PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE

FOR STATISTICS AND

LEAN SIX SIGMA FOR
PROCESS IMPROVEMENTS
Mikel J. Harry
Six Sigma Management Institute
Scottsdale, AZ
Prem S. Mann
Department of Economics
Eastern Connecticut State University
Willimantic, CT
Ofelia de Hodgins
International Institute for Learning, Inc.
New York, NY
Chris Lacke
Mathematics Department
Rowan University
Glassboro, NJ
Richard Hulbert
Bank of New York Mellon
New York, NY
W ILEY
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
CONTENTS
Preface xxi
1 Principles of Six Sigma 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Six Sigma Essentials 1
1.2.1 Driving Need 2
1.2.2 Customer Focus 2
1.2.3 Core Beliefs 3
1.2.4 Deterministic Reasoning 4
1.2.5 Leverage Principle 5
1.3 Quality Definition 5
1.4 Value Creation 7
1.4.1 Value 7
1.5 Business, Operations, Process, and Individual (BOPI) Goals 8
1.5.1 Differences between Product and Process Capability
from a Six Sigma Perspective 9
1.6 Underpinning Economics 9
1.6.1 Sigma Benchmarking 10
1.6.2 Breakthrough Goals 11
1.6.3 Performance Benchmark 11
1.7 Performance Metrics 11
1.8 Process 12
1.8.1 Process Models 12
1.9 Design Complexity 12
1.10 Nature and Purpose of Six Sigma 13
1.10.1 Not Just Defect Reduction 13
1.11 Needs that Underlie Six Sigma 13
1.11.1 Looking Across the Organization 14
1.11.2 Processing for Six Sigma 15
1.11.3 Designing for Six Sigma 15
1.11.4 Managing for Six Sigma 15
1.11.5 Risk Orientation 15
1.12 Why Focusing on the Customer is Essential to Six Sigma 16
1.13 Success Factors 18
1.14 Software Applications 19
1.14.1 Explore Excel 19
vi CONTENTS
1.14.2 Explore MINITAB 19
1.14.3 Explore JMP 19
Glossary 20
References 21
2 Six Sigma Installation 22
2.1 Overview 22
2.2 Six Sigma Leadershipthe Fuel of Six Sigma 23
2.3 Deployment Planning 26
2.3.1 Executive Management 26
2.3.2 Six Sigma Champion 27
2.3.3 Line Management 28
2.3.4 Master Black Belts 28
2.3.5 Black Belts 29
2.3.6 Green Belts 29
2.3.7 White Belts 30
2.3.8 Six Sigma Roadmap 31
2.3.9 Characteristics of Effective Metrics 32
2.3.10 The Role of Metrics 32
2.3.11 Six Sigma Performance Metrics 32
2.3.12 Profit and Measurement 33
2.3.13 Twelve Criteria for Performance Metrics 33
2.4 Application Projects 34
2.5 Deployment Timeline 35
2.6 Design for Six Sigma [DFSS] Principles 36
2.7 Processing for Six Sigma [PFSS] Principles 37
2.8 Managing for Six Sigma [MFSS] Principles 37
2.9 Project Review 37
2.9.1 Tollgate Criteria 38
2.9.2 Project Closure 38
2.9.3 Project Documentation 38
2.9.4 Personal Recognition 38
2.9.5 Authenticating Agent 38
2.10 Summary 38
Glossary 39
References and Notes 40
3 Lean Sigma Projects 41
3.1 Overview 41
3.2 Introduction 41
3.3 Project Description 42
3.4 Project Guidelines 43
3.5 Project Selection 44
3.5.1 Project Selection Guidelines 44
3.6 Project Scope 46
3.7 Project Leadership 48
3.8 Project Teams 48
CONTENTS vii
3.9 Project Financials 48
3.10 Project Management 49
3.11 Project Payback 50
3.12 Project Milestones 51
3.13 Project Roadmap 52
3.14 Project Charters (General) 52
3.15 Six Sigma Projects 57
3.16 Project Summary 63
Glossary 64
References 66
4 Lean Practices 67
4.1 Overview 67
4.2 Introduction 67
4.3 The Idea of Lean Thinking 68
4.4 Theory of Constraints [TOC] 70
4.5 Lean Concept 71
4.6 Value-Added Versus Non-Value-Added Activities 71
4.7 Why Companies Think Lean 71
4.8 Visual ControlsVisual Factory 72
4.9 The Idea of Pull (Kanban) 72
4.10 5S-6S Approach 73
4.11 The Idea of Perfection (Kaizen) 76
4.12 ReplicationTranslate 76
4.13 Poka-Yoke SystemMistakeproofing 77
4.14 SMED System 78
4.15 7W + 1 ApproachSeven Plus One Deadly Waste(s) 79
4.16 6M Approach 82
4.17 Summary 83
Glossary 83
References and Notes 85
5 Value Stream Mapping 87
5.1 Overview 87
5.2 Introduction 87
5.3 Value Stream Mapping . 88
5.3.1 Waste Review 89
5.3.2 Value-Added and Non-Value-Added Activities 90
5.3.3 Elements of a Value Stream Map 92
5.4 Focused Brainstorming 94
5.5 Graphical Representation of a Process in a Value
Stream Map 96
5.6 Effective Working Time 99
5.7 Customer Demand 99
5.8 Takt Time 99
viii CONTENTS
5.9 Pitch Time 100
5.10 Queuing Time 101
5.11 Cycle Time 101
5.12 Total Cycle Time 101
5.13 Calculation of Total Lead Time(s) 101
5.14 Value-Added Percentage and Six Sigma Level 105
5.15 Drawing the Current-Value-Stream Map 105
5.15.1 Drawing Tips 105
5.15.2 Common Failure Modes 106
5.15.3 Common Definitions 106
5.16 Drawing the Value Stream Map 106
5.17 What Makes a Value Stream Lean 113
5.18 The Future Value Stream Map 113
5.19 Summary 114
Glossary 114
References and Notes 116
6 Introductory Statistics and Data 118
118
118
119
119
121
122
126
128
128
129
129
130
132
132
133
133
135
135
136
136
138
Quality Tools 139
7.1 Overview 139
7.2 Introduction 139
7.3 Nature of Six Sigma Variables 140
: 7.3.1 CT Concept 142
7.3.2 CTQ and CTP Characteristics 143
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
Overview
Introduction
Genetic Code of Statistics
Populations and Samples
The Idea of Data
Nature of Data
6.6.1 Quantitative Variables and Data
6.6.2 Qualitative/Categorical Variables and Data
Data Collection
The Importance of Data Collection
6.8.1 Control Cards
6.8.2 Data Collection Sheet
Sampling in Six Sigma
6.9.1 Random Sampling
6.9.2 Sequential Sampling
6.9.3 Stratified Sampling
Sources of Data
Database
Summary
Glossary
References
CONTENTS
7.3.3 CTX Tree (Process Tree)
7.3.4 CTY Tree (Product Tree)
7.3.5 The Focus of Six Sigma
7.3.6 The Leverage Principle
7.4 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
7.5 Scales of Measurement
7.5.1 Likert Scale
7.5.2 Logarithm Scale
7.6 Diagnostic Tools
7.6.1 Elements for Problem SolvingDiagnostic Tools and Methods
7.6.2 Problem DefinitionDefining Project Objective
7.7 Analytical Methods
7.7.1 Cause-Effect (CE) Analysis
7.7.1.1 How to Construct the CE Diagram
7.7.1.2 How to Construct the CE Diagram Using MINITAB
7.7.2 Failure Mode-Effects Analysis (FMEA)
7.7.2.1 FMEA Diagram
7.7.3 XY Matrix
7.8 Graphical Tools
7.8.1 Graphical Summary
7.8.2 Boxplot or Box-and-Whisker Plot
7.8.3 Normal Probability Plot
7.8.4 Main-Effects Plot
7.8.5 Pareto Chart
7.8.6 Run Chart
7.8.7 Time-Series Plot
7.8.8 Multi-Vari Charts
7.8.9 Scatterplot
7.9 Graphical Representation of a Process
7.9.1 Process Flowcharts
7.9.2 Process Mapping
7.9.3 Cross-Functional Mapping
7.9.4 Process MappingDeployment Diagram
7.10 SIPOC Diagram
7.11 IPO DiagramGeneral Model of a Process System
7.12 Force-Field Analysis
7.13 Matrix AnalysisThe Importance of Statistical Thinking
7.14 Checksheets
7.15 Scorecards
7.16 Affinity Diagram
7.17 Concept Integration
Glossary
References
IX
144
145
146
146
148
149
149
150
152
152
153
154
154
154
156
157
158
161
161
163
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174
175
176
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180
182
184
184
186
187
188
190
190
191
191
192
192
194
8 Making Sense of Data in Six Sigma and Lean 195
8.1 Overview 195
8.2 Summarizing Quantitative Data: Graphical Methods 195
CONTENTS
8.2.1 Analytical Charts 195
8.2.2 Dotplots 196
8.2.3 Stem-and-Leaf Plots 198
8.2.4 Frequency Tables 199
8.2.5 Histograms and Performance Histograms 201
8.2.6 Run Charts 202
8.2.7 Time-Series Plots 203
8.3 Summarizing Quantitative Data: Numerical Methods 204
8.3.1 Measures of Center 204
8.3.2 Measures of Variation 207
8.3.2.1 Range 207
8.3.2.2 Variance and Standard Deviation 208
8.3.2.3 Coefficient of Variation (CV) 210
8.3.2.4 The Interquartile Range 210
8.3.2.5 Boxplots 211
8.3.3 Identifying Potential Outliers 212
8.3.4 Measures of Position and the Idea of z Scores in Six Sigma 214
8.3.4.1 Percentiles 214
8.3.4.2 The Use of z Scores 215
8.3.5 Measures of Spread and Lean Sigma 215
8.4 Organizing and Graphing Qualitative Data 217
8.4.1 Organizing Qualitative Data 217
8.4.2 Graphing Qualitative Data 219
8.4.2.1 Pie Chart 219
8.4.2.2 Bar Graph 219
8.4.3 Pareto Analysis with Lorenz Curve 220
8.5 Summarizing Bivariate Data 222
8.5.1 Scatterplot 222
8.5.2 Correlation Coefficient 224
8.5.2.1 Pearson Correlation Coefficient 225
8.5.2.2 Spearman's Rho (p) 226
8.5.2.3 Kendall's Tau (x) Rank Correlation 228
8.6 Multi-Vari Charts 229
Glossary 230
Exercises 232
9 Fundamentals of Capability and Rolled Throughput Y ield 237
9.1 Overview 237
9.2 Introduction 237
9.3 Why Capability 238
9.3.1 Performance Specifications 239
9.3.2 Fundamental Concepts of Defect-Based Measurement 240
9.4 Six Sigma Capability Metric 241
9.4.1 Criteria for Performance Metrics 241
CONTENTS xi
9.4.2 Computing the Sigma Level from Discrete Data 242
9.4.3 Defective Proportions 244
9.4.4 Six-Sigma-Level Calculations (DPU, DPO, DPMO,
PPM)Examples 244
9.5 Discrete Capability 246
9.6 Continuous CapabilityExample 247
9.6.1 Data Collection for Capability Studies 249
9.7 Fundamentals of Capability 249
9.8 Short- Versus Long-Term Capability 251
9.8.1 Short-Term Capability 251
9.8.2 Long-Term Capability 252
9.8.3 Introduction to Calibrating the Shift 253
9.9 Capability and Performance 253
9.10 Indices of Capability 256
9.10.1 C
p
Index 256
9.10.2 C
pk
Index 258
9.10.3 P
p
Index 260
9.10.4 P
pk
Index 261
9.11 Calibrating the Shift 262
9.12 Applying the 1.5a shift Concept 264
9.13 Yield 265
9.13.1 Final Test Yield (FTY) 267
9.13.2 Yield Related to Defects 267
9.13.3 Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) 269
9.13.4 In-Process Yield (IPY) 269
9.13.5 In-Process Yield (IPY) and Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) 270
9.14 Hidden Factory 273
9.14.1 Hidden Factory Composition 275
Glossary 276
References 278
279
279
279
280
281
281
283
283
284
285
285
286
287
288
10 Probability
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
Overview
Experiments, Outcomes, and Sample Space
Calculating Probability
10.3.1 Equally Likely Events
10.3.2 Probability as Relative Frequency
10.3.3 Subjective Probability
Combinatorial Probability
Marginal and Conditional Probabilities
Union of Events
10.6.1 Addition Rule
10.6.2 Mutually Exclusive Events
10.6.3 Complementary Events
Intersection of Events
xii CONTENTS
10.7.1 Independent Versus Dependent Events 288
10.7.2 Multiplication Rule 289
Glossary 292
Exercises 292
11 Discrete Random Variables and their Probability Distributions 296
11.1 Overview 296
11.2 Six Sigma Performance Variables 296
11.3 Six Sigma Leverage Variables 298
11.4 Random Variables 299
11.4.1 Discrete Random Variables 300
11.4.2 Continuous Random Variables 300
11.5 Probability Distributions of a Discrete Random Variable 301
11.6 Mean of a Discrete Random Variable 302
11.7 Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable 304
11.8 The Binomial Distribution 306
11.8.1 Factorials and Combinations 306
11.8.2 The Binomial Experiment 308
11.8.3 The Binomial Probability Distribution And Binomial
Formula 309
11.8.4 Probability of Success and Shape of the Binomial
Distribution 313
11.8.5 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Binomial Distribution 314
11.9 The Poisson Probability Distribution 314
11.9.1 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Poisson Probability
Distribution 317
11.10 The Geometric Distribution 317
11.11 The Hypergeometric Probability Distribution 318
Glossary 320
Exercises 320
12 Continuous Random Variables and Their Probability Distributions 324
12.1 Overview 324
12.2 Continuous Probability Distriutions 324
12.3 The Normal Distribution 326
12.3.1 The Empirical Rule 328
12.3.2 The Standard Normal Distribution . 329
12.3.2.1 Using a Normal Probability Table to Calculate
Normal Distribution Probabilities 330
12.3.2.2 Determining Percentiles of the Standard Normal
Distribution 333
12.3.3 Applications of the Normal Distribution 336
12.4 The Exponential Distribution 340
Glossary 345
Exercises 346
CONTENTS xiii
13 Sampling Distributions 349
13.1 Overview 349
13.2 Sampling Distribution of a Sample Mean 349
13.2.1 Sampling and Nonsampling Errors 351
13.3 Sampling Distribution of a Sample Proportion 354
13.4 The Central-Limit Theorem (CLT) 356
13.4.1 The CLT and Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean 356
13.4.2 The CLT and Sampling Distribution
of the Sample Proportion 359
Glossary 362
Exercises 362
14 Single-Population Estimation 364
14.1 Overview 364
14.2 Meaning of a Confidence Level 365
14.3 Estimating a Population Mean 366
14.3.1 Confidence Interval for a Population Mean Using
the Normal Distribution 366
14.3.1.1 Underlying Conditions for Using the z Interval
for a Population Mean 368
14.3.2 Confidence Interval for a Population Mean Using
the t Distribution 369
14.3.2.1 Underlying Conditions for Using the / Procedure 370
14.3.2.2 Using the t Procedure When the Normality
Assumption is Questionable 372
14.4 Estimating a Population Proportion 374
14.4.1 Traditional Large-Sample Method 374
14.4.2 Wilson Estimator 375
14.5 Estimating a Population Variance 377
Glossary 380
Exercises 380
15 Control Methods 384
15.1 Overview 384
15.2 Introduction 384
15.3 Control Logic 385
15.4 Statistical Control Systems 386
15.4.1 Mistakeproofing 386
15.5 Statistical Control 394
15.6 Prevention Versus Detection 395
15.7 A Process Control System Definition 395
15.8 Variation 396
15.8.1 Common Causes 396
15.8.2 Special Causes 396
CONTENTS
15.9 Process Out of Control 397
15.10 Fundamentals of Process Control 400
15.11 Continuous Statistical Process Control (SPC) Tools 401
15.12 Interpreting Process Control 402
15.13 Statistical Process Control and Statistical Process Monitoring 403
15.14 The Foundation of SPC 404
15.15 Tools for Process Controls - Control Charts 405
15.16 Control Limits 406
15.17 Process Out-of-Control Condition 407
15.18 Western Electric Rules 407
15.19 Control Charts and How They are Used 411
15.20 Precontrol Method 413
15.20.1 The Foundations of Precontrol 414
15.20.2 Precontrol Charts 416
15.21 Control Charts for Variables 418
15.21.1 X Chart 418
15.21.2 R Chart (Range Chart) 420
15.21.3 X-R Chart 421
15.21.4 Moving Range (MR) Chart 422
15.21.5 Standard Deviation Chart 423
15.22 Control Chart for Attributes 424
15.22.1 p Chart 424
15.22.2 Control Chartnp Chart 424
15.22.3 c Chart 426
15.22.4 u Chart 427
Glossary 429
References and Notes 432
16 Single-Population Hypothesis Tests 433
16.1 Overview 433
16.2 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 433
16.3 Testing a Claim About a Population Mean 442
16.3.1 Hypothesis Test Using the Normal Distribution 442
16.3.2 Hypothesis Test Using the t Distribution 444
16.3.3 Hypothesis Test About the Median 448
16.4 Hypothesis Test About a Population Proportion 450
Glossary 453
Exercises . 454
17 Estimation and Hypothesis Tests: Two Populations 457
17.1 Overview 457
17.2 Inferences About Differences Between Two Population
Means for Independent Samples 457
17.2.1 Two-Sample t Test 458
17.2.2 Mann-Whitney Test 466
CONTENTS xv
17.3 Inferences About Differences Between Two Population
Means for Paired Samples 470
17.3.1 Paired? Test 470
17.3.2 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test 477
17.4 Inferences About Differences Between Two Population Proportions 479
17.4.1 Large-Sample Procedure 480
Glossary 485
Exercises 486
18 Chi-Square Tests 489
18.1 Overview 489
18.2 A Goodness-of-Fit Test 490
18.3 Contingency Tables 495
18.4 Tests of Independence and Homogeneity 495
18.4.1 Test of Independence 495
18.4.2 Test of Homogeneity 501
Glossary 503
Exercises 504
19 Analysis of Variance 507
19.1 Overview 507
19.2 The F Distribution 507
19.3 One-Way Analysis of Variance 510
19.3.1 Variance between Groups 511
19.3.2 Variance within Groups 512
19.3.3 Total Sum of Squares (SST) 512
19.3.4 Relationships within Sums of Squares and Degrees
of Freedom 513
19.3.5 Equal Sample Sizes 513
19.3.6 Calculating the Value of the Test Statistic 513
19.3.7 The One-Way ANOVA Table 514
19.4 Pairwise Comparisons 519
19.5 Multifactor Analysis of Variance 520
19.5.1 Two-Way ANOVA 520
19.5.2 N-Way ANOVA 520
19.6 What to Do When the Assumptions Are Unreasonable 521
Glossary 522
Exercises 522
20 Linear and Multiple Regression 525
20.1 Overview 525
20.2 Simple Regression Model 525
20.3 Linear Regression 526
xvi CONTENTS
20.3.1 Simple Linear Regression Analysis 528
20.3.2 Scatterplots 529
20.3.2.1 Least Squares Line 530
20.3.2.2 Interpretations of a and b 533
20.3.3 Assumptions of the Regression Model 534
20.3.4 Standard Deviation of Random Errors 536
20.4 Coefficient of Determination and Correlation 538
20.5 Multiple Regression 544
20.5.1 Assumptions of the Multiple Regression Model 546
20.5.2 Standard Deviation of Errors 546
20.5.3 Coefficient of Multiple Determination 547
20.6 Regression Analysis 548
20.6.1 Testing for Overall Significance of Multiple Regression
Model 548
20.6.2 Inferences about a Single Regression Coefficient, B
t
549
20.6.2.1 Sampling Distribution of b 549
20.6.2.2 Estimation of B for a Simple Linear Regression 550
20.6.2.3 Estimation of B, for a Multiple Linear Regression 550
20.6.2.4 Hypothesis Testing about B for a Simple Linear
Regression 550
20.6.2.5 Hypothesis Testing about Individual Coefficients
for a Multiple Linear Regression 551
20.7 Using the Regression Model 551
20.8 Residual Analysis 559
20.9 Cautions in Using Regression 561
20.9.1 Determining whether a Model is Good or Bad 561
20.9.2 Outliers and Influential Observations 562
20.9.3 Multicollinearity 563
20.9.4 Extrapolation . 563
20.9.5 Causality ' 564
Glossary 564
Exercises 565
21 Measurement Analysis 570
21.1 Overview 570
21.2 Introduction 570
21.3 Measurement 571
21.4 Measurement Error 572
21.5 Accuracy and Precision 573
21.6 Measurement System as a Process 576
21.7 Categories of Measurement Error that Affect Location 578
21.8 Categories of Measurement that Affect Spread 579
21.9 Gage Accuracy and Precision 580
21.10 Exploring Linearity Error 581
21.11 Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility (R&R) 582
21.11.1 Variable Gage R&R 584
CONTENTS xvii
21.11.2 Crossed Gage R&R 586
21.11.3 Attribute Gage R&R 590
21.12 ANOVA Method Versus X-R Method 597
21.13 ANOVA/Variance Component Analysis 599
21.14 Rules of Thumb 601
21.15 Acceptability Criteria 603
21.16 Chapter Review 604
Glossary 605
References 609
22 Design of Experiments 610
22.1 Overview 610
22.2 Introduction 610
22.3 Design of Experiments (DOE) Definition 611
22.4 Role of Experimental Design in Process Improvement 614
22.5 Experiment Design Tools 616
22.6 Principles of an Experimental Design 617
22.7 Different Types of Experiments 619
22.7.1.1 Main Effects 620
22.8 Introduction to Factorial Designs 623
22.9 Features of Factorial DesignsOrthogonality 625
22.10 Full Factorial Designs 627
22.11 Residual Analysis (2
2
) 628
22.12 Modeling (2
2
) 630
22.13 Multifactor Experiment 630
22.14 Fractional Factorial Designs 631
22.15 The ANOVA Table 636
22.16 Normal Probability Plot of the Effects 636
22.17 Main-Effects Plot 637
22.18 Blocking Variable 637
22.19 Statistical Significance 638
22.20 Practical Significance 638
22.21 Fundamentals of Residual Analysis 639
22.22 Centerpoints 640
22.23 Noise Factors 641
22.24 Strategy of Good Experimentation 641
22.25 Selecting the Variable Levels 641
22.26 Selecting the Experimental Design 642
22.27 Replication 642
22.28 Analyzing the Data (ANOVA) 643
22.29 Recommendations 643
22.30 Achieving the Objective 643
22.31 Chapter Summary 644
22.32 Chapter Examples 645
Glossary 652
References 658
xviii CONTENTS
23 Design for Six Sigma (DFSS), Simulation, and Optimization 659
23.1 Overview 659
23.2 Introduction 659
23.3 Six Sigma as Stretch Target 660
23.4 Producibility 662
23.5 Statistical Tolerances 663
23.6 Design Application 665
23.7 Design Margin 667
23.8 Design Qualification 669
23.9 Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) Principles 671
23.9.1 DFSS Leverage in Product Design 671
23.9.2 Importance of DFSS for Product Design 672
23.10 Decision Power 674
23.11 Experimentation 676
23.12 Experiment Design 677
23.13 Response Surface Designs 679
23.14 Factorial Producibility 687
23.15 Toolbox Overview 688
23.16 Monte Carlo Simulations 689
23.16.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Defined 689
23.16.2 When Simulation is an Appropriate Tool 690
23.16.3 Defining Distributions and Outputs in Crystal Ball 691
23.17 Design for Six Sigma Project Selection Example 703
23.18 Defining Simulation Inputs 704
23.19 Defining Outputs and Running a Simulation 705
23.19.1 Analyzing a Simulation 706
23.20 Stochastic Optimization: Discovering the Best Portfolio
with the Least Risk 708
23.21 Conclusions 709
Glossary 709
References 713
24 Survey Methods and Sampling Techniques 715
24.1 Overview 715
24.2 Introduction 715
24.3 The Sample Survey 715
24.4 The Survey System 716
24.5 Clear Goals 718
24.6 Target Population and Sample Size 718
24.7 Interviewing Method 721
24.8 Response Rate, Respondents and Nonrespondents 722
24.9 Survey Methods 723
24.10 Sources of Information and Data 724
24.11 Order of the Questions 724
24.12 Pilot Testing the Questionnaire 724
24.13 Biased Sample or Response Error 724
24.14 SamplingRandom and Nonrandom Samples 725
CONTENTS xix
24.15 Population Distribution 727
24.16 Sampling Distribution 728
24.17 Sampling and Nonsampling Errors 730
Glossary 733
References 736
Appendix A Statistical Tables 737
Table I Table of Binomial Probabilities 738
Table II Standard Normal Distribution Table 750
Table III The t Distribution Table 752
Table IV Chi-Square Distribution Table 753
Table V The F Distribution Table 754
Table VI Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test 762
Table VII Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test 763
Table VIII Sigma Conversion Table 763
Appendix B Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Exercises 765
Index 777