Volatile organic compound

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at ordinary room
temperature. Their high vapor pressure results from a low boiling point, which causes large numbers of molecules to
evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid form of the compound and enter the surrounding air. For example,
formaldehyde, which evaporates from paint, has a boiling point of only 19 C (2 F).
VOCs are numerous, varied, and ubiquitous. They include both human-made and naturally occurring chemical
compounds. Most scents or odours are of VOCs. VOCs play an important role in communication between plants,
[1]
and messages from plants to animals. Some VOCs are dangerous to human health or cause harm to the
environment. Anthropogenic VOCs are regulated by law, especially indoors, where concentrations are the highest.
Harmful VOCs typically are not acutely toxic, but have compounding long-term health effects. Because the
concentrations are usually low and the symptoms slow to develop, research into VOCs and their effects is difficult.
Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Canada
1.2 European Union
1.3 US
2 Biologically generated VOCs
3 Anthropogenic sources
3.1 Specific components
3.1.1 Paints and coatings
3.1.2 Chlorofluorocarbons and chlorocarbons
3.1.3 Benzene
3.1.4 Methylene chloride
3.1.5 Perchloroethylene
3.1.6 MTBE
3.2 Indoor air
3.3 Regulation of indoor VOC emissions
3.4 Formaldehyde
4 Health risks
4.1 Reducing exposure
4.2 Limit values for VOC emissions
5 Chemical fingerprinting
6 VOC Sensors
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Definitions
Diverse definitions of the term VOC
[2]
are in use.
The definitions of VOCs used for control of precursors of photochemical smog used by the EPA, and states in the
US with independent outdoor air pollution regulations include exemptions for VOCs that are determined to be non-
reactive, or of low-reactivity in the smog formation process. EPA formerly defined these compounds as reactive
organic gases (ROG) but changed the terminology to VOC.
In the USA, different regulations vary between states - most prominent is the VOC regulation by SCAQMD and
by the California Air Resources Board.
[3]
However, this specific use of the term VOCs can be misleading,
especially when applied to indoor air quality because many chemicals that are not regulated as outdoor air pollution
can still be important for indoor air pollution.
Canada
Health Canada classes VOCs as organic compounds that have boiling points roughly in the range of 50 to 250 C
(122 to 482 F). The emphasis is placed on commonly encountered VOCs that would have an effect on air
quality.
[4]
European Union
A VOC is any organic compound having an initial boiling point less than or equal to 250 C (482 F) measured at a
standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa
[5]
and can do damage to visual or audible senses.
US
VOCs (or specific subsets of the VOCs) are legally defined in the various laws and codes under which they are
regulated. Other definitions may be found from government agencies investigating or advising about VOCs.
[6]
The
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates VOCs in the air, water, and land. The Safe
Drinking Water Act implementation includes a list labeled "VOCs in connection with contaminants that are organic
and volatile."
[7]
The EPA also publishes testing methods for chemical compounds, some of which refer to VOCs.
[8]
In addition to drinking water, VOCs are regulated in discharges to waters (sewage treatment and stormwater
disposal), as hazardous waste,
[9]
but not in non industrial indoor air.
[10]
The United States Department of Labor
and its Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulate VOC exposure in the workplace. Volatile
organic compounds that are hazardous material would be regulated by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration while being transported.
Biologically generated VOCs
Not counting methane, biological sources emit an estimated 1150 teragrams of carbon per year in the form of
VOCs.
[11]
The majority of VOCs are produced by plants, the main compound being isoprene. The remainder are
produced by animals, microbes, and fungi, such as molds.
The strong odor emitted by many plants consists of green leaf volatiles, a subset of VOCs. Emissions are affected
by a variety of factors, such as temperature, which determines rates of volatilization and growth, and sunlight, which
determines rates of biosynthesis. Emission occurs almost exclusively from the leaves, the stomata in particular. A
major class of VOCs is terpenes, such as myrcene.
[12]
Providing a sense of scale, a forest 62,000 km
2
in area (the
U.S. state of Pennsylvania) is estimated to emit 3,400,000 kilograms of terpenes on a typical August day during the
growing season.
[13]
VOCs should be a factor in choosing which trees to plant in urban areas.
[14]
Induction of genes
producing volatile organic compounds, and subsequent increase in volatile terpenes has been achieved in maize
using (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol and other plant hormones.
[15]
Anthropogenic sources
Anthropogenic sources emit about 142 teragrams of carbon per year in the form of VOCs.
[11]
Specific components
Paints and coatings
A major source of man-made VOCs are coatings, especially paints and protective coatings. Solvents are required
to spread a protective or decorative film. Approximately 12 billion litres of paints are produced annually. Typical
solvents are aliphatic hydrocarbons, ethyl acetate, glycol ethers, and acetone. Motivated by cost, environmental
concerns, and regulation, the paint and coating industries are increasingly shifting toward aqueous solvents.
[16]
Chlorofluorocarbons and chlorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons, which are banned or highly regulated, were widely used cleaning products and refrigerants.
Tetrachloroethene is used widely in dry cleaning and by industry. Industrial use of fossil fuels produces VOCs either
directly as products (e.g., gasoline) or indirectly as byproducts (e.g., automobile exhaust).
Benzene
One VOC that is a known human carcinogen is benzene, which is a chemical found in environmental tobacco
smoke, stored fuels, and exhaust from cars. Benzene also has natural sources such as volcanoes and forest fires. It
is frequently used to make other chemicals in the production of plastics, resins, and synthetic fibers. Benzene
evaporates into the air quickly and the vapor of benzene is heavier than air allowing the compound to sink into low-
lying areas. Benzene has also been known to contaminate food and water and if digested can lead to vomiting,
dizziness, sleepiness, rapid heartbeat, and at high levels, even death may occur.
Methylene chloride
Methylene chloride is another VOC that is highly dangerous to human health. It can be found in adhesive removers
and aerosol spray paints and the chemical has been proven to cause cancer in animals. In the human body,
methylene chloride is converted to carbon monoxide and a person will suffer the same symptoms as exposure to
carbon monoxide. If a product that contains methylene chloride needs to be used the best way to protect human
health is to use the product outdoors. If it must be used indoors, proper ventilation is essential to keeping exposure
levels down.
Perchloroethylene
Perchloroethylene is a volatile organic compound that has been linked to causing cancer in animals. It is also
suspected to cause many of the breathing related symptoms of exposure to VOCs. Perchloroethylene is used
mostly in dry cleaning. While dry cleaners recapture perchloroethylene in the dry cleaning process to reuse it, some
environmental release is unavoidable. Studies show that people breathe in low levels of this VOC in homes where
dry-cleaned clothes are stored and while wearing dry-cleaned clothing.
MTBE
MTBE was banned in the US around 2004 in order to limit further contamination of drinking water aquifers
primarily from leaking underground gasoline storage tanks where MTBE was used as an octane booster and
oxygenated-additive.
Indoor air
Since many people spend much of their time indoors, long-term exposure to VOCs in the indoor environment can
contribute to sick building syndrome.
[17]
In offices, VOC results from new furnishings, wall coverings, and office
equipment such as photocopy machines, which can off-gas VOCs into the air.
[18][19]
Good ventilation and air-
conditioning systems are helpful at reducing VOCs in the indoor environment.
[18]
Studies also show that relative
leukemia and lymphoma can increase through prolonged exposure of VOCs in the indoor environment.
[20]
There are two standardized methods for measuring VOCs, one by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) and another by Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Each method uses a
single component solvent; butanol and hexane cannot be sampled, however, on the same sample matrix using the
NIOSH or OSHA method.
[21]
The aromatic VOC compound benzene, emitted from exhaled cigarette smoke is labeled as carcinogenic, and is ten
times higher in smokers than in nonsmokers.
[18]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has found concentrations of VOCs in indoor air to be 2
to 5 times greater than in outdoor air and sometimes far greater. During certain activities indoor levels of VOCs
may reach 1,000 times that of the outside air.
[22]
Studies have shown that individual VOC emissions by themselves
are not that high in an indoor environment, but the indoor total VOC (TVOC) concentrations can be up to five
times higher than the VOC outdoor levels.
[23]
New buildings especially, contribute to the highest level of VOC off-
gassing in an indoor environment because of the abundant new materials generating VOC particles at the same time
in such a short time period.
[17]
In addition to new buildings, we also use many consumer products that emit VOC
compounds, therefore the total concentration of VOC levels is much greater within the indoor environment.
[17]
VOC concentration in an indoor environment during winter is three to four times higher than the VOC
concentrations during the summer.
[24]
High indoor VOC levels are attributed to the low rates of air exchange
between the indoor and outdoor environment as a result of tight-shut windows and the increasing use of
humidifiers.
[25]
Regulation of indoor VOC emissions
In most countries, a separate definition of VOCs is used with regard to indoor air quality that comprises each
organic chemical compound that can be measured as follows: Adsorption from air on Tenax TA, thermal
desorption, gas chromatographic separation over a 100% nonpolar column (dimethylpolysiloxane). VOC (volatile
organic compounds) are all compounds that appear in the gas chromatogram between and including n-hexane and
n-hexadecane. Compounds appearing earlier are called VVOC (very volatile organic compounds) compounds
appearing later are called SVOC (semi-volatile organic compounds). See also these standards: ISO 16000-6, ISO
13999-2, VDI 4300-6, German AgBB evaluating scheme (http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/building-
products/agbb.htm), German DIBt approval scheme (http://www.eurofins.com/agbb.aspx), GEV testing method for
the EMICODE (http://www.eurofins.com/emicode.aspx). Some overviews over VOC emissions rating schemes
[26]
have been collected and compared (http://www.eurofins.com/ecolabels-comparison.aspx).
France and Germany have enacted regulations to limit VOC emissions from commercial products, and industry has
developed numerous voluntary ecolabels and rating systems, such as EMICODE,
[27]
M1,
[28]
Blue Angel
[29]
and
Indoor Air Comfort
[30]
In the United States, several standards exist; California Standard CDPH Section 01350
[31]
is the most popular one. Over the last few decades, these regulations and standards changed the marketplace,
leading to an increasing number of low-emitting products: The leading voluntary labels report that licenses to several
hundreds of low-emitting products have been issued (see the respective webpages such as MAS Certified Green
(http://www.mascertifiedgreen.com).- Certified Products
[32]
).
Formaldehyde
Many building materials such as paints, adhesives, wall boards, and ceiling tiles slowly emit formaldehyde, which
irritates the mucous membranes and can make a person irritated and uncomfortable.
[18]
Formaldehyde emissions
from wood are in the range of 0.02 0.04 ppm. Relative humidity within an indoor environment can also affect the
emissions of formaldehyde. High relative humidity and high temperatures allow more vaporization of formaldehyde
from wood-materials.
[33]
Health risks
Respiratory, allergic, or immune effects in infants or children are associated with man-made VOCs and other indoor
or outdoor air pollutants.
[34]
Some VOCs, such as styrene and limonene, can react with nitrogen oxides or with ozone to produce new oxidation
products and secondary aerosols, which can cause sensory irritation symptoms.
[18][35]
Unspecified VOCs are
important in the creation of smog.
[36]
Health effects include eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss of coordination, nausea; damage to liver,
kidney, and central nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or known to
cause cancer in humans. Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation,
nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum cholinesterase levels,
nausea, vomiting, nose bleeding, fatigue, dizziness.
The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are highly toxic, to those with
no known health effects. As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on many
factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches,
dizziness, visual disorders, and memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have
experienced soon after exposure to some organics. At present, not much is known about what health effects occur
from the levels of organics usually found in homes. Many organic compounds are known to cause cancer in animals;
some are suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in humans.
[37]
Reducing exposure
To reduce exposure to these toxins, one should buy products that contain Low-VOCs or No VOCs. Only the
quantity which will soon be needed should be purchased, eliminating stockpiling of these chemicals. Use products
with VOCs in well ventilated areas. When designing homes and buildings, design teams can implement the best
possible ventilation plans, call for the best mechanical systems available, and design assemblies to reduce the
amount of infiltration into the building. These methods will help improve indoor air quality, but by themselves they
cannot keep a building from becoming an unhealthy place to breathe.
Limit values for VOC emissions
Limit values for VOC emissions into indoor air (http://www.eurofins.com/lci-cli-nik-crel.aspx) are published by e.g.
AgBB, AFSSET, California Department of Public Health, and others. These regulations have prompted several
companies to adapt with VOC level reductions in products that have VOCs in their formula, such Benjamin Moore
& Co. in the paint industry and Weld-On in the adhesive industry.
Chemical fingerprinting
The exhaled human breath contains a few hundred volatile organic compounds and is used in breath analysis to
serve as a VOC biomarker to test for diseases such as lung cancer.
[38]
One study has shown that "volatile organic
compounds ... are mainly blood borne and therefore enable monitoring of different processes in the body."
[39]
And
it appears that VOC compounds in the body "may be either produced by metabolic processes or inhaled/absorbed
from exogenous sources" such as environmental tobacco smoke.
[38][40]
Research is still in the process to determine
whether VOCs in the body are contributed by cellular processes or by the cancerous tumors in the lung or other
organs.
VOC Sensors
VOCs in the environment or certain atmospheres can be detected based on different principles and interactions
between the organic compounds and the sensor components. There are electronic devices that can detect ppm
concentrations despite the non-selectivity. Others can predict with reasonable accuracy the molecular structure of
the volatile organic compounds in the environment or enclosed atmospheres
[41]
and could be used as accurate
monitors of the Chemical Fingerprint and further as health monitoring devices.
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) techniques are used to collect VOCs at low concentrations for analysis.
[42]
See also
Aroma compound
Criteria air contaminants
Dutch standards
Fugitive emissions
NMVOC (non-methane volatile organic compounds)
NoVOC (classification)
Organic compound
Photochemical smog
Volatility (chemistry)
NTA Inc VOC Testing Laboratory
Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol
Ozone
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External links
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) web site of the Chemicals Control Branch of Environment Canada
(http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/voc/en/index.cfm)
An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality, US EPA website (http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html)
VOC in paints, finishes and adhesives (http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Interior-Partitions-
Ceilings/low-voc-paints)
VOC emissions testing (http://www.eurofins.com/voc-testing.aspx)
EPA NE: Ground-level Ozone (Smog) Information (http://www.epa.gov/region01/airquality)
emission from crude oil tankers
(http://sea.helcom.fi:15037/dps/docs/documents/Maritime%20Group/HELCOM%20MARITIME%204,%2
02005/6-3.pdf#search=%22VOC%20reduction%20crude%20oil%22VOC)
VOC emissions and calculations (http://www.envmodels.com/cov.php)
VOCs, ozone and air pollution information from the American Lung Association of New England
(http://www.ownyourair.org)
VOC Tests (http://www.test-lab.eu/en/tests/voc/)
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Examples of product labels with low VOC emission criteria (http://www.eurofins.com/ecolabels.aspx)
Information about VOCs in Drinking Water
(http://www.aquateklabs.com/drinkingwater/vocprofile/about.html)
Formaldehyde and VOCs in Indoor Air Quality Determinations by GC/MS
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