KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES 1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning. 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: define the nature of language describe the language learning process in early childhood list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning differentiate between language acquisition and language learning 1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS 1 Language A!u"#"$"%n an& Lea'n"ng Ke( C%ne)$# an& I##ue# Language A!u"#"$"%n an& Lea'n"ng Ke( C%ne)$# an& I##ue#
Na$u'e %* Language
Na$u'e %* Language Language Lea'ne' Language Lea'ne' A!u"#"$"%n +e'#u# Lea'n"ng A!u"#"$"%n +e'#u# Lea'n"ng Language Lea'n"ng P'%e## Language Lea'n"ng P'%e## TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY CONTENT SESSION ONE (3 Hours) 1.2 Language A!u"#"$"%n an& Lea'n"ng Ke( C%ne)$# an& I##ue# It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and an understanding 1 language development in children. !our understanding of what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large e"tent, your philosophy of education, and how you teach #nglish: your teaching style, your approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach your learners to learn a second language more effectively. 1.2.1 Na$u'e %* Language E,e'"#e 1- W.a$ "# (%u' &e*"n"$"%n %* /anguage0 $rite down in twenty%five%words%or%less a definition of language. &hare your definition with another friend or in a small group. 'ompare differences and similarities. $hat is anguage( There are many ways in which we could describe language. !our definition of language )in the above* probably yield something that sounds similar to the following composite definition- + language is considered to be a system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in e"pressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using e"pressions through body language. 2 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY anguage is defined as ,a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionali-ed signs, sounds, gestures or marks having understood meanings., )$ebster .ew International /ictionary of the #nglish anguage, 012*, and ,is a tool for communication, )#mmet, 33*. In most common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a way that they may communicate ideas or feelings. There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language. 'ommonly, three different views are e"plicitly or implicitly reflected in current approaches to language learning. They are: The structural view of language The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are usually described as: phonological units )phonemes* grammatical units )phrases, clauses, sentences* grammatical operations )adding, shifting, 4oining or transforming elements* le"ical items )function words and structure words* The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of elements of this system. The communicative view of language The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the e"pression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasi-ed than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target of language learning is to learn to e"press communication functions and categories of meaning. 3 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY The interactional view of language The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals. The target of language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people. Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1- anguage can be likened to an ocean. ike the ocean, language is never still. It has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their goods. 'an you suggest another metaphor to describe language( W.a$ "# (%u' "2age %* /anguage0 5ake a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language. Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you see. &hare your image with a friend. .ote features of your images which you have in common. .ote significant differences between your images.
N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)". 4 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 1.2.2 Language Lea'n"ng P'%e## 'hildren go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce comple", multi%word sentences. 6a55/"ng first stage of language development known as the pre%linguistic, babbling or cooing stage period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da. S"ng/e W%'&# second stage is known as the one%word or holophase stage of language development around the age of 16 to 17 months children will begin to produce their first real words only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important to reali-e that they are able to understand considerably more infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able to produce it T3% W%'&# third stage begins around the age of 18 months children begin to use two word sentences 5 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY sentences usually consist of 4ust nouns and verbs #.g. 9$here daddy(: ,;uppy big<, Mu/$"73%'& Sen$ene# around the age of two children begin to produce short, multi%word sentences that have a sub4ect and predicate #.g. a child might say ,5ommy is nice, or ,$ant more candy9 +s children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of 16,666 words or more. De+e/%)2en$a/ Se!uene# /evelopmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in children=s cognitive understandings #"amples >rammatical 5orphemes .egations ?uestions G'a22a$"a/ M%').e2e# @oger Brown=s longitudinal study )1AB7* ;resent progressive Cing ;lurals Cs Irregular past forms possessive =s 'opula 6 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY +rticles the and a @egular past Ced Third person singular simple present Cs +u"iliary be A!u"#"$"%n %* G'a22a$"a/ 2%').e2e# e.g., 9wug test: C i. Dere is a wug. .ow there are two of them. There are two EEEEEE. ii. Fohn knows how to bod. !esterday he did the same thing. !esterday, heEEEEEEE. Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the formation of plural and simple past in #nglish. By generali-ing these patterns to words they have never heard before, they show that their language is not 4ust a list of memori-ed word pairs such as GbookHbooks= and GnodHnodded=. A!u"#"$"%n %* Nega$"%n ois Bloom=s study )1AA1* C four stages 7 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY &tage 1: Gno= C e.g., 9.o go:. 9.o cookie.: &tage 3: sub4ect I no C e.g., 9/addy no comb hair.: &tage 7: au"iliary or modal verbs )doHcan* I not )!et no variations for different persons or tenses* e.g., 9I can=t do it 9, 9De don=t want it.: &tage 2: correct form of au"iliary verbs )didHdoesn=tHisHare* I not e.g., De didn=t go. &he doesn=t want it. But sometimes double negatives are used e.g., I don=t have no more candies. A!u"#"$"%n %* Que#$"%n# By the age of 2: 5ost children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order and grammatical markers most of the time. They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages spoken to them in these early years. They begin to acquire less frequent and more comple" linguistic structures such as passives and relative clauses. They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social environment. The si" stages of children=s question%making can be illustrated as follows: &tage 1: using single words or single two% or three%word sentences with rising intonation )95ommy book(: 9$here=s /addy(:* &tage 3: using the word order of the declarative sentence )9!ou like this(: 9$hy you catch it(:* 8 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY &tage 7: 9fronting: % putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence )9Is the teddy is tired(: 9/o I can have a cookie(:* &tage 2: sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in yesHno questions but not in wh% questions )9/o you like ice cream(: 9$here I can draw(:* &tage 1: sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in wh%questions, but not in negative wh%questions )9$hy can he go out(: 9$hy he can=t go out(:* &tage 0: overgenerali-ing the inverted form in embedded questions )9I don=t know why can=t he go out.:* 9 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY T hen, share your thoughts with a friend.
N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)". 1.2.8 Language Lea'ne' + lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner. Dere is a brief summary of the latest theories: T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' thinks about how she is learning. &he tries to find out what works for her and what doesnJt. If she doesnJt understand the purpose of a particular e"ercise, she asks the teacher. T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is willing to e"periment and take risks. Kor e"ample, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she finds the way that suits her best. &he is also not afraid of making mistakes, because she knows that these will help her. T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is realistic. &he knows that it will take time and effort to become proficient in #nglish, and that there will periods where she does not seem to be making much progress. T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is independent. &he does not e"pect to learn #nglish 4ust by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to totally direct her learning. T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is organi-ed and active. &he uses her time to learn #nglish sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom. 10 @eflect on your own language learning e"perience Kirst 7 years ;re%school years &chool years TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' has a balanced concern for communication and accuracy. &ome students are e"perts at communicating their thoughts but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both communicating and doing so as accurately as possible. +lthough these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a child will learn #nglish. S%u'e- L 'opyright ;aul &hoebottom )1AA0%3611* The Good Language Learner. @etrieved 8 /ecember 3611, from http:HHesl.fis.edu Fa$%'# a**e$"ng /anguage /ea'n"ng There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could stem from the learner=s own mind )internal factors* or from the environment he lives in )e"ternal factors*. Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the particular learning situation, for e"ample, age of the learner, personality, motivation, e"periences, cognition abilities and his native language. #"ternal factors are those that characteri-e the particular language learning situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the classroom. 11 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
E,e'"#e 2 The following are some factors that are known to affect second language acquisition and learning. /etermine whether each factor is related mainly to the student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Mse the following code: & N factors primarily in the student K N factors primarily in the family # N factors primarily in the environment of the second culture 1. +ge EEEEEEE 3. &ocioeconomic status EEEEEEE 7. 'lassroom culture EEEEEEE 2. 'ognitive development in 1 EEEEEEE 1. Kamily support EEEEEEE 0. $hether environment provides adequate 3 input EEEEEEE 12 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY B. iteracy level EEEEEEE A. Opportunities for language use in school EEEEEEE 11. 5otivation EEEEEEE 11. ;roficiency in the home language EEEEEEE 1B. @ole models in the community EEEEEEE 1A. ;ersonality EEEEEEE 36. $hether student has enough opportunities to use #nglish EEEEEEE 32. Teacher=s e"pectations EEEEEEE 31. ;referred learning styles EEEEEEE +dapted from 5aitland, P. )1AAB*. +dding #nglish: Delping #& earners &ucceed. >ood +pple. I&B. 1%1021B%A67%0. .ow check your answers below. An#3e'#- 1&, 3K, 7#, 2&, 1&, 0#, BK, 8#, A&, 16&, 11#, 13&, 17#, 12#, 11& Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1- In your e"perience, as an #nglish learner: i. +re there personal characteristics that make you more successful than another learner( ii. $hich characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with success in 3 acquisition( Iii, &hare your opinion with your group members. Kind three most important and three least important learner characteristics. In&"+"&ua/ D"**e'ene# @esearch findings reveal that every person has a learning styleQ therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all learners. earning styles are also value%neutralQ that is, no one style is better 13 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY than others. earning styles e"ist on wide continuums, although they are often described as opposites. earners should therefore be encouraged to 9stretch: their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning situations. +ge is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner=s 3 learning. The opportunities for learning )i.e., conte"t % both inside and outside the classroom*, the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude , personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning. 1.2.9 A!u"#"$"%n +e'#u# Lea'n"ng It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes. +ccording to linguists there is an important distinction between language acquisition and language learning. Language A!u"#"$"%n +cquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning. #"perts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire language. anguage acquisition in children 4ust seems to happen. 'hildren do not need e"plicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to 4ust Gpick up= language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk. anguage acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their first language. +s you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take place. rather seem to 4ust Gpick up= language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk. 14 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Language Lea'n"ng +s opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through e"plicit instruction and education. anguage learning is the process whereby humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older children and adults need e"plicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. Dowever, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing. $e should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and language learning. $hile all children before the critical period can innately acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical period must learn second languages through e"plicit education and instruction. 1 and 3 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors involved. $hile 1 and 3 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show differences. &imilarities in Kirst and &econd anguage +cquisition theories are of great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utili-ed to improve language teaching and learning methods.
Na$u'e +# Nu'$u'e 5uch debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature )what is innate* and nurture )environmental factors* in the acquisition of language. Is language acquisition and development innate or taught( The debate about nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from both sides. The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition. 15 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1- C%2)a'"ng F"'#$ an& Se%n& Language A!u"#"$"%n A$"+"$( 1- There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for learning. anguage teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how languages are acquired. Dow is learning a second language like learning a first( Dow is it different( Dow will this knowledge help you plan classroom e"periences( $rite a paper )2%0 pages* citing at least four research articles to support te"t reading. A$"+"$( 2- 16 .ature Informal ;arents R &ociety #"periences #nvironment #"posure +cquisition .urture Kormal Teachers &yllabus 'lassroom &ystematic earning TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY +s teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students Gacquire= rather than Glearn= the language. /iscuss. TOPIC 2 T:EORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING 2.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 3 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the instruction of a teacher=s classroom practice. 5ore specifically, it e"amines in detail the key principles of Behaviourism, 'ognitivism, &ocial 'onstructivism and Dumanistic orientations to language learning. 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Topic, you will be able to: define terms relevant to some theories of language learning e"plain the main principles of each language learning theory distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and humanist principles in the classroom 17 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS CONTENT SESSION ONE (3 Hours) 2.2 T.e%'"e# %* Language Lea'n"ng The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. >enerally, we have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although a great deal of research has been done into this sub4ect. Sarious theories have emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social constructivism and humanism. 2.2.1 6e.a+"%u'"#2 The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the philosophic traditions of +ristotle, /escartes and ocke. The founders and proponents include Fohn B. $atson in the early 36 th century, Ivan ;avlov, B.K.&kinner, #.. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior can 18 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. 5otivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish. >eneral perception is that there is no difference between the way one learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. +ccording to the psychologist &kinner, language is a Gconditioned behaviour=: the stimulus response process )&timulus @esponse Keedback @einforcement*. The popular view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. earners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by step, i.e. Imitation % @epetition % 5emori-ation % 'ontrolled drilling % @einforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills and e"ercises. earning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes place and that, as long as individuals are sub4ected on the same condition, they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct response is given. earning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour. The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: Mse a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning. 19 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY ;rovide immediate and frequent feedback for comple" and difficult concepts ;rovide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts Break down comple" task into smaller and manageable subskills &equence material from simple to more difficult to enhance understanding 5odel the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary @einforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour &tate the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students #stablish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given 'ritics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in the classroom. &ome teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Msing a reward system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect on other students in the classroom. +lso, another problem with this view of learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real%life situations. earners are continually required to form sentences they have never previously seen. + finite number of pre%practiced sentences are not enough to carry on a conversation. #,e'"#e 1 $hich of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely practised in the classrooms( >ive specific e"amples.
20 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)". 2.2.2 C%gn"$"+"#2 In the 1A16=s there was a reali-ation that behaviourism did not fully e"plain human learning. +lthough behaviourism emphasi-ed learning that was observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. 'ognitivists felt that it was necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure ob4ectively. The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which draw heavily on the work in linguistics of .oam 'homsky. It replaced behaviourism in 1A06=s as a dominant paradigm. 'ognitive theories of learning, based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi%faceted, comple" and dynamic process. 'ognitivism focus on the mind or Gblack bo"= and attempt to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled. +ccording to the cognitivists, people are not Gprogrammed animals= that merely respond to environmental stimuli. ;eople are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. 'hanges in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner=s head. 'ognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. 'ognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in the learners= schemata. earning is most likely to occur when an individual can 21 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY associate new learning with previous knowledge. Mnlike in behaviourism, learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. @ather, they are actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own learning. #rrors are also accepted as part of the learning process. In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the learner as an active participant in the teaching%learning process. It believes that teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the learner=s mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves. The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: ;resent information in an organi-ed manner % &how a logical sequence to concepts % >o from simple to comple" when presenting new material Bring to mind relevant prior learning ;rovide for review and repetition of learning ;rovide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g. inquiry%oriented pro4ects Delp students process information in meaningful ways so that they can become independent learners )&taged scaffolding* ike Behaviourism, 'ognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has been critici-ed for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners. The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far: 22 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 6e.a+"%u'"#$ +#. C%gn"$"+"#$ F%u# 6a.a+"%u'"#$ C%gn"$"+"#$ Siew about the mind + blank slate. Basically alike= +n active organi-er. Saried, with multiple intelligences and learning styles. &%T @oles Teacher plans and sets goals for learning. One Gbest= way of teaching. &tudents participate in planning and goal%setting. Teacher teaches with variety. 5otivation @eward is motivation. earning is a motivator. 'urriculum 'ontent &tudents are taught Gwhat=. &tudents are taught Gwhat= and Ghow= +ssessment Teacher assess. ;roduct is important. &tudents are involved in peer and self%assessment. ;roduct and process are important S%u'e- /ia-%@ico, .)3668*. Strategies for Teaching English Learners, )3 nd
edn.* Boston: ;earson #ducation, Inc. #,e'"#e 2 $hich of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being practiced in the classrooms( >ive specific e"amples. CONTENT SESSION TWO (3 Hours) 23 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 2.2.8 S%"a/ C%n#$'u$"+"#2 Fust as 'ognitive earning ;sychology began replacing the predominant Behavioural ;sychology in the 1AB6=s, 'onstructivist earning ;sychology has been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1AA6=s. + reaction to didactic approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, conte"tuali-ed process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. 'onstructivism is a perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, ;iaget and Sygoysky. It is Sygotsky=s social development which is one of the foundations for constructivism. 'onstructivists emphasi-e that learning is a social activity. They believe that often it is social e"periences rather than what is taught in schools which accounts for much of the variation in student learning. 'ooperative, collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of learning resides with the learner. earners interpret what they hear, read and see based on their previous learning, habits and e"periences. &tudents who do not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately Ghear= or Gsee= what is before them. Mnlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a passive role, social constructivism emphasi-es the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role as facilitator. earning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. $hat does this mean for classroom learning( +s active learners e"ploring and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with authentic and challenging pro4ects that encourage them to work together with one another. +uthentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see 24 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and e"change of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world. The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: #ncourage student autonomy and initiative % &tudents take responsibility for their own learning % @espect students= ideas and encourage independent thinking ;romote higher order thinking amongst students % +sk questions that will influence student response % 'hallenge students to analy-e, 4ustify and defend their ideas #ngage students in meaningful learning % ;rovide students opportunity to e"press their ideas % Involve students in real%world situations The main critique of &ocial 'onstructivism is that it is often seen as being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction. #,e'"#e 8 /iscuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the classroom. /escribe with specific e"amples.
N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)". 25 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 2.2.9 :u2an"#2 Dumanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the 1A06=s and 1AB6=s. Dumanism has its roots in counseling psychology and focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and interpersonal skills. ;erhaps the most well%known applications of humanism in #T are those of >attegno )1AB3* and 'urran )1AB0*. Dumanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity. Dumanists, led by such famous authors as +braham 5aslow and 'arl @ogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self%actuali-ation, the growth of a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable of achieving. earning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards self%development. + student learns because he or she is inwardly driven )self% motivation*, and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that having learned something affords. Dence, much of a humanist teacher=s effort would be put into developing a student=s self%esteem. This form of education, known as student%centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and owning their learning. The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge. De or she creates an educational environment that fosters self%development, cooperation, positive communications, and personali-ation of information. In particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how 26 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY students learn and what motivates them to learn. ;articipatory and discovery methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. +s well as the student=s academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the student=s affective or emotional needs. Keeling and thinking are very much interlinked. Dumanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates learning. The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic principles: #stablish a warm, democratic, positive and non%threatening environment for the students to work in. ;rovide learning e"periences that will lead to the development of habits and attitudes that teachers want to foster. Teachers should be role models and set good e"amples for students to emulate. &tudents are given choices )with limitations* and freedom )with responsibilities* to plan and carry out activities. Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students. earning is based on life e"periences, discovery, e"ploring and e"perimenting. @espect student=s feelings and aspirations. ;rovide opportunity for success. /e%emphasi-e rigorous, performance%oriented, test%dominated approaches. &tudents are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace #"periential learning is encouraged. #,e'"#e 9 27 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY To what e"tent do you think schools give attention to the affective )emotions, feelings* aspects of learning( /iscuss by citing specific e"amples. Su22a'(. $hat conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of learning( Instructional learning theories are centred on the ma4or schools of educational psychology. Krom these so%called schools have evolved modern thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the classroom ultimately affects that learning. #ach has its own merits and each has shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations. !our understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism, 'ognitivism, 'onstructivism and Dumanism is critical to your approach to classroom teaching. Dowever, looking back over the current practices in our classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many different theories we have learnt. Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four ma4or theoretical perspectives e"plaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state your personal beliefs about the teaching%learning process. 28 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY TOPIC 8 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING T:EORIES ;I< KRAS:EN=S MONITOR MODEL 8.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 7 provides input on a predominant &econd anguage earning Theory called Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel. There are five components or hypotheses which form the basis of the model. These are Input Dypothesis, +ffective Kilter Dypothesis, +cquisition earning Dypothesis, 5onitor Dypothesis and .atural Order Dypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for teaching. 8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 1. demonstrate an understanding of Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel 3. e"plain the five hypothesis of the 5onitor 5odel 7. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the 5onitor 5odel 2. e"plain the implications of this model for teaching. 29 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 8.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS CONTENT SESSION THREE (6 Hours) 8.2 K'a#.en=# M%n"$%' M%&e/ &econd language acquisition theory seeks to e"plain how and by what processes individuals acquire a second language. + predominant theory of second language acquisition was developed by &teven Prashen from the Mniversity of &outhern 'alifornia. Prashen is a specialist in language acquisition and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language learning community. 30 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY The following are some quotes from Prashen )1A83* about language acquisition. "Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in hich s!ea"ers are concerned not ith the form of their utterances but ith the messages the# are conve#ing and understanding." $The best methods are therefore those that su!!l# %com!rehensible in!ut% in lo anxiet# situations, containing messages that students reall# ant to hear. These methods do not force earl# !roduction in the second language, but allo students to !roduce hen the# are %read#%, recogni&ing that im!rovement comes from su!!l#ing communicative and com!rehensible in!ut, and not from forcing and correcting !roduction." "'n the real orld, conversations ith s#m!athetic native s!ea"ers ho are illing to hel! the acquirer understand are ver# hel!ful." Prashen e"plains five fundamental components % which he calls hypotheses % as the basis for his language teaching model. #ach of the components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The five components are as follows: 1. The Input Dypothesis 3. The +ffective Kilter Dypothesis 7. The +cquisition earning Dypothesis 2. The 5onitor Dypothesis 1. The .atural Order Dypothesis 31 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 3.2.1 In)u$ :()%$.e#"# Prashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language u#e but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most useful form of input has to be un&e'#$an&a5/e and it should be 4ust a little beyond the learnerJs present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing. The learner improves and progresses along the Jnatural orderJ when heHshe receives second language JinputJ that is one step beyond hisHher current stage of linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage JiJ, acquisition takes place when heHshe is e"posed to Jcomprehensible inputJ that belongs to level Ji I 1G. Dere 9i: refers to the current language level the learners are at. 9i I 1: means a level higher than the level the students are at or the ne"t level along the natural order. .atural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring that each learner will receive some Ji I 1J input that is appropriate for hisHher current stage of linguistic competence. Parshen suggests that teachers should give rough%tuned input an& a 3"&e +a'"e$( %* 2a$e'"a/#4 #u))%'$e& 5( +"#ua/ ue# an& 'ea/"a 3.". g"+e# "$ a %n$e,$ 3"$."n 3.". $.e /ea'ne' 2a( gue## a$ $.e %n$en$. +s such, language teachers must make input comprehensible by conte"tuali-ing it. #vidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations: #ffectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a childH people speak to children acquiring their first language in special ways. +dults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid comprehension. +dults roughly%tune to child=s level of linguistic competence. These include use of baby%talk and short simple sentences. Teacher%talk from a teacher to a language student. 32 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Teachers simplify their language to make 3 learners understand or go down to 3 learners= comprehension. Koreigner%talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language learner or acquirer &ome of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations. 3 learners often go through an initial &ilent ;eriod. + learner is silent to build up competencies in 3 nd language via listening. &peaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the language. Prashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible input the greater the 3 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays language acquisition. +s such teaching methods work according to the e"tent that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is successful because it provides comprehensible input. +s for bilingual programmes, they succeed to the e"tent teachers provide comprehensible input 8.2.2 A**e$"+e F"/$e' :()%$.e#"# This hypothesis describes e"ternal factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self%confidence, and an"iety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self%confidence, and a high level of an"iety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated, confident, and rela"ed about learning the target language have more success acquiring a second language. 33 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Dence, the teacherJs 4ob is to make language learning free of stress and en4oyable. 8.2.8 A!u"#"$"%n7Lea'n"ng :()%$.e#"# Prashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system. The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language acquisition. $hen people learn their first language by speaking the language naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Dere speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the structure of their utterances. On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language. One e"ample of the learned system is the studying the rules of synta". The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Kigure 1 below: A!u"#"$"%n Lea'n"ng implicit, subconscious e"plicit, conscious informal situations formal situations uses grammatical JfeelJ uses grammatical rules depends on attitude depends on aptitude stable order of acquisition simple to comple" order of learning Kig. 1: /ifferences between acquisition and learning 34 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 3.2.4 M%n"$%' :()%$.e#"# The monitor hypothesis seeks to e"plain how the learned system affects the acquired system. +ccording to Prashen, the formal rule system acts as the M%n"$%' in the acquired system. $hen second language learners monitor their speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences. The 5onitor is best used when: we have to be very careful when language is necessarily formal e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a formal situation. There are three conditions required by the 5onitor: Time The learner must have time to use the monitor. Msing the monitor requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language. Kocus on correctness of form The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. + learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time. Pnowledge of rules The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have had e"plicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to produce. 35 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY There three types of monitor users C over%users, under%users and optimal% users. 5onitor over%users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. 5onitor under% users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious knowledge of the language. #rror correction by others has little influence on them, as they can often correct themselves based on a ,feel, for correctness. Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication. They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation, but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired competence Prashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than on the form of our utterances. 8.2.> Na$u'a/ O'&e' :()%$.e#"# +ccording to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their target language. Prashen states that $.e'e "# a na$u'a/ %'&e' "n 3.". /ea'ne'# )"1 u) a /anguage and this order is roughly the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background. @esearch shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the learnerJs native language, the target language, and the conditions under which the second language is being learned. 5istakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning. T.e#e 2"#$a1e# a'e n%$ 'an&%24 5u$ a'e +e'( #"2"/a' $% $.e e''%'# $.a$ 36 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY ."/&'en 2a1e 3.en /ea'n"ng $.e"' *"'#$ /anguage. The mistakes that students make through time lie in a rough sequence. In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same as the sequence of learned grammar items. &ome grammatical morphemes which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late % the JsJ of ;T&. 'hinese learning #nglish make the same mistakes, and will learn in more or less the same order as the Krench. +ccording to Prashen, this indicates that $.e'e "# a na$u'a/ %'&e' "n 3.". /ea'ne'# )"1 u) a /anguage. In a&&"$"%n4 $.e#e 2"#$a1e# 3"// 5e 2a&e "n $.e #a2e %'&e' 3.e$.e' $.e /ea'ne'# .a+e 5een $aug.$ $.e g'a22a' %' n%$4 an& $.a$ $ea."ng g'a22a' 3"// n%$ .e/) $.e2 .ange $.e %'&e'. The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the diagram below. C%25"ne& 2%&e/ %* a!u"#"$"%n an& )'%&u$"%n 8.2.? I2)/"a$"%n# *%' Tea."ng Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel has its implications for #&H#K teaching. Input hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at 9i I 1: level. To enable learners 37 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to e"pose them to large amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students= interests and purposes for learning the language. + 3"&e +a'"e$( %* "n)u$4 #u))%'$e& 5( +"#ua/ ue# an& 'ea/"a should be conte"tuali-ed in a way that the learner can understand a large amount of spoken or written language. +ccording to Prashen comprehension precedes production. +s such, 3 learners often go through an initial &ilent ;eriod. Teachers should provide time for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it. In line with the +ffective Kilter Dypothesis, language acquisition should be done in rela"ing and friendly conditions. +ffective%humanistic activities such as dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged. Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 Dow does the Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel help a teacher better to understand how hisHher second language students learn( /esign materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel @ela" and move on to the ne"t topic when you are ready. 38 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY TOPIC 9 O@ER@IEW- APPROAC:ES4 MET:ODS AND TEC:NIQUES ELT MET:ODS 9.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 2 introduces you to the 9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this &ession, you will be able to: 9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS 39 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY CONTENT SESSION FOUR (6 Hours) 9.2 O+e'+"e3- A))'%a.e#4 Me$.% an& Te.n"!ue# ELT Me$.%&# 9.2.1 G'a22a'7T'an#/a$"%n Me$.%& 9.2.2 D"'e$ Me$.%& 9.2.8 Au&"%7L"ngua/ Me$.%& 9.2.9 S"/en$ Wa( 9.2.> Sugge#$%)e&"a 9.2.? C%22un"$( Language Lea'n"ng 40 O+e'+"e3- A))'%a.e#4 Me$.% an& Te.n"!ue# ELT Me$.%&# ELT Me$.%&# G'a22a'7T'an#/a$"%n Me$.%& D"'e$ Me$.%& Au&"%7L"ngua/ Me$.%& S"/en$ Wa( Sugge#$%)e&"a C%22un"$( Language Lea'n"ng T%$a/ P.(#"a/ Re#)%n#e TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 9.2.A T%$a/ P.(#"a/ Re#)%n#e Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 TOPIC > ELT MET:OD- COMMUNICATI@E APPROAC: >.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you to the >.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this &ession, you will be able to: >.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS 41 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY CONTENT SESSION FIVE (3 Hours) >.2 ELT Me$.%& 1.3.1 'ommunicative +pproach
TOPIC ? ELT MET:ODS- LEBICAL AND ECLECTIC APPROAC:ES ?.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 0 introduces you to ?.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this &ession, you will be able to: 1. understand how figurative language is used in communication 42 #T 5ethod 'ommunicative +pproach TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 3. use figurative and phrasal verbs in spoken and written language ?.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS SESSION SIX (3 Hours) ?.2.1 Le,"a/ A))'%a. ?.2.2 E/e$" A))'%a. 'heck your answers with your tutor< TOPIC A SYLLA6US DESIGN MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SC:OOL ENGLIS: CURRICULUM A.0 SYNOPSIS Topic B introduces you to A.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this &ession, you will be able to: 43 ELT Me$.%&# ELT Me$.%&# Le,"a/ A))'%a. Le,"a/ A))'%a. E/e$" A))'%a. E/e$" A))'%a. TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY A.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS CONTENT SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours) A.2. S(//a5u# De#"gn 7 Ma/a(#"an P'"2a'( S.%%/ Eng/"#. Cu''"u/u2 A.2.1 P'"n")/e# A.2.2 Te.n"!ue# A.2.8 S$'eng$.#CL"2"$a$"%n A.2.9 R%/e %* Tea.e'4 Lea'ne'#4 an& Re#%u'e# A.2.> S.e2e %* W%'1 Wee1/(4 Se2e#$e' Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 44 S(//a5u# De#"gn S(//a5u# De#"gn P'"n")/e# P'"n")/e# R%/e %* $ea.e'4 /ea'ne'#4 an& 'e#%u'e# R%/e %* $ea.e'4 /ea'ne'#4 an& 'e#%u'e# S.e2e %* 3%'1 3ee1/(4 #e2e#$e' S.e2e %* 3%'1 3ee1/(4 #e2e#$e' Te.n"!ue# Te.n"!ue# S$'eng$.#C L"2"$a$"%n S$'eng$.#C L"2"$a$"%n TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY TOPIC D SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING T:EORIES ;II< D.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 8 introduces you to D.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this &ession, you will be able to: 45 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY D.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS CONTENT SESSION EIG:T ;? :%u'#< Mniversal >rammar $hy a Mniversal >rammar $hat does a Mniversal >rammar consist of( Mniversal >rammar and first language acquisition Mniversal >rammar and second language acquisition TOPIC E SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN T:E CLASSROOM E.0 SYNOPSIS Topic A introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to audiolingualism. It also introduces the ;;; procedure in language learning. E.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to audiolingualism 3. e"plain the different stages in the ;;; procedure 7. devise a teaching plan using the ;;; procedure 46 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY E.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS CONTENT SESSION NINE (3 Hours) E.2.1 I##ue# %* Se%n& Language Lea'n"ng The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the ;;; +pproach or procedure in the 'ommunicative anguage Teaching 5ethod. E,e'"#e 1- 1. $hat is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is based on( 3. &tate the principles of audiolingualism. 47 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 7. .ame three techniques used in audiolingualism. 2. $hat are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism( !ou would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio% lingual method in Topic 2. $hat we will discuss here briefly are the issues related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of ;;; +pproach. +udiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist earning Theory relied heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. #mphasis on accuracy of the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive reinforcement. Dowever much of the audio%lingual method of language learning remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real%life conte"t. Dence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational conte"t. This lead to introduction of the ;;; +pproach. E.2.2 T.e PPP A))'%a. The ,Three ;s, procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. ;;; stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural% situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational conte"ts. It is very important to understand what ,P'e#en$a$"%nF4 FP'a$"eF an& FP'%&u$"%n, really are, and to see how they work in together to create effective communicative language learning. ;resentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner becomes a ,user, of the language in contrast to a ,student, of the language. ;ractice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage through to the final one. This is how it works. +t the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces a situation which conte"tuali-es the new language to be taught. Then the language or linguistic ,model, is presented. $ith this ,model, in mind, the students practise the new language through a variety of ,controlled, activities 48 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue%response drills. +fter sufficient practice, the students move into ,productive, activity, where a situation calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. Kor e"ample the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the ne"t. ;@#&#.T+TIO. This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning process. ;resentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and logical use of the new language. $hen the students recogni-e and understand the ,situation,, they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to them. $hen the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a linguistic ,model,. It is this linguistic model or language presented that the students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity without help. It is important for the teacher to build on whatever #nglish the students have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. +t primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of presenting new language. /ialogues and te"t can also be used when the students have progressed. There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic Gmodels= can be presented. $hat is important is that these presentations should have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic e"amplesQ have logical connectionQ conte"tuali-edQ clear modelsQ sufficient meaningful repetitionQ are brief and can be recycled 49 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY ;@+'TI'#: The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative language teaching. &ometimes this stage is 9over%done, or used ineffectively. This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used as a natural progression or step towards production. The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being learned as well as the level and competence of the students. ;ractice is done to ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students to be familiar with the language. Dence an effective practice stage is one where repetition leads to competence and accuracy. ;ractice activities need to be clear and understandable and should promote a degree of confidence in the students. + well planned practice activity will generate the studentsJ motivation. ;ractice activities should be challenging, but within the reach of the students. ;ractice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual drills to pair work such as chain pair%work, closed pair%work and open pair%work. It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production. ;@O/M'TIO.: The production stage is the most important stage of communicative language teaching. + good indicator of a successful production is when students move from being ,students, or learners of the language to ,users, of the language. The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage independently. The situation should allow the students produce more personali-ed language. + successful production stage depends on an effective 50 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the students= confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to independently ,use, it in the production stage. One of the most important things you have to remember is that production activities should not ,tell, the students what to say. In the practice stage, the students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage they do not have the information and therefore must think. +s such it would be good if Greal life, situations are given in the production stage. >etting students engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive ability. Dence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned activities. &ome good e"amples of effective production activities include situational role%plays, debates, discussions, problem%solving, narratives, descriptions, qui--es and games. The following demonstrates the use of the ;;; procedure: ;@#&#.T+TIO.: The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about it. The teacher points to the man carrying the 5alaysian flag to elicit the sentence 9De is carrying the 5alaysian flag: by asking 9$hat=s the man doing(: The teacher then models the sentence 9The man is carrying the 5alaysian flag:. This is repeated with the other people in the picture. 51 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
;@+'TI'#: The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus. The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences. The teacher gives a cue )woman in yellow* and gets the students to respond. ;@O/M'TIO.: The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what their family members are doing at the moment. Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 /evise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the ;;; procedure. @ela" and move on to the ne"t topic when you are ready. 52 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY TOPIC 10 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN T:E CLASSROOM 10.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 16 provides you with input on alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in the primary #T classroom. 10.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 1. name the alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction 53 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 3. e"plain the alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction 7. e"plain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary #T classroom 10.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS CONTENT SESSION TEN (3 Hours) 10.2.1 A/$e'na$"+e# $% P'e#en$a$"%n4 P'a$"e an& P'%&u$"%n The ;;; +pproach or procedure in the 'ommunicative anguage Teaching 5ethod which was introduced in the mid 1A06=s came under criticism in the 1AA6=s. E,e'"#e 1- 1. /o you use the ;;; procedure in your classroom( $hy( 54 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 3. $hat are the strengths of the ;;; procedure( 7. $hat are the shortcomings of the ;;; procedure( One of the main criticisms of the ;;; procedure is that it is teacher% centred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner%centred approach that was prevalent in the 1AA6=s. The fact is that the ;;; procedure assumes learners learn Gin straight lines=, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very structured sentence%based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not favourable to many. +ccording to $oodward )1AA7* language cannot be broken down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of Ginterlocking variables and systems=. ewis )1AA7* was not in favour of the ;;; approach as he felt that it did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching what the students already know. One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the ;;; procedure was Peith Fohnson in 1A83. Dis suggestion called the Gdeep%end strategy= was a variation of the ;;; procedure. De encouraged students into immediate production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage. The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the production stage if deemed necessary. Byrne )1A80* had similar views as Fohnson. Dowever, he 4oined the three stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Dere teachers and students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Kigure 1 below shows Byrne=s alternative approach. .
Kigure 1: Byrne=s +lternative +pproach 55 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Darmer )366B* suggested #&+: #ngage, &tudy and +ctivate as an alternative to the ;;; procedure. E is for engage. >etting the students emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective learning. S stands for study. Dere the focus of the teaching and learning process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice the form of the language. A stands for activate. +t this stage students are encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan communicative activities to activate students= knowledge. @eading for pleasure or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge. There are three basic lesson procedures in #&+. The first is the G&traight +rrows= lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means. The study stage involves the e"planation of meanings and forms of the language by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students repeat and practise them. +ctivation of the new language is done when students use the language to form their own sentences. The second basic lesson procedure is called the GBoomerang= procedure. The order here is #+&. Kirst the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for e"ample a written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. +fter the activity, the students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them or what they lack. The final procedure is known as the G;atchwork= lesson procedure. Dere the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be followed by re%engaging the students and ending with more study on language forms. 56 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Kigures 1 to 7 depicts the different lesson procedures of #&+. E,e'"#e 2- 1. ist the alternatives to ;;; procedure. 3. #"plain the #&+ procedure. 7. /iscuss the similarities and differences between the three lesson procedures of #&+. 10.2.2 Tea."ng I2)/"a$"%n# %* $.e A/$e'na$"+e# "n $.e P'"2a'( S.%%/ C/a##'%%2 The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the ;;; procedure such as Fohnson=s Gdeep%end strategy=, Byrne=s alternative approach and Darmer=s #&+ imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teacher% centred approach to a more humanistic and leaner%centred approach. Teachers 57 TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for effective learning. +s such, teachers should minimi-e their criticism and encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the classroom. &tudents should have positive feelings about what and how they are learning. The teacher should be well%versed in the forms of the language. There would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other words preparing for eventualities for the study phase. The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will activate students= language knowledge. +ctivities prepared should encourage students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have. These activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate. Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 /evise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above. $hat are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching plan(
@ela" and move on to the ne"t topic when you are ready. 58