1.

Passive Voice
In sentences that use the active voice, the subject does the action. For
example, in the sentence My dog ate a bunch of grass, you immediately know
who ate a bunch of grass: the dog. The passive voice, in contrast, identifies the
performer of the action late, or even never. For example, the sentence A bunch
of grass was eaten leaves the reader unsure of who or what did the eating.
Writers tend to avoid using the passive voice because it creates weak, wordy
sentences.
So, how do you know if you are dealing with a case of the passives? Usually,
youll spot these words: is, was, were, are (or any other version of the verb to
be) and the word by. If you see these words, ask yourself, Whats the action
and whos doing it? If the person (or entity) committing the action appears only
at the end of the sentence, or doesnt appear at all, youve got a passive voice
whispering bland nothings in your ear.
After Timmy dropped his filthy socks in the hamper, the offensive
garment was washed by his long-suffering father.
(A) the offensive garment was washed by his long-suffering father
(B) his long-suffering father washed the offensive garment
(C) the washing of the offensive garment took place by his long-
suffering father
(D) long-suffering, the offensive garment was washed by his father
(E) he left the offensive garment for his long-suffering father who
washed it
Here we see passive voice rearing its horrendous head. Theres a was, a by,
and the fact that you dont know until the last word of this sentence who
washed Timmys socks. The phrase was washed suggests that someone or
something did the cleaninga parent, a washing machine, a river in Egypt.
The point is, you dont know how the socks got washed.
In order to fix the passive voice, the performer of the action must get a place of
prominence in the sentence and clear up what theyre doing. In the example
above, the correct answer must make clear that Timmys father did the load of
laundry. Both answers B and E fix the passive voice problem, but E is wordy
and redundant, so B is the right answer.
2. Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence results when two complete sentences get jammed together.
Run-ons usually sound breathless, as if an excited child is telling a story.
Heres an example of a run-on sentence:
I walked into the pet store and asked the clerk if she had any talking
parrots, this made her roll her eyes.
The best way to test if a sentence is a run-on is to split the sentence in two and
see if both halves of the sentence could function alone:
I walked into the pet store and asked the clerk if she had any talking
parrots. This made her roll her eyes.
Because each half of this sentence is complete on its own, the two halves
cannot be joined together with a comma.
Here are three ways to fix run-on sentences in Improving Sentences questions:
Method 1: Use a semicolon.
Method 2: Add a conjunction.
Method 3: Make the clauses relate clearly.
METHOD 1: USE A SEMICOLON
One of the most common remedies youll find on the SAT is a semicolon. A
semicolon (;) signals that both sides of the sentence are grammatically
separate but closely related to one another.
I walked into the pet store and asked the clerk if she had any talking
parrots; this made her roll her eyes.
METHOD 2: ADD A CONJUNCTION
Another method for correcting run-on sentences is adding conjunctions.
Suppose you see this run-on sentence:
In her incredible eagerness to cheer her team to victory, Amy the
cheerleader has lost her voice, therefore her performance at the
games is a silent one.
If you add the conjunction and:
In her incredible eagerness to cheer her team to victory, Amy the
cheerleader has lost her voice and therefore her performance at the
games is a silent one.
The run-on disappears.
METHOD 3: MAKE THE CLAUSES RELATE CLEARLY
Sometimes sentences contain strange relationships among clauses that can
obscure the meaning of the sentence. (A clause is just a bunch of words with a
subject and a predicate). Heres an example:
The student council attempted to lure people to the dance with free
food, most people attended the field hockey game.
This sentence suggests that despite the student councils efforts, people didnt
go to the dance because they went to the field hockey game. You can correct
this run-on sentence by adding a word that makes this relationship clear:
Although the student council attempted to lure people to the dance
with free food, most people attended the field hockey game.
Okay, time for a real example:
The police reprimanded everyone at the graduation party, they didnt
seem very sympathetic to the fact that it was our senior year.
(A) at the graduation party, they didnt seem very sympathetic to the
fact that it was our senior year
(B) at the graduation party, seemingly the fact that it was our senior
year did not make them sympathetic
(C) at the graduation party without being sympathetic to the fact that it
was our senior year
(D) at the graduation party they didnt, despite the fact that it was our
senior year, seem very sympathetic
(E) at the graduation party; they didnt seem very sympathetic to the
fact that it was our senior year
A classic run-on. The two parts could easily stand alone:
The police reprimanded everyone at the graduation party. They didnt
seem very sympathetic to the fact that it was our senior year.
Remember, the SAT usually fixes run-ons by exchanging the comma for a
semicolon. In this case, E, which uses the semicolon method, is the correct
answer.
Notice that you could have corrected the question above by turning the second
half into a subordinate clause:
Since they reprimanded everyone at the graduation party, the police
didnt seem very sympathetic to the fact that it was our senior year.
Alternatively, you could have inserted the word and between the two clauses:
The police reprimanded everyone at the party, and they didnt seem
very sympathetic to the fact that it was our senior year.
The majority of Improving Sentence questions dealing with run-ons will require
you to use one of the three methods weve discussed to fix the sentence.
3. Misplaced Modifiers
A modifying phrase is a phrase that explains or describes a word. In standard
written English, modifiers usually appear right next to the word they explain or
describe. When modifiers are placed far away from the word they describe, the
sentence becomes confusing because its often unclear which word the
modifying phrase is referring to, as in the following sentence:
Eating six cheeseburgers, nausea overwhelmed Jane.
This sentence is problematic. We can logically infer that Jane was doing the
eating, but because the modifying phrase (Eating six cheeseburgers) is so far
from the word its intended to modify (Jane), figuring out the meaning of the
sentence takes a lot of work. It could very well seem as if nausea rather than
Jane is being described. Therefore, the meaning of the sentence could be
that nausea ate six cheeseburger fries. The sentence as-is does not convey
the meaning the writer intended.
When you see a modifier followed by a comma, make sure the word that the
modifier describes comes right after the comma. A corrected version of this
sentence could read:
After eating six cheeseburgers, Jane was overwhelmed with nausea.
The phrase eating six cheeseburgers describes what Jane is doing, so Janes
name should come right after the phrase.
Another way to correct the sentence:
Nausea overwhelmed Jane after she ate six cheeseburgers.
Now take a look at this sample question:
Having a bargain price, Marcel snatched up the designer jeans right
away.
(A) Having a bargain price, Marcel snatched up the designer jeans.
(B) Marcel who has a bargain price, snatched up the designer jeans.
(C) The jeans bargain price led to Marcels snatching them up.
(D) Due to their bargain price, Marcel snatched up the designer jeans.
(E) Based on their bargain price, the jeans were snatched up right
away by Marcel.
The misplaced modifier in this sentence confuses the meaning of sentence. As
it is, it sounds like Marcel has a bargain price, but he certainly isnt for sale.
That means you can cut A right away, since it just preserves the underlined
portion of the sentence. Cut B since it also identifies Marcel as the object with
the bargain price. C uses the possessive awkwardly and uses them incorrectly
to refer to the bargain price. E looks better, but the phrase the jeans were
snatched up uses the passive voice.
D is the correct answer. In D, the phrase bargain price modifies designer
jeans rather than Marcel. The correct answer solves another problem with the
original sentence, which is the phrase having a bargain price. Having does not
clearly express the relationship between the jeans and Marcels purchase. In
the correct answer, the phrase due to suggests that Marcel bought the
designer jeans because they had a bargain price.
4. Parallelism
We covered parallelism in the Identifying Sentence Errors chapter, but we give
it another brief review, since its also likely to show up in Improving Sentences
questions.
In every sentence, all of the different components must start, continue, and
end in the same, or parallel, way. Its especially common to find errors of
parallelism in sentences that list actions or items. In the example below, the
pool rules are not presented in the same format, which means there is a
parallelism error.
In the pool area, there is no spitting, no running, and dont toss your
half-eaten candy bars in the water.
The first two forbidden pool activities end in ing (-ing words are called
gerunds), and because of that, the third forbidden thing must also end in ing.
If you start with gerunds, you must continue with gerunds all the way through a
list.
In the pool area, there is no spitting, no running, and no tossing your
half-eaten candy bars in the water.
Heres a sample Improving Sentences parallelism question:
The unlimited shopping spree allowed Rachel to raid the department
store and she could eat everything in the cafe.
(A) and she could eat
(B) as well as eating
(C) so she could eat
(D) and a meal
(E) and to eat
The description of the shopping sprees powers begins with an infinitive, to
raid. Therefore, on the other side of that and, we should find another infinitive.
Instead, the original sentence contains the phrase she could eat, which is not
parallel. E, the correct answer, balances both sides of the equation by
substituting to eat. In its corrected form, the sentence is made nicely parallel
and balanced by the two infinitives:
The unlimited shopping spree allowed Rachel to raid the department
store and to eat everything in the cafe.
5. Wordiness
Wordiness means using more words than you absolutely need. Its the crime
you commit when youve only gotten four pages written of a six-page paper
and its 1 a.m. the night before the papers due. Its all that meaningless
redundant junk you write in a desperate attempt to fill up space. Heres an
example from a paper Justin wrote senior year:
The history of nineteenth-century France is one marked by great periods of
continuity and change.
Heres what Justins got: Wordy meaninglessness with only the vague sheen of
insight. Wordiness often comes hand in hand with the passive voice, as in
Justins weak example (is one marked by). Other times wordiness shows up
on its own. Heres an example:
Pierre observed the diners and motels of middle America, and these
are sights that are depicted in his trendy paintings.
(A) these are sights that are depicted
(B) the depiction of these sights is
(C) these sights having been depicted
(D) his depiction of these sights
(E) he depicted these sights
This sentence is both wordy and passive. The underlined part could be said in
half the space, and you could remove a few words without changing the
meaning of the sentence at all. For example: Pierre observed the diners and
motels of middle America, and these sights are depicted in his trendy
paintings. But even in that succinct version, the passive voice remains: The
underlined phrase does not make it clear that Pierre depicted the sights. The
phrase sights that are depicted makes it sound like a disembodied hand put
paint on canvas.
If you encountered this question on the test, you could immediately
eliminate A if you realized there was a problem to begin with.
Both B and C repeat the original mistakes. They are wordy and they avoid
identifying Pierre as the performer of the action. Answer choice D looks much
better; its short and there are no red-flag phrases or words, such as having
been or is, that suggest the passive voice. Suppose you suspect that D is the
right answer; if you plug it back into the sentence, as you should always do,
you get, Pierre observed the diners and motels of middle America, and his
depiction of these sights in his trendy paintings. This newly created sentence is
actually a fragment, and therefore grammatically unacceptable.
So you come to E: brief, clear, to the point, and entirely devoid of the passive
voice. Does it check out? Pierre observed the diners and motels of middle
America, and he depicted these sights in his trendy paintings. Yes. E avoids
wordiness, names Pierre as the performer of the action, and is a grammatically
correct sentence.
The Little Four
In addition to the Big Five, youll likely see a question once in a while that deals
with one of these four concepts:
1. Conjunctions
2. Fragments
3. Coordination and subordination
4. Pronouns
1. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are connecting words such as and, but, that, and or. They help
link two parts of a sentence together. Suppose you have two sentences:
Abigail jumped off her horse. She then dove into a pool of deep water.
A conjunction such as and enables you to connect the two halves of the
sentence:
Abigail jumped off her horse and into a pool of deep water.
Improving Sentences questions test you on conjunctions by including
sentences in which the conjunction makes the sentence illogical or clunky.
Nick wrote a novel and it depicts the life of a somewhat inspiring
record store clerk.
(A) and it depicts
(B) being the depiction of
(C) it depicts
(D) that depicts
(E) and depicting in it
The right answer is D. In this sentence, the conjunction that expresses the
function of the novel more smoothly than the clunky phrase and it does.
2. Fragments
Fragments are almost the opposite of run-on sentences. Run-on sentences
have clauses squashed together and joined incorrectly. Fragments have no
independent clause and therefore are incomplete sentences.
The hunchback vice principal growling at students in the main office.
(A) The hunchback vice principal growling
(B) The hunchback vice principal having growled
(C) Growling, the hunchback vice principal
(D) It is the hunchback vice-principal
(E) The hunchback vice principal growls
In this sentence, the clause lacks a proper verb for the subject (the hunchback
vice principal). The sentence would be complete if it read, The hunchback vice
principal growling at terrified students was notorious for his brutal tactics.
Notice though that the answer choices dont fix the fragment that way. Instead,
the correct answer, E, takes away the problem of expectation altogether. When
you read The hunchback vice principal growls at terrified students, you dont
expect the sentence to continue. He growls and thats the end of the story.
3. Coordination and Subordination
Bad coordination happens in gym class when you trip over your own feet or
crash into someone else on the field. Bad coordination in a sentence happens
when two clauses are joined together with a word that makes their relationship
confusing.
John made T-shirts for the swim team, but he designed the logos
himself.
(A) but he designed the logos himself
(B) however, he designed the logos himself
(C) and he designed the logos himself
(D) since he designed the logos himself
(E) and yet, he designed the logos himself
The sentence makes it clear that John creates his own T-shirts. He also
designs logos for the T-shirts. So should the word but express the relationship
between these two activities? No, because the two activities are closely
related. The word but would make sense only if the sentence said something
like John made T-shirts, but other than that he sat around playing video games
all day. The word but suggests a contrast, a change in the direction of the
sentence. If you get to the middle of a sentence and it takes an unexpected
turn, look for a coordination error.
In this question, you can eliminate B because the word however is also a bad
choice when joining these two clauses. It expresses the same kind of
contrasting relationship as does the word but. You can eliminate E for the
same reason. Answer D isnt quite as bad as B and E, but John made T-shirts
for the swim team, since he designed the logos himself doesnt make that
much sense. John doesnt make T-shirts because he designs the logos, he
makes T-shirts and designs the logos, which is exactly what C says. Bingo.
We thought it would be helpful to put together a list of conjunctions and split
them up based on whether they suggest contrast or no contrast. Contrast
conjunction words like but require the meaning of the sentence to change
direction. For example, I would go to school, but I dont feel well. Noncontrast
conjunction words like andkeep the sentence flowing in the same direction. For
example, After school I will practice piano and eat a snack.
Heres a chart to help you learn the most important contrast and noncontrast
conjunction words.
Noncontrast Conjunctions Contrast Conjunctions
and but
because though
since although
so while
thus rather
therefore instead
unless
despite
however
nevertheless
notwithstanding
Subordination problems happen when there are two subordinate clauses and
no main clause. You dont need to know what that jargon means. Instead, you
just need to know subordination problems tend to occur when sentences
contain more than one of the conjunction words listed above. If you see one
clause that starts with although,because, if, since, or so that, and then another
clause that starts with one of these words, youll hear the subordination
problem loud and clear:
Because Teddy thought his first date with Maria went well, so that he
called her every day for the next week.
(A) so that he called her every day for the next week
(B) although he called her every day for the next week
(C) because he called her every day for the next week
(D) he called her every day for the next week
(E) and he called her every day for the next week
You dont need to know that this sentence is an example of bad subordination.
Just notice that the two parts of the sentence dont go together. Why dont they
fit together? Because theres something strange about the middle of the
sentence. You hit the comma, and then the sentence takes an unexpected
turn.
The first part of the sentence sets you up: Since Teddy thought his first date
with Maria went well, you expect something along the lines of he invited her
out again orhe kissed her on her front porch, right? Instead, you get the
phrase so that. That just sounds incorrect and doesnt make a lot of sense.
Knowing the sentence contains an error allows you to eliminate A. In B, the
wordalthough gives you exactly the same sort of problem that plagues the
original sentence. Same with C, because. He thought the date went well
because he called her every day the next week? No. That doesnt make sense.
In E, the word and doesnt go with the although that starts the sentence.
Plug D back into the sentence to make sure it fits: Because Teddy thought his
first date with Maria went well, he called her every day for the next week.
Lookin good.
As we emphasized a few times already, relying on your ear and on what
sounds right is dangerous on the SAT. The SAT wants you to trust your ear
and go with what you think might sound right in conversation or casual English.
Remember that the SAT is anything but casual and that Improving Sentences
questions test standard writtenEnglish, not the same English you speak with
friends or family. That makes learning the rules and familiarizing yourself with
these words all the more important.
4. Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns (words for people, places,
and things)words like she, her, hers, he, him, his, they, their, it, its,
that, and which.There are a number of ways that pronouns can be used
incorrectly (and we cover those in our Identifying Sentence Errors chapter), but
in Sentence Improvement questions one type of pronoun error generally
appears: ambiguous pronouns.
An ambiguous pronoun occurs when it isnt clear to which noun the pronoun is
referring. Take a look at the following sentence:
Arnold and Ebenezer went to the store, where he bought a pair of
polyester pants.
Wait a minute. Who bought the pants? Arnold or Ebenezer? You cant know,
because that pronoun he is ambiguous. Now most Sentence Improvement
questions dealing with ambiguous pronouns wont be quite as obvious as that
last example. Check this out:
Clay, Nina, and Melissa were crossing the street when, looking to the
right, she saw a sign advertising a yard sale.
This sentence tries to hide the ambiguous pronoun she by separating it from
the nouns Clay, Nina, and Melissa at the beginning of the sentence. You have
to be able to see through such trickery, and notice that because there were two
girls crossing the street, its unclear which of them saw the sign.
~ ~ ~
Error-Identification Categories
1) Subject-Verb Agreement
2) Verb Tense
3) Pronoun Case
4) Antecedent Pronoun (Pronoun Agreement)
5) Adjective vs. Adverb
6) Parallelism
7) Prepositions
8) Faulty Comparisons
9) Comparatives vs. Superlatives
10) Double negatives/Double positives
11) Word Pairs
12) Noun Agreement
13) Relative Pronouns
14) Coordinating Conjunctions
15) Usage
16) Redundancy
Note: while other kinds of errors (e.g. misplaced modifiers) may occasionally
appear, they are extremely rare and are therefore not covered here. Although
you can expect to find errors from a number of categories included in each
section, the first four categories (Verb and Pronoun Errors) generally appear
most frequently. It is therefore recommended that you take some time to
familiarize yourself with the kinds of sentence structures in which they appear.
The remaining categories are listed in approximate order frequency.
In the examples below, the correct answers are given in parentheses.
Although some of the examples below are taken from College Board-created
questions, the majority are simplified versions intended to illustrate particular
grammatical principles.
1) Subject-Verb Agreement

A. Subject Non-essential clause Verb
Ex: Galaxies, far from being randomly scattered throughout the
galaxy, appears (appear) to be distributed in bubble-shaped patterns.
Whenever you encounter a parenthetical clause (a clause set off by commas
that can be removed without affecting the fundamental meaning of the
sentence), cross it out and check subject-verb agreement
B. Subject Prepositional phrase Verb
A prepositional phrase is, quite simply, a phrase that begins with a preposition
(in, on, over, from, to, of, with, etc.). Very often these will be inserted between
subjects and verbs to distract from subject-verb disagreements. Prepositional
phrases always end when you get to the verb.
Ex: Changes in the balance of trade seems (seem) remote from everyday
concerns, but they can drastically affect how we spend our money.
If you dont see an error the first time you read a sentence, try crossing out
prepositional phrases and checking for subject-verb agreement
("Changes...seems remote from everyday concerns..." is much easier to spot).
C. Prepositional Phrase Verb Subject
Ex: Along the Loup Canal in Nebraska extends (extend) many lakes, parks,
and trails owned and operated by the Loup power district.
When a prepositional phrase is placed first, make sure you identify the
complete subject: very often compound subjects (two singular nouns joined by
"and") will be used in this construction, which often appears at the end of the
Error-Identification section. In such cases, a singular verb will incorrectly
replace a plural verb.
Ex: Along the Loup Canal in Nebraska extends (extend) a park and lake
owned an operated by the Loup power district.
D. There is/There are, There has/There have
There is/has = Singular noun
There are/have = Plural noun
Ex: There has (have) been many questions raised about the handling of the
companys finances.
E. Neither/Nor + Verb
The verb always agrees with the noun after "nor."
Ex: Neither the park nor the lake are (is) owned by the city.
Since "lake," the noun after "nor," is singular, the verb is singular as well.
On the SAT, singular nouns connected by neither/nor are only incorrectly
paired with plural verbs; plural nouns connected by neither/nor are not tested.
Important:
-Collective Nouns (e.g. company, school, city, country, committee, jury, agency
etc.) = Singular.
-Each, Every, One = Singular
-A number (of) = Plural BUT The number = Singular
-(N)either one OR whether (n)either clearly refers to two singular nouns =
Singular
-Gerunds when used as subjects (e.g. Constructing new skyscrapers
often takes many months) = Singular.
-What and whether as subjects (e.g. "Whether dogs are capable of
experiencing complex emotions is a subject of much debate among experts.");
both are singular.
2) Verb Tense
The inclusion of a date or time period in a sentence usually indicates a
tense question. If no tense error appears, the answer is likely to be "no
error."
A. Tense Consistency
Sentences that start in the past should generally stay in the past; sentences
that start in the present should generally stay in the present.
Ex: Since serious drama unaccompanied by music was forbidden in all but two
London theatres during the eighteenth century, Queens theatre
quickly becoming (became) an opera house.
B. Present Perfect vs. Simple Past
These questions are almost always recognizable by the inclusion of a date or a
time period in the sentence. Any sentence that includes a date in the past or
mentions a historical period should always contain a verb in the Simple Past
(e.g., went, drank, sang), NOT in the Present Perfect (has gone, has drunk,
has sung).
Ex: During the nineteenth century, Charles Dickens has become
(became) one of the most famous British novelists.
However, sentences containing since and for require the present
perfect (e.g., I have gone to this school since 2005; I have gone to this school
for five years).
C. Would vs. Will
Will and Would get switched with one another; if "will" is underlined, stick in
"would" and vice-versa
Ex: William Shakespeare, who will (would) become the greatest English
dramatist, was born in 1564.
-In general, "would" should not be used in a sentence with present-tense
verbs, and "will" should not be used in a sentence with past-tense verbs.
-Do NOT use would or would have in a clause that begins with if:
If he would have arrived (had arrived) at 5pm, I would have been very
happy.
D. Gerunds vs. Infinitives
Gerunds and Infinitives are switched with one another
Infinitive replaced with gerund: Though she was one of the few women of her
time gaining (to gain)international prominence, Clara Barton would not have
described herself as a proponent of women's rights.
Gerund replaced with infinitive: Laryngitis causes the vocal cords and
surrounding tissue to swell, thus preventing the vocal cords to move (from
moving) freely.
E. Past Participle vs. Simple Past
In these questions, the simple past rather than the past participle will be
incorrectly paired with a form of the verb To Have.
Ex: My little brother has grew (grown) two inches during the past year.
F. Past Perfect
Past Perfect = Had + Past Participle (e.g. I had seen, I had gone, He had
thrown, etc.)
When a sentence contains two actions or events that occurred in the past, the
action that occurred firstshould be in the past perfect
-The phrase by the time is usually a tip-off that the past perfect is required.
Ex: By the time it adjourned, the committee made (had made) several
important decisions.
Action #1: The committee made several important decisions
Action #2: The committee adjourned
G. The Subjunctive
The subjunctive is tested infrequently but does appear from time to time. It
involves expressions of suggestion and necessity. The main change in
the present subjunctive comes in the third person singular form of the verb:
Indicative (normal): He arrives home at 5pm.
Subjunctive: It is necessary that he arrive home at 5pm.
The past subjunctive involves hypothetical circumstances; it includes the
verb were, regardless of whether the subject is singular or plural.
If he were to arrive at 5pm, I would be very happy.
Or:
Were he to arrive at 5pm, I would be very happy.
3) Pronoun Case: I vs. Me, He vs. Him, etc.
Rules:
-Any pronoun that follows a preposition must be an object pronoun (Me,
Her/Him, Us, Them) rather than a subject pronoun (I, She/He, We, They).
-What goes for singular, goes for plural: the SAT will almost always pair a
pronoun (I, he, etc.) with "and" + proper name. Cross out "and + name,"
and you should be able to hear whether there is an error.
Ex: After two weeks, the teacher finally gave Robert and I (me) back the
report.
Would you say, The teacher gave I back the report? Obviously not -- you'd
say "The teacher gave me back the report." So you wouldnt say the teacher
gave Robert and I back the report either.
-If the pronoun is not paired with another name, it will be followed by a noun
(e.g. To we students, it seems unfair that classes should start at 7:30am.)
Cross out the noun, and the error, if there is one, should be obvious. You
would say "to us," not "to we," so you would also say "to us students."
Important: Between you and me, NOT Between you and I
4) Antecedent-Pronoun
An antecedent is a noun that a pronoun refers to. In the sentence, Jamie
picked up the ball and threw it, the ball is the antecedent and it is the pronoun.
One and You
You...You
One...One
Ex: If one wants to avoid insect invasions, you (one) should refrain from
leaving crumbs lying on the floor.
Singular vs. Plural
Singular nouns are referred to by singular pronouns; plural nouns are referred
to by plural pronouns.
Any singular noun referring to a person: he or she, his or her
Any singular noun referring to a thing: it or its
Any plural noun referring to person or thing: the or their
Ex: A person who wishes to become an Olympic-caliber athlete must devote
virtually all of their (his or her) time to training.
BUT: People who wish to become an Olympic-caliber athlete must devote
virtually all of their time to training.
Missing Antecedent

Any pronoun in a sentence must clearly refer to a noun, pronoun, or gerund.
A pronoun cannot refer to an adjective, verb, or any other part of speech.
Ex: Because of extreme weather conditions, starvation exists in some
countries where they (people)must struggle to stay alive.
Ex: In the report released by the committee, it stated that the significant
budget cuts would be necessary for the following year.
(The report released by the committee stated that significant budget cuts
would be necessary for the following year).
Ambiguous Antecedent
Hint: look for two male or female names.
Ex: Afraid that they would be late to the party, Jenny and Kate decided to take
her (Kates) car rather than walk.
Do So vs. Do it
Do it = Wrong
Do so = Right
Ex: Activists who defend endangered species from poaching do it (so) on the
grounds that such animals, once gone, are irreplaceable.
What does it refer to in this sentence? Defending endangered species. But
since the gerund defending doesnt actually appear in the sentence, it has no
real antecedent.
Important:
For both Subject-Verb Agreement and Pronoun Agreement, be on the
lookout for collective nouns such as group, committee, company, jury,
city, agency, team, etc. These nouns are always considered singular, and
it is not uncommon for the SAT to pair them with plural verbs and
pronouns. Whenever one of these words appears, you should
immediately be suspicious.
IT = BAD (most likely). If the word it is underlined, its most likely wrong.
Check its antecedent immediately.
5) Adjective vs. Adverb

Adjectives modify nouns (The good boy; The loud noise, etc.)
Adverbs modify verbs and adjectives and usually end in ly: He speaks slowly;
She runs quickly, etc.
On the SAT, adverbs and adjectives are switched only with one another. If an
adjective is underlined, stick in the adverb; if an adverb is underlined, stick in
the adjective.
Ex: The patient recovered quick (quickly), although he had been very ill
earlier in the week.
Ex: Because the mans clothing seemed oddly (odd), he attracted a number of
stares.
6) Parallelism: Lists
In any given list, each item should be in the exact same format. Either noun,
noun, noun, verb, verb, verb, or gerund, gerund, gerund. Any deviation is
incorrect.
Ex: Susan likes to run, swim, and going (go) horseback riding.
7) Prepositions/Idioms
Certain expressions always require certain prepositions. For example, one has
a familiarity withsomething, not a familiarity in something. Because they are
idiomatic, reposition questions must be done by ear; there is no way to
anticipate what preposition will appear on a given test.
Ex: A familiarity in (with) Latin is useful for anyone who wishes to pursue
serious study of a modern romance language.
8) Faulty Comparisons
Rule: Compare things to things and people to people.
Note: When faulty comparison questions appear in Fixing Sentences, they will
typically be fixed with the phrases that of (singular) or those of (plural)
Ex: In ancient Greece, women were not allowed to vote or hold property, their
status differing from slaves (from that of slaves) only in name.
Ex: At the age of twenty-four, playwright Thornton Wilder was balding and
bespectacled, and his clothes were like a much older man (like those of a
much older man).
9) Comparatives vs. Superlatives (More vs. Most)
More/-er form of adjective = 2 items being compared
Most/-est form of adjective = 3+ items being compared
Ex: Between the tiger and the lion, the tiger is the faster animal, while the
hippo is the most (more)ferocious.
Ex: Hurricane Katrina was one of the more (most) destructive storms of the
last hundred years.
10) Double Negatives, Double Positives

Double Negative
Ex: There is scarcely/hardly no (any) milk left in the refrigerator.
Double Positive
Ex: Jane thought that Susan's blouse was more prettier (prettier) than her own.
11) Word Pairs

A. Either...Or
Either the politician or his aide will speak to the media this afternoon.
B. Neither...Nor
Neither the politician nor his aide will speak to the media this afternoon.
C. Not only...But Also
Not only the politician but also his aide will speak to the media this afternoon.
D. Both...And
Both the politician and his aide will speak to the media this afternoon.
E. BetweenAnd (never "Between...Or")
Between the politician and his aide, the latter is far more interesting to listen to.
E. As...As
The aide is as interesting a speaker as the politician.
F. More/LessThan
The politicians aid is a more interesting speaker than the politician himself.
G. So/SuchThat
The politician was such a boring speaker that half the audience fell asleep.
H. FromTo
The politicians speech covered topics ranging from the economy to the
environment.
I. Just asSo (Rare)
Just as the politicians speech put half the audience to sleep, so did the
commentators remarks cause the other half to begin yawning.
J. At once...And (Rare, usually correct when it appears)
The politicians speech was at once intriguing because of its content and dull
because of the monotone in which it was delivered.
12) Noun Agreement
Nouns must agree in number when joined by a linking verb (usually to be or to
become)
Hint: Look for the phrase "as a + profession" (actor, physicist,
entomologist...)
Ex: Jenny and Robert want to become a scientist (scientists) when they grow
up.
Ex: The Wikipedia has joined the Encyclopedia Britannica as favorite sources
(as a favorite source) for research.
13) Relative Pronouns
Who/That vs. Which
Who is for people, which/that is for things. In Error-IDs, which is typically used
incorrectly to refer to people; who is not used to refer to things.
Ex: Known for his many wives, King Henry VIII was a British monarch which
(who/that) ruled during the Tudor period.
-When "which" appears by itself, it is usually incorrect; preposition + which
(e.g. "in which") is usually correct.
-"Which" is always preceded by a comma; That is never preceded by a
comma
Correct: The movie that opened last Friday has earned rave reviews from
critics.
BUT
Correct: The movie, which opened last Friday, has earned rave reviews from
critics.
Very Important: Who vs. Whom is not actually tested on the SAT. "Who"
is only switched with "which." If "whom" is underlined, ignore it.
Other Relative Pronouns
When is for Time
Where is for Places (It is incorrect to say, "The story where....")
14) Coordinating Conjunctions (and vs. but)
When conjunctions are underlined, make sure that they connect the two halves
of the sentences logically. Ideas that are being continued need transitions like
and, and ideas that are being contradicted need transitions like but.
Ex: People with a certain rare disease are unable to feel physical pain, and
(but) this does not mean that they are unable to feel other kinds of pain.
Be on the lookout for "when," which is often used in place of "because" or "for."
Ex: It came as a surprise to no one that Santiago could not finish the race,
when he had put little effort into training.
15) Redundancy (Rare, 1 per test maximum)
Ex: According to recent reports, the collapse of the countrys government is
imminent and could occur in the future.
16) Usage (Rare, 1 per test maximum)
Ex: The tall buildings were just barely visual (visible) from the outskirts of the
city.
Fixing Sentences

The following rules provide a general set of guidelines for the Fixing Sentences
portion of the Writing section.
Rules for picking answers:

1) Shorter is better:
Always look at answers from shortest to longest
2) -ING (esp. Being) is BAD
Gerunds create sentence fragments
3) Passive Voice is BAD
-Active: I drink the water
-Passive: the water is drunk by me
The passive voice makes sentences wordy and awkward.
Major Concepts Tested

1. Concepts also tested on Error-Identification:
-Subject-Verb Agreement (Typically subject-prepositional-phrase verb)
-Antecedent Pronoun (Watch out for It, Which, and This, which often lack
antecedents)
-Verb Tense (esp. Tense Consistency)
-Conjunctions (and vs. but/however)
-Faulty Comparisons (always fix with that of/those of)
-Word Pairs (esp. between...and, so...that, just as...so, not only...but also)
-Pronoun Case (he vs. him, rare)
2. Sentence Fragments

1) Gerund replaces main verb
Incorrect: The book being banned from a number of schools because it was so
controversial.
To fix the sentence, conjugate the verb:
Correct: The book was banned from a number of schools because it was so
controversial.
2) Non-essential and subordinate clause errors
Non-Essential: a verb should follow a non-essential clause
Incorrect: The book, which was banned from a number of schools, and it
is extremely controversial.
Correct: The book, which was banned from a number of schools, is extremely
controversial.
Subordinate: the main verb must appear in the same clause as the subject
Incorrect: The book, which was banned from a number of schools because it
was so controversial.
Correct: The book was banned from a number of schools because it was so
controversial.
Commas and Semicolons
Coordinating (aka FANBOYS) conjunction:
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
Coordinating Conjunctions are used to join 2 complete sentences (independent
clauses). They must ALWAYS be preceded by a comma:
Sentence 1: London is a very old city.
Sentence 2: It has many modern buildings.
Joined: London is a very old city, but it has many modern buildings.
If a comma alone is used to join two Independent Clauses, the result is what's
known as a Comma Splice. Comma splices are always incorrect.
Comma Splice: London is a very old city, it has many modern buildings.
Important: When two Independent Clauses that have the same subject
are joined with a Coordinating Conjunction without repeating the second
subject, no comma is necessary before the Coordinating Conjunction.
Correct: London is a very old city but has many modern buildings.
Incorrect: London is a very old city, but has many modern buildings.
Semicolons
Semicolon = Period. It is used to separate two complete sentences
(independent clauses).
Correct: London is a very old city; it has many modern buildings.
There are five transitions (conjunctive adverbs) that should always be
preceded by a semicolon when they appear at the beginning of a clause:
1) However
2) Therefore
3) Moreover
4) Consequently
5) Nevertheless
Correct: London is a very old city; however, it has many modern buildings.
But a semicolon should never precede a FANBOYS conjunction.
Incorrect: London is a very old city; but it has many modern buildings.
Note: when "however" is used parenthetically in the middle of a sentence, it
must be surrounded by commas. Compare the following two sentences:
Correct: London is a very old city; it is, however, filled with modern buildings.
Correct: London is a very old city; however, it is filled with modern buildings.
In order to be successful on the Fixing Sentences section, you must be
absolutely solid on the the four basic ways of combining independent
clauses:
1) London is known for its gloomy weather, but it actually receives less rainfall
than Paris does.
2) London is known for its gloomy weather; it actually receives less rainfall
than Paris does.
3) London is known for its gloomy weather; however, it actually receives less
rainfall than Paris does.
4) London is known for its gloomy weather but actually receives less rainfall
than Paris does.
Dangling Modifiers
Rule: Always place modifiers as close as possible to the nouns they modify.
Incorrect: Having resigned for personal reasons, the ambassador's successor
will probably be named tomorrow
Who resigned?
The ambassador. So "The ambassador" is the subject.
Therefore, the ambassador MUST be the first words after the comma
Correct: Having resigned for personal reasons, the ambassador plans to
name his successor tomorrow
Misplaced Modifiers (Less Frequent)
Incorrect: John found his keys running down the street. (It sounds as if the
keys are running along the street)
Correct: While running down the street, John found his keys.
Gerunds/Wordiness
Gerunds (the "-ing" form of a verb that acts a noun) are frequently wrong
because they make sentences unnecessarily wordy and awkward. When used
in place of of conjugated verbs, they also turn sentences into fragments. The
easiest way to fix a gerund is to simply supply the subject and conjugate the
verb.
Incorrect: The book was banned from a number of schools because of it
being so controversial.
Correct: The book was banned from a number of schools because it was so
controversial.
Important: The use of possessive vs. object pronouns before a gerund (e.g.
because of his being vs. because of him being) is NOT tested on the SAT. The
gerund construction itself is the issue, not the pronoun.
Non-Essential Clauses

The SAT will frequently include sentences with non-essential clauses placed in
unexpected places -- if the sentence makes sense when the non-essential
clause is removed, however, that answer will be correct. It does not matter that
the placement of the clause may seem odd.
Correct: The author's latest novel is a gripping, if occasionally perplexing,
piece of fiction.
Even if the original version of the sentence may sound strange, if we remove
the non-essential clause, we are left with:
Correct: the author's latest novel is a gripping, if occasionally perplexing, piece
of fiction.
Important: If a sentence contains a correctly used parenthetical clause
and does not contain another grammatical error, it is virtually always
correct, no matter how odd it may sound.
Parallelism

1. Lists (Easy)
The items in a list must all be in the same formate
Incorrect: I like biking, swimming, and to play soccer
Correct: I like biking, swimming, and playing soccer
2. "Phrase" or Two-Part Parallelism (Hard)
Frequently the last question of a section (#11 first section, #14 second)
Look for classic "noun + of + noun" structure

Incorrect: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer who is known for the
emotional impact of her singing and her intellectual command of her music is
impressive.
Correct: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer who is known for
both the emotional impact ofher singing and for her impressive
intellectual command of her music.
~ ~ ~
In the "Improving Sentences" part of the SAT, a sentence is presented along
with several variations. Students are asked to determine the best way to
express the idea. Most of the variations have a flaw involving some common
grammar point. The trick is to be able to separate the wheat from the chaff,
grammatically speaking. And tricks are exactly what I teach my students to
perform in order to ace the grammar section of the SAT. Having taught both
grammar and composition in college, I've simplified a large part of the
complexity of English grammar down to 8 Main Points that students find easy
to grasp.
Here are the points:
(1) Leaking Oil -- misplaced modifiers
I call the first rule "leaking oil" in order to give students a stark visual to hold
onto. More technically, the rule deals with modifiers that point to the wrong
noun in the sentence. These are called misplaced modifiers.
For example: Leaking oil, the mechanic fixed the car.
Clearly, it's the car, not the mechanic, that has the oil leak. When a sentence
has a subordinated lead-in like this, I tell students to make sure that the first
noun after the comma points back to the action being described. The sentence
should read: Leaking oil, the car was fixed by the mechanic.
To put this concept into play with SAT-style questions, consider the following
examples and choose the best way to improve the sentence:
(a) Working overtime, the industrial facility was populated by hundreds of
technicians.
(b) The industrial facility, working overtime, had hundreds of busy technicians.
(c) Technicians, busy at the industrial facility, would be working overtime.
(d) The busy technicians at the industrial facility were the ones who worked
overtime
(e) Working overtime, busy technicians populated the industrial facility.
In both (a) and (b) it should be the workers, not the facility, doing the work.
Answer (c) is unnecessarily conditional and (d) has the gratuitous phrase
"were the ones." Only (e) has the correct noun, busy technicians, following the
introductory lead-in.
(2) Matching Pairs -- subject-verb agreement
The second rule has to do with matching singular subjects with singular verbs
and plural subjects with plural verbs. The College Board tries to trick students
by interposing prepositional phrases between the subject and verb, sort of like
stuffing Styrofoam peanuts into a FedEx gift box. To get to the gift, you have to
first throw out the extraneous packaging.
For example: The harmful effects of insulin resistance on the metabolic system
is well known.
Notice how the unnecessary prepositional phrases of insulin resistance and on
the metabolic system subvert the true relationship between the subject and
verb. The subject (harmful effects) is plural, so the verb (is) must also be
plural. The sentence should read: The harmful effects of insulin resistance on
the metabolic system are well known.
To put this concept into play with SAT-style questions, consider the following
examples and choose the best way to improve the sentence:
(a) Each of the 5,000 spectators are cheering wildly at the game.
(b) The spectators cheering wildly at the game are among the 5,000.
(c) At the game, each of the 5,000 spectators in attendance are cheering
wildly.
(d) Each of the 5,000 spectators at the game is cheering wildly
The answer is (d). To analyze this correctly, ignore the prepositional phrase in
the sentence (of the 5,000 spectators) and focus exclusively on the subject,
which, in this case, is each. Since each is singular, the verb must also be
singular. This technique for parsing sentences is both extremely powerful and
easy, once you get the hang of it. I have my students do practice test after
practice test in order for the techniques to sink in.
OK, time for a breather. The next rule is the easiest of all to understand and
follow.
(3) Avoid Alien Beings -- use active verbs
In the real world, as opposed to the artificial world of the SAT, it's OK to
use being in sentences that are well constructed. For example: Being of sound
mind and body, my father lived to the age of eighty. However, on the Improving
Sentences section of the SAT, being is ALWAYS the wrong choice. To drive
this point home, take a look at the following sentences:
(a) Jacob has remained in political office for several terms because of being
the most popular candidate.
(b) Being the most popular candidate, Jacob has remained in political office for
several terms.
(c) Jacob has remained in political office for several terms, being the most
popular candidate.
(d) Jacob, the most popular candidate, has remained in political office for
several terms.
Now ask yourself this question: Which of these sentences is the most
straightforward and direct? The correct answer is (d) because it gets its point
across simply and directly. On the SAT grammar section, sentences
can always be improved by eliminating the word being. Put another way:
shorter is almost always better. Which brings me to my next rule, really a
corollary to the alien being rule.
(4) Shortest Point -- economy of expression
In English, especially American English, brevity is the heart and soul of popular
expression. Think Ernest Hemingway rather than William Faulkner. Short,
cryptic slogans like Just do it and No pain, no gain are part of the cultural
landscape because of the direct way they convey information. This principle
holds true for SAT grammar. The most direct form of expression is the best
form of expression. Take a look at the following sentences and determine
which one says the most with the fewest number of words.
(a) The best way to get an exact answer to the question would be to use a
calculator.
(b) Using a calculator would be the best way to get an exact answer to the
question.
(c) A calculator would be the best possible way to answer the question exactly.
(d) The best way to get an exact answer is to use a calculator.
Clearly, (d) is the most economical expression and therefore the best choice.
As a bonus, this rule can be used in conjunction with other rules to whittle
down the possible choices. To demonstrate this, take another look at the
examples we used earlier to demonstrate the Leaking Oil rule.
(a) Working overtime, the industrial facility was populated by hundreds of
technicians.
(b) The industrial facility, working overtime, had hundreds of busy technicians.
(c) Technicians, busy at the industrial facility, would be working overtime.
(d) The busy technicians at the industrial facility were the ones who worked
overtime
(e) Working overtime, busy technicians populated the industrial facility.
Notice that the correct answer (d) is also the answer with the fewest words. As
long as a sentence is grammatically correct, the shortest point is the best
choice.
There is, however, one important exception to this rule. Parallel structure is the
only thing that beats Shortest Point.
(5) Apples and Oranges -- comparison mismatch
Take a look at the following examples and see if you can spot the comparison
mismatch.
(a) The novels of Ernest Hemingway are shorter than William Faulkner.
(b) The skyscrapers in New York are bigger than San Francisco.
(c) Buying soda in six packs is usually cheaper than single bottles.
The first example compares novels to people. The second compares
skyscrapers to cities. The third compares buying to bottles. All three need to be
made longer in order to be grammatically correct. For example:
(a) The novels of Ernest Hemingway are shorter than the novels of William
Faulkner.
(b) The skyscrapers in New York are bigger than those in San Francisco.
(c) Buying soda in six packs is usually cheaper than buying single bottles.
These examples are all longer than their incorrect counterparts, but the extra
words add precision and clarity. In short, parallel structure.
(6) Who 'Dat -- indefinite pronouns
As you can probably surmise by now, the College Board is not your friend. Too
many traps, too many trick questions. In many cases, it seems the test is
rigged to lure students into making incorrect choices, setting them up to fail.
This is nowhere more evident than with the vague and unnecessary pronouns
that litter the grammar landscape. Check it out.
(a) When Kate and Carol went for a winter walk, she forgot to bring her
umbrella.
(b) It was so expensive that no one wanted it.
(c) In New York, they like bagels.
In the first example, who forgot her umbrella, Kate or Carol? In the second
example, what was so expensive? A painting? A house? Be specific. A yacht!
In the second example, keep this mantra in mind: It's not it! Define your
terms. And finally, in New York, who likes bagels? Construction workers,
NYPD, Radio City Rockettes, Hasidic Jews? Use a picture word, something
the reader can see, not a fuzzy indefinite pronoun.
(7 ) Me Me Me -- subject pronouns never follow prepositions
A fundamental rule that gets shredded in the vernacular but which must be
carefully adhered to on the SAT grammar test is that subject pronouns (I, we)
NEVER follow prepositions. Instead, use me or us.
How often have you heard people say: for you and I, between you and
I, with you and I, about you and I, etc.? On the street you may get away with
this faux pas, but not on the SAT. The correct expression is: for you and ME,
between you and ME, with you and ME, about you and ME, and so on. Or,
along the same lines, between you and us, for you and us, and so on.
This rule is really a special case -- for pronouns -- of the rule we saw earlier in
Subject-Verb Agreement. More generally, subjects NEVER follow
prepositions. Recall how the College Board tries to mislead students by
stuffing prepositional phrases in between the subject and the verb.
For example: The harmful effects of insulin resistance on the metabolic system
is well known.
The subject of this sentence can't be insulin resistance or the metabolic
system because both of these phrases follow prepositions. The only possible
noun left standing is effects, which, by default, must be the subject.
Consequently, this rule applies not only to pronouns but also to subjects, giving
students a second, foolproof way to avoid making grammar mistakes.
(Note: Prepositions are the little guys that guide the reader up, over, around,
and through, above and below, of, on, by, for and to.)
(8) Joined at the Hip -- two sentences connected with a comma
The last rule is in some sense the easiest; nonetheless, students often fail to
recognize the ploy, lulled by the defective punctuation.
For example: San Francisco is a small city with a large population, this results
in a great deal of traffic congestion.
This is really two sentences joined at the hip that need to be surgically
separated, using a semicolon or employing different phrasing. Here are two
common ways to correct the problem:
(a) Use a semicolon: San Francisco is a small city with a large population; this
results in a great deal of traffic congestion.
(b) Subordinate one part of the sentence to the other: San Francisco is a small
city with a large population, resulting in a great deal of traffic congestion.
~ ~ ~