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List of unsolved problems in physics
From Wikipedia, the Iree encyclopedia

Some oI the major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories seem
incapable oI explaining a certain observed phenomenon or experimental result. The others are experimental,
meaning that there is a diIIiculty in creating an experiment to test a proposed theory or investigate a
phenomenon in greater detail.
Contents
1 Unsolved problems by subIield
1.1 Cosmology, and general relativity
1.2 Quantum gravity
1.3 High energy physics/particle physics
1.4 Astronomy and astrophysics
1.5 Nuclear physics
1.6 Atomic, molecular and optical physics
1.7 Condensed matter physics
1.8 Biophysics
1.9 Other problems
2 Problems solved in recent decades
3 See also
4 ReIerences
5 External links
Unsolved problems by subfield
The Iollowing is a list oI unsolved problems grouped into broad area oI physics.
|1|
Cosmology, and general relativity
Cosmic inflation
Is the theory oI cosmic inIlation correct, and, iI so, what are the details oI this epoch? What is the
hypothetical inIlaton Iield giving rise to inIlation? II inIlation happened at one point, is it
selI-sustaining through inIlation oI quantum-mechanical Iluctuations, and thus ongoing in some
extremely distant place?
|2|
Horizon problem
Why is the distant universe so homogeneous when the Big Bang theory seems to predict larger
measurable anisotropies oI the night sky than those observed? Cosmological inIlation is generally
accepted as the solution, but are other possible explanations such as a variable speed oI light more
appropriate?
|3|
List oI unsolved problems in physics - Wikipedia, the Iree encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ListoIunsolvedproblemsinphysics
1 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
Estimated distribution oI dark matter and
dark energy in the universe
Electroweak Horizon Problem
Why aren't there obvious large-scale discontinuities in the electroweak vacuum iI distant parts oI the
observable universe were causally separate when the electroweak epoch ended? Standard
cosmological inIlation models have inIlation cease well beIore electroweak symmetry breaking occurs,
so it is not at all clear how inIlation could prevent such discontinuities.
|4|
Future of the universe
Is the universe heading towards a Big Freeze, a Big Rip, a Big Crunch, or a Big Bounce? Or is it part
oI an inIinitely recurring cyclic model?
Gravitational wave
Can gravitational waves be directly detected?
|5||6|
Baryon asymmetry
Why is there Iar more matter than antimatter in the observable universe?
Cosmological constant problem
Why does the zero-point energy oI the vacuum not cause a large cosmological constant? What cancels
it out?
Dark matter
What is the identity oI dark matter?
|3|
Is it a particle? Is it
the lightest superpartner (LSP)? Do the phenomena
attributed to dark matter point not to some Iorm oI matter
but actually to an extension oI gravity?
Dark energy
What is the cause oI the observed accelerated expansion
(de Sitter phase) oI the Universe? Why is the energy
density oI the dark energy component oI the same
magnitude as the density oI matter at present when the
two evolve quite diIIerently over time; could it be simply
that we are observing at exactly the right time? Is dark
energy a pure cosmological constant or are models oI
quintessence such as phantom energy applicable?
Dark flow
Is a non-spherically symmetric gravitational pull Irom outside the observable Universe responsible Ior
some oI the observed motion oI large objects such as galactic clusters in the universe?
Ecliptic alignment of CMB anisotropy
Some large Ieatures oI the microwave sky at distances oI over 13 billion light years appear to be
aligned with both the motion and orientation oI the solar system. Is this due to systematic errors in
processing, contamination oI results by local eIIects, or an unexplained violation oI the Copernican
principle?
Shape of the Universe
What is the 3-maniIold oI comoving space, i.e., oI a comoving spatial section oI the Universe,
inIormally called the "shape" oI the Universe? Neither the curvature nor the topology is presently
known, though the curvature is known to be "close" to zero on observable scales. The cosmic inIlation
hypothesis suggests that the shape oI the Universe may be unmeasurable, but, since 2003, Jean-Pierre
2 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
Luminet, et al., and other groups have suggested that the shape oI the Universe may be the Poincare
dodecahedral space. Is the shape unmeasurable; the Poincare space; or another 3-maniIold?
Quantum gravity
Vacuum catastrophe
Why does the predicted mass oI the quantum vacuum have little eIIect on the expansion oI the
universe?
Quantum gravity
Can quantum mechanics and general relativity be realized as a Iully consistent theory (perhaps as a
quantum Iield theory)?
|7|
Is spacetime Iundamentally continuous or discrete? Would a consistent
theory involve a Iorce mediated by a hypothetical graviton, or be a product oI a discrete structure oI
spacetime itselI (as in loop quantum gravity)? Are there deviations Irom the predictions oI general
relativity at very small or very large scales or in other extreme circumstances that Ilow Irom a
quantum gravity theory?
Black holes, black hole information paradox, and black hole radiation
Do black holes produce thermal radiation, as expected on theoretical grounds? Does this radiation
contain inIormation about their inner structure, as suggested by Gauge-gravity duality, or not, as
implied by Hawking's original calculation? II not, and black holes can evaporate away, what happens
to the inIormation stored in them (quantum mechanics does not provide Ior the destruction oI
inIormation)? Or does the radiation stop at some point leaving black hole remnants? Is there another
way to probe their internal structure somehow, iI such a structure even exists?
Extra dimensions
Does nature have more than Iour spacetime dimensions? II so, what is their size? Are dimensions a
Iundamental property oI the universe or an emergent result oI other physical laws? Can we
experimentally observe evidence oI higher spatial dimensions?
The cosmic censorship hypothesis and the chronology protection conjecture
Can singularities not hidden behind an event horizon, known as "naked singularities", arise Irom
realistic initial conditions, or is it possible to prove some version oI the "cosmic censorship hypothesis"
oI Roger Penrose which proposes that this is impossible?
|8|
Similarly, will the closed timelike curves
which arise in some solutions to the equations oI general relativity (and which imply the possibility oI
backwards time travel) be ruled out by a theory oI quantum gravity which unites general relativity
with quantum mechanics, as suggested by the "chronology protection conjecture" oI Stephen
Hawking?
Locality
Are there non-local phenomena in quantum physics? II they exist, are non-local phenomena limited to
the entanglement revealed in the violations oI the Bell Inequalities, or can inIormation and conserved
quantities also move in a non-local way? Under what circumstances are non-local phenomena
observed? What does the existence or absence oI non-local phenomena imply about the Iundamental
structure oI spacetime? How does this relate to quantum entanglement? How does this elucidate the
proper interpretation oI the Iundamental nature oI quantum physics?
3 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
A simulation oI how a detection oI
the Higgs particle would appear in
the CMS detector at CERN
High energy physics/particle physics
Higgs mechanism
Are the branching ratios oI the Higgs Boson consistent with the
standard model? Is there only one type oI Higgs Boson?
Hierarchy problem
Why is gravity such a weak Iorce? It becomes strong Ior particles
only at the Planck scale, around 10
19
GeV, much above the
electroweak scale (100 GeV, the energy scale dominating physics
at low energies). Why are these scales so diIIerent Irom each
other? What prevents quantities at the electroweak scale, such as
the Higgs boson mass, Irom getting quantum corrections on the
order oI the Planck scale? Is the solution supersymmetry, extra
dimensions, or just anthropic Iine-tuning?
Magnetic monopoles
Did particles that carry "magnetic charge" exist in some past, higher energy epoch? II so, do any
remain today? (Paul Dirac showed the existence oI some types oI magnetic monopoles would explain
charge quantization.)
|9|
Proton decay and spin crisis
Is the proton Iundamentally stable? Or does it decay with a Iinite liIetime as predicted by some
extensions to the standard model?
|10|
How do the quarks and gluons carry the spin oI protons?
|11|
Supersymmetry
Is spacetime supersymmetry realized at TeV scale? II so, what is the mechanism oI supersymmetry
breaking? Does supersymmetry stabilize the electroweak scale, preventing high quantum corrections?
Does the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) comprise dark matter?
Generations of matter
Why are there three generations oI quarks and leptons? Is there a theory that can explain the masses
oI particular quarks and leptons in particular generations Irom Iirst principles (a theory oI Yukawa
couplings)?
Electroweak symmetry breaking
What is the mechanism responsible Ior breaking the electroweak gauge symmetry, giving mass to the
W and Z bosons? Is it the simple Higgs mechanism oI the Standard Model,
|12|
or does nature make use
oI strong dynamics in breaking electroweak symmetry, as proposed by Technicolor?
Neutrino mass
What is the mass oI neutrinos, whether they Iollow Dirac or Majorana statistics? Is mass hierarchy
normal or inverted? Is the CP violating phase 0?
|13||14||15|
Asymptotic confinement
Why has there never been measured a Iree quark or gluon, but only objects that are built out oI them,
like mesons and baryons? How does this phenomenon emerge Irom QCD?
Strong CP problem and axions
Why is the strong nuclear interaction invariant to parity and charge conjugation? Is PecceiQuinn
theory the solution to this problem?
Anomalous magnetic dipole moment
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Relativistic jet. The environment around the
AGN where the relativistic plasma is collimated
into jets which escape along the pole oI the
supermassive black hole
Rotation curve oI a typical spiral galaxy:
predicted (A) and observed (B). Can the
discrepancy between the curves be attributed
to dark matter?
Why is the experimentally measured value oI the muon's anomalous magnetic dipole moment ("muon
g-2") signiIicantly diIIerent Irom the theoretically predicted value oI that physical constant?
|16|
Proton Size Puzzle
What is the true charge radius oI the proton?
Astronomy and astrophysics
Astrophysical jet
Why do the accretion discs surrounding certain
astronomical objects, such as the nuclei oI active
galaxies, emit relativistic jets along their polar axes?
|17|
Why are there quasi-periodic oscillations in many
accretion discs?
|18|
Why does the period oI these
oscillations scale as the inverse oI the mass oI the
central object?
|19|
Why are there sometimes overtones,
and why do these appear at diIIerent Irequency ratios
in diIIerent objects?
|20|
Coronal heating problem
Why is the Sun's Corona (atmosphere layer) so much
hotter than the Sun's surIace? Why is the magnetic
reconnection eIIect many orders oI magnitude Iaster
than predicted by standard models?
Diffuse interstellar bands
What is responsible Ior the numerous interstellar absorption lines detected in astronomical spectra?
Are they molecular in origin, and iI so which molecules are responsible Ior them? How do they Iorm?
Gamma ray bursts
How do these short-duration high-intensity bursts originate?
|12|
Supermassive black holes
What is the origin oI the M-sigma relation between supermassive black hole mass and galaxy velocity
dispersion?
|21|
How did the most distant quasars grow their supermassive black holes up to 10`9 solar
masses so early in the history oI the Universe?
Kuiper Cliff
Why does the number oI objects in the Solar System's
Kuiper belt Iall oII rapidly and unexpectedly beyond a
radius oI 50 astronomic units?
Flyby anomaly
Why is the observed energy oI satellites Ilying by Earth
sometimes diIIerent by a minute amount Irom the value
predicted by theory?
Galaxy rotation problem
Is dark matter responsible Ior diIIerences in observed and
theoretical speed oI stars revolving around the center oI
5 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
The "island oI stability" in the proton vs.
neutron number plot Ior heavy nuclei
galaxies, or is it something else?
Supernovae
What is the exact mechanism by which an implosion oI a dying star becomes an explosion?
Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray
|3|
Why is it that some cosmic rays appear to possess energies that are impossibly high (the so-called
OMG particle), given that there are no suIIiciently energetic cosmic ray sources near the Earth? Why
is it that (apparently) some cosmic rays emitted by distant sources have energies above the Greisen
ZatsepinKuzmin limit?
|3||12|
Rotation rate of Saturn
Why does the magnetosphere oI Saturn exhibit a (slowly changing) periodicity close to that at which
the planet's clouds rotate? What is the true rotation rate oI Saturn's deep interior?
|22|
Origin of magnetar magnetic field
What is the origin oI magnetar magnetic Iield?
Photon underproduction crisis
Why do galaxies and quasars produce about 5 times less ultraviolet light than expected in the
low-redshiIt universe?
Space roar
Why is space roar six times louder than expected? What is the source oI space roar?
Age-metallicity relation in the Galactic disk
Is there a universal age-metallicity relation (AMR) in the Galactic disk (thin and thick disk)? While in
the local (primarily thin) disk there is no evidence oI a strong AMR,
|23|
a sample oI 229 nearby thick
disk stars has been used to investigate the existence oI an age-metallicity relation in the Galactic thick
disk. The results indicate that there is indeed an age-metallicity relation present in the thick disk.
|24||25|
The Lithium Problem
Why is there is discrepancy between the amount oI lithium-7 predicted to be produced in Big Bang
nucleosynthesis and the amount observed in very old stars?
|26|
Nuclear physics
Quantum chromodynamics
What are the phases oI strongly interacting matter, and what
roles do they play in the cosmos? What is the internal
landscape oI the nucleons? What does QCD predict Ior the
properties oI strongly interacting matter? What is the role oI
gluons and gluon selI-interactions in nucleons and nuclei?
What determines the key Ieatures oI QCD, and what is their
relation to the nature oI gravity and spacetime? Do glueballs
exist? Do gluons acquire mass dynamically despite having a zero rest mass, within hadrons? Does
QCD truly lack CP-violations?
Nuclei and Nuclear astrophysics
What is the nature oI the nuclear Iorce that binds protons and neutrons into stable nuclei and rare
isotopes? What is the origin oI simple patterns in complex nuclei? What is the nature oI exotic
excitations in nuclei at the Irontiers oI stability and their role in stellar processes? What is the nature
6 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
A sample oI a cuprate
superconductor
(speciIically BSCCO).
The mechanism Ior
superconductivity oI these
materials is unknown.
oI neutron stars and dense nuclear matter? What is the origin oI the elements in the cosmos? What are
the nuclear reactions that drive stars and stellar explosions?
Plasma Physics and Fusion Power
Fusion energy may potentially provide power Irom abundant resource (e.g. Hydrogen) without the
type oI radioactive waste that Iission energy currently produces. However, can ionized gases (plasma)
be conIined long enough and at a high enough temperature to create Iusion power? What kinds oI
advances in material science must be made?
Atomic, molecular and optical physics
Hydrogen atom
What is the solution to the Schrdinger equation Ior the hydrogen atom in arbitrary electric and
magnetic Iields?
|27|
Muonic hydrogen
Is the radius oI muonic hydrogen inconsistent with the radius oI ordinary hydrogen?
Laser cooling
Can molecules be cooled by laser cooling as is now done to atoms?
Condensed matter physics
High-temperature superconductors
What is the mechanism that causes certain materials to exhibit
superconductivity at temperatures much higher than around 25 kelvin? Is
it possible to make a material that is a superconductor at room
temperature?
|12|
Amorphous solids
What is the nature oI the glass transition between a Iluid or regular solid
and a glassy phase? What are the physical processes giving rise to the
general properties oI glasses and the glass transition?
|28||29|
Cryogenic electron emission
Why does the electron emission in the absence oI light increase as the
temperature oI a photomultiplier is decreased?
|30||31|
Sonoluminescence
What causes the emission oI short bursts oI light Irom imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by
sound?
|32|
Turbulence
Is it possible to make a theoretical model to describe the statistics oI a turbulent Ilow (in particular, its
internal structures)?
|12|
Also, under what conditions do smooth solutions to the NavierStokes
equations exist? This problem is also listed as one oI the Millennium Prize Problems in mathematics.
AlIvenic turbulence in the solar wind and the turbulence in solar Ilares, coronal mass ejections, and
magnetospheric substorms are major unsolved problems in space plasma physics.
|33|
Topological order
Is topological order stable at non-zero temperature? Equivalently, is it possible to have three-
dimensional selI-correcting quantum memory?
|34|
7 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
Magnetoresistance in a Iractional
quantum Hall state.
Fractional Hall effect
What mechanism explains the existence oI the state in the Iractional quantum Hall eIIect?
Does it describe quasiparticles with non-Abelian Iractional statistics?
|35|
Bose-Einstein condensation
How do we rigorously prove the existence oI BoseEinstein condensates Ior general interacting
systems?
|36|
Liquid crystals
Can the nematic to smectic (A) phase transition in
liquid crystal states be characterized as a universal
phase transition?
|37||38|
Semiconductor nanocrystals
What is the cause oI the nonparabolicity oI the
energy-size dependence Ior the lowest optical
absorption transition oI quantum dots?
|39|
Electronic band structure
Why can band gaps not accurately be calculated?
Biophysics
Stochasticity and robustness to noise in gene expression
How do genes govern our body, withstanding diIIerent external pressures and internal stochasticity?
Certain models exist Ior genetic processes, but we are Iar Irom understanding the whole picture, in
particular in development where gene expression must be tightly regulated.
Quantitative study of the immune system
What are the quantitative properties oI immune responses? What are the basic building blocks oI
immune system networks? What roles are played by stochasticity?
Homochirality
What is the origin oI the preponderance oI speciIic enantiomers in biochemical systems?
Other problems
Entropy (arrow of time)
Why did the universe have such low entropy in the past, resulting in the distinction between past and
Iuture and the second law oI thermodynamics?
|12|
Why are CP violations observed in certain weak
Iorce decays, but not elsewhere? Are CP violations somehow a product oI the Second Law oI
Thermodynamics, or are they a separate arrow oI time? Are there exceptions to the principle oI
causality? Is there a single possible past? Is the present moment physically distinct Irom the past and
Iuture or is it merely an emergent property oI consciousness? Why does time have a direction?
Interpretation of quantum mechanics
How does the quantum description oI reality, which includes elements such as the superposition oI
states and waveIunction collapse or quantum decoherence, give rise to the reality we perceive?
Another way oI stating this is the Measurement problem what constitutes a "measurement" which
causes the wave Iunction to collapse into a deIinite state? Unlike classical physical processes, some
8 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
quantum mechanical processes (such as quantum teleportation arising Irom quantum entanglement)
cannot be simultaneously "local", "causal" and "real", but it is not obvious which oI these properties
must be sacriIiced or iI an attempt to describe quantum mechanical processes in these senses is a
category error that doesn't even make sense to talk about iI one properly understands quantum
mechanics.
Theory of everything ("Grand Unification Theory")
Is there a theory which explains the values oI all Iundamental physical constants?
|12|
Is the theory
string theory? Is there a theory which explains why the gauge groups oI the standard model are as they
are, why observed space-time has 3 spatial dimensions and 1 dimension oI time, and why all laws oI
physics are as they are? Do "Iundamental physical constants" vary over time? Are any oI the particles
in the standard model oI particle physics actually composite particles too tightly bound to observe as
such at current experimental energies? Are there Iundamental particles that have not yet been
observed, and, iI so, which ones are they and what are their properties? Are there unobserved
Iundamental Iorces implied by a theory that explains other unsolved problems in physics?
Yang-Mills theory
Given an arbitrary compact gauge group, does a non-trivial quantum YangMills theory with a Iinite
mass gap exist? This problem is also listed as one oI the Millennium Prize Problems in mathematics.
Physical information
Are there physical phenomena, such as wave Iunction collapse or black holes, which irrevocably
destroy inIormation about their prior states? How is quantum inIormation stored as a state oI a
quantum system?
Quantum Computation
Is David Deutsch's notion oI a universal quantum computer suIIicient to eIIiciently simulate an
arbitrary physical system?
|40|
Dimensionless physical constant
At the present time, the values oI the dimensionless physical constants cannot be calculated; they are
determined only by physical measurement.
|41|
What is the minimum number oI dimensionless physical
constants Irom which all other dimensionless physical constants can be derived? Are dimensionIul
physical constants necessary at all?
Problems solved in recent decades
Ball lightning (2014)
In January 2014, scientists Irom Northwest Normal University in Lanzhou, China, published the
results oI recordings made in July 2012 oI the optical spectrum oI what was thought to be natural ball
lightning made during the study oI ordinary cloudground lightning on China's Qinghai Plateau.
|42||43|
At a distance oI 900 m (3,000 It), a total oI 1.3 seconds oI digital video oI the ball lightning and its
spectrum was made, Irom the Iormation oI the ball lightning aIter the ordinary lightning struck the
ground, up to the optical decay oI the phenomenon. The recorded ball lightning is believed to be
vaporized soil elements that then rapidly oxidizes in the atmosphere. The nature oI the true theory is
still not clear.
|43|
Hipparcos anomaly (2012)
9 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
The actual distance to the Pleiades - the High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite (Hipparcos)
measured the parallax oI the Pleiades and determined a distance oI 385 light years. This was
signiIicantly diIIerent Irom other measurements made by means oI actual to apparent brightness
measurement or absolute magnitude. The anomaly was due to the use oI a weighted mean when there
is a correlation between distances and distance errors Ior stars in clusters. It is resolved by using an
unweighted mean. There is no systematic bias in the Hipparcos data when it comes to star clusters.
|44|
Pioneer anomaly (2012)
There was a deviation in the predicted accelerations oI the Pioneer spacecraIt as they leIt the Solar
System.
|3||12|
It is believed that this is a result oI previously unaccounted-Ior thermal recoil Iorce.
|45||46|
Long-duration gamma ray bursts (2003)
Long-duration bursts are associated with the deaths oI massive stars in a speciIic kind oI
supernova-like event commonly reIerred to as a collapsar. However, there are also long-duration
GRBs that show evidence against an associated supernova, such as the SwiIt event GRB 060614.
Solar neutrino problem (2002)
Solved by a new understanding oI neutrino physics, requiring a modiIication oI the Standard Model oI
particle physicsspeciIically, neutrino oscillation.
Age Crisis (1990s)
The estimated age oI the universe was around 3 to 8 billion years younger than estimates oI the ages
oI the oldest stars in our galaxy. Better estimates Ior the distances to the stars, and the recognition oI
the accelerating expansion oI the universe, reconciled the age estimates.
Quasars (1980s)
The nature oI quasars was not understood Ior decades.
|47|
They are now accepted as a type oI active
galaxy where the enormous energy output results Irom matter Ialling into a massive black hole in the
center oI the galaxy.
|48|
See also
Cosmic coincidence problem
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External links
What don't we know? (http://www.sciencemag.org/sciext/125th/) Science journal special project Ior its
125th anniversary: top 25 questions and 100 more.
13 oI 14 9/17/2014 9:08 PM
List oI links to unsolved problems in physics, prizes and research. (http://www.openproblems.net/)
Ideas Based On What We`d Like to Achieve (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology
/warp/ideachev.html)
2004 SLAC Summer Institute: Nature's Greatest Puzzles (http://www-conI.slac.stanIord.edu/ssi/2004
/DeIault.htm)
Dual Personality oI Glass Explained at Last (http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14179-
dual-personality-oI-glass-explained-at-last.html#.UuLoQWTTkQM)
What we do and don't know (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2013/nov/07/physics-
what-we-do-and-dont-know/) Review on current state oI physics by Steven Weinberg, November
2013
The crisis oI big science (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/may/10/crisis-big-science/)
Steven Weinberg, May 2012
Retrieved Irom "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleListoIunsolvedproblemsinphysics&
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Baez, John C. (March 2006). "Open Questions in Physics" (http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez

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