. 0.06020 M
28


Table 1.1: Mass of Atoms

Element Symbol No of Atom Atomic mass Element Symbol No of Atom Atomic mass
Actinium Ac 89 227.0278 Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Aluminum Al 13 26.98154 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Americium Am 95 (243) Neodymium Nd 60 144.24
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 Neon Ne 10 20.179
Argon Ar 18 39.948 Neptunium Np 93 237.0482
Arsenic As 33 74.9216 Nickel Ni 28 58.70
Astatine At 85 (210) Niobium Nb 41 92.9064
Barium Ba 56 137.33 Nitrogen N 7 14.0067
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Nobelium No 102 (259)
Beryllium Be 4 9.01218 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Bismuth Bi 83 208.9804 Oxygen O 8 15.9994
Boron B 5 10.81 Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Bromine Br 35 79.904 Phosphorus P 15 30.97376
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 Platinum Pt 78 195.09
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Californium Cf 98 (251) Polonium Po 84 (209)
Carbon C 6 12.011 Potassium K 19 39.0983
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9077
Cesium Cs 55 132.9054 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 Protactinium Pa 91 231.0359
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 Radium Ra 88 226.0254
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 Radon Rn 86 (222)
Copper Cu 29 63.546 Rhenium Re 75 186.207
Curium Cm 96 (247) Rhodium Rh 45 102.9055
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678
Einsteinium Es 99 (254) Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Erbium Er 68 167.26 Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Europium Eu 63 151.96 Scandium Sc 21 44.9559
Fermium Fm 100 (257) Selenium Se 34 78.96
Fluorine F 9 18.998403 Silicon Si 14 28.0855
Francium Fr 87 (223) Silver Ag 47 107.868
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Sodium Na 11 22.98977
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 Sulfur S 16 32.06
Gold Au 79 196.9665 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9479
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Technetium Tc 43 (97)
Helium He 2 4.00260 Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Holmium Ho 67 164.9304 Terbium Tb 65 158.9254
Hydrogen H 1 1.0079 Thallium Tl 81 204.37
Indium In 49 114.82 Thorium Th 90 232.0381
Iodine I 53 126.9045 Thulium Tm 69 168.9342
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 Tin Sn 50 118.69
Iron Fe 26 55.847 Titanium Ti 22 47.90
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Tungsten W 74 183.85
Lanthanum La 57 138.9055 Uranium U 92 238.029
Lawrencium Lr 103 (260) Vanadium V 23 50.9414
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Xenon Xe 54 131.30
29

Lithium Li 3 6.941 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97 Yttrium Y 39 88.9059
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 Zinc Zn 30 65.38
Manganese Mn 25 54.9380 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
Mendelevium Md 101 (258)

Chapter 1 - Mole and Atomic Concepts

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MOLE AND ATOMIC CONCEPT

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