Recognized by its distinct conidiophores terminated by a swollen vesicle bearing flask-shaped

phialides. The phialides may be borne directly on the vesicle (a) or on intervening metulae (b).
Some species may form masses of thick-walled cells called "hlle cells" (c). The spores come in
several colours, depending upon the species, and are produced in long chains from the ends of
the phialides. Commonly isolated from soil, plant debris, and house dust; sometimes
pathogenic to man. Holomorphs: Emericella, Eurotium, Neosartorya, and others. Refs: Raper
and Fennell 1965; Samson 1979.
Colonies dark greenish to black, black in reverse, and relatively slow-growing. The dark spores
are 1- or 2-celled and occur in long, branching chains that arise from a dark conidiophore. The
youngest spore is at the top of the chain. The slightest movement will disrupt the chains, making
microscope mounts of the whole structure nearly impossible. The best way to recognize the
genus is by the prominent scars on the spores where the adjacent ones were attached. Very
common on decaying plants; the fungus most commonly isolated from air, both indoors and
outdoors.
Most characteristic are the colourless spores (conidia), which are canoe-shaped in side view, Most characteristic are the colourless spores (conidia), which are canoe-shaped in side view,
have a distinct "foot cell" at the lower end, and are divided by several cross-walls. The
conidiophores are often clustered to form sporodochia and produce large pasty masses of
spores from tapered phialides. Two other spore forms may occur, microconidia (a) resembling
spores and phialides of Acremonium, and chlamydospores (b), thick-walled swellings along the
filaments. Cultures may be brightly coloured. Common in soil and dead or living plants; often
causing plant disease. Holomorphs: Gibberella, Nectria, and others. Ref: Booth 1971b, 1977;
Burgess, et al., 1988; Gerlach and Nirenberg, 1982; Nelson, et al., 1983.
Colonies fast-growing, whitish to greyish, usually thick owing to the abundant upright
sporangiophores. Spores (sporangiospores) produced inside spherical sporangia at the tips of
the sporangiophores, brownish. Always with a large columella that remains after the sporangial
wall is broken (a). Large dark zygospores may be produced. Common almost everywhere fungi
occur. Ref: Schipper 1978
Species of Penicillium are recognized by their dense brush-like spore-bearing structures. The
conidiophores are simple or branched and are terminated by clusters of flask-shaped phialides.
The spores (conidia) are produced in dry chains from the tips of the phialides, with the
youngest spore at the base of the chain, and are nearly always green. Branching is an important
feature for identifying Penicillium species. Some (top figure) are unbranched and simply bear a
cluster of phialides at the top of the stipe. Others (bottom left) may have a cluster of branches,
each bearing a cluster of phialides. A third type (bottom right) has branches bearing a second
order of branches, bearing in turn a cluster of phialides. These three types of spore bearing
systems (penicilli) are called monoverticillate, biverticillate and terverticillate respectively.
Penicilliumis a large and difficult genus encountered almost everywhere, and usually the most
abundant genus of fungi in soils.
Colonies very fast growing and coarse. Characterized by dark sporangia containing dark to pale
spores and a large columella. At the base of the sporangiophores are root-like rhizoids. Often
spreading by means of aerial, creeping stolons. Rhizopus species are often a pest in the
laboratory. Because of their rapid growth and dry, easily airborne spores they can take over all
the cultures in the lab in a few days. One species is capable of transforming soy beans into the cultures in the lab in a few days. One species is capable of transforming soy beans into
edible products and is much used in some Asian countries. Common on decaying fruits, soil,
and house dust. Ref: Inui, Takeda, and Iizuka 1965; Schipper and Stalpers, 1984; Zycha and
Siepmann 1970
Usually recognized by fast-growing colonies producing white, green, or yellow cushions of
sporulating filaments. The fertile filaments or conidiophores produce side branches bearing
whorls of short phialides. The 1-celled spores (conidia) are produced successively from the tips
of the phailides and collect in small wet masses.
Trichoderma species are strongly antagonistic to other fungi. The exact nature of this
relationship is still not clear, but it appears that they kill other fungi with a toxin and then
consume them using a combination of lytic enzymes. This suggests they are actually microbial
predators. This antagonistic behaviour has led to their use as agents of biological control of
some fungi causing plant disease. On the other hand, they can be serious pests in cultivated
mushroom beds. Species of Trichoderma are common in soil (especially water-logged soil),
dung, and decaying plant materials. Holomorphs: Hypocrea, Podostroma. Ref: Bissett, 1984,
1991a,b,c; Rifai 1969