Prehistory

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Prehistory
Various links and pages. Not sure how I'll
use them.
Contents
Articles
Castorocauda 1
Chapalmalania 4
List of prehistoric mammals 5
Megacerops 38
Prehistoric mammal 41
Pliocene 43
Diprotodon 50
Eocene 55
Mastodon 63
References
Article Sources and Contributors 68
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 69
Article Licenses
License 71
Castorocauda
1
Castorocauda
Castorocauda
Temporal range: Middle or Late Jurassic, 164Ma
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Synapsida
Order: Therapsida
Clade: Cynodontia
Order: Docodonta
Family: Docodontidae
Genus: Castorocauda
Ji et al., 2006
Type species
Castorocauda lutrasimilis
Ji et al., 2006
Castorocauda is a genus of small, semi-aquatic mammal relatives living in the Jurassic period, around 164 million
years ago, found in lakebed sediments of the Daohugou Beds of Inner Mongolia. It contains the single species
Castorocauda lutrasimilis. They were highly specialized, with adaptations evolved convergently with those of
modern semi-aquatic mammals such as beavers, otters, and the platypus.
Classification
Castorocauda lutrasimilis is a member of the order Docodonta, which is a wholly extinct group of
Mammaliaformes. It is not considered to be a mammal by the crown group definition, which takes the mammals to
be the group containing the most recent common ancestor of all living mammals (the monotremes, placentals, and
marsupials) and its descendants. Many writers, however, do not define Mammalia as a crown group;
Kielan-Jaworowska et al. (2004), for example, defines Mammalia as the group originating with the last common
ancestor of Sinoconodon and living mammals, a definition that includes Docodonta.
An important goal of paleontologists is to track the origin and evolution of certain characteristics. Hard anatomy
characters such as teeth and bones preserve well in the fossil record and are the main source of information about
how fossil animals are related to their modern counterparts. Soft anatomy features such as internal organs do not
preserve readily.
Castorocauda
2
A Castorocauda fossil was discovered in 2004 in the fossil-rich beds of Liaoning province, China; it was reported in
the journal Science by an international team led by Qiang Ji of Nanjing University. The fossil was so well preserved
that an important feature of its soft anatomy hair was preserved. Hair is present in all modern mammals and is
therefore assumed, under principles of maximum parsimony, to have been present in all descendants of the last
common ancestor of Castorocauda and today's mammals, including crown mammals and other docodonts. The hair
appears to have been a very advanced dense pelage including guard hairs and underfur.
The tiny auditory ossicles of the middle ear and associated areas were also well preserved in this Castorocauda
fossil. Features of these bones confirms the evolutionary position of docodonts as more closely related to
crown-group mammals than is Morganucodon. They are, however, less closely related to living mammals than is
Hadrocodium.
Among docodonts, Castorocauda appears to have been related to Krusatodon and Simpsonodon, both European
animals. This may be evidence that Europe and Asia underwent a faunal interchange in the Middle Jurassic. The two
continents would later be separated by the Turgai Strait.
Adaptation to water
The name Castorocauda lutrasimilis is derived from the Latin castor- meaning "beaver", -"cauda" meaning "tail",
lutra meaning "otter", and -similis meaning "similar to". The tail was broad with scales interspersed with hairs that
grew less frequent toward the tip. Overall it was very similar to the tails of modern beavers and was presumably used
for locomotion in water in a similar fashion. The caudal vertebrae were flattened dorso-ventrally and similar overall
to those in a beaver or otter. Fossilized impressions of some webbing is also present between the toes.
Features of the limbs suggested that it may have been adapted for digging. The forelimbs are robust, with enlarged
olecranon and other processes associated with strong muscle attachment. The limbs are similar to the modern
platypus, an animal that both digs and swims. Castorocauda, Haldanodon and perhaps other docodonts were
fossorial. These early specializations were also present in the crown-group mammal Fruitafossor, also from the late
Jurassic.
Docodonts in general have distinctive teeth, and the teeth of Castorocauda have the distinguishing features of the
group. The teeth of Castorocauda are different in many ways from all other docodonts, presumably due to a
difference in diet. Most docodonts had teeth specialized for an omnivorous diet. The teeth of Castorocauda suggest
that the animal was a piscivore, feeding on fish and small invertebrates. The first two molars had cusps in a straight
row, eliminating the grinding function suggesting that they were strictly for gripping and not for chewing. This
feature of three cusps in a row is similar to the ancestral condition in mammal relatives (as seen in triconodonts), but
is almost certainly a derived character in Castorocauda. These first molars were also recurved in a manner designed
to hold slippery prey once grasped. These teeth are very similar to the teeth seen in mesonychids, an extinct group of
semi-aquatic carnivorous ungulates, and resemble, to a lesser degree, the teeth of seals.
The complete dental formula was not recoverable, but the lower jaw contained 4 incisors, 1 canine, 5 premolars, and
6 molars.
The animal probably weighed about 500-800 grams (1 pound to nearly 2 pounds) and grew to at least 42.5 cm (17
inches) in length. This makes it the largest mammaliaform (including true mammals) of the Jurassic. The previous
record holder was Sinoconodon which was thought to weigh up to 500 g.
Castorocauda
3
Fossil evidence
The fossil was from the Daohugou Beds of the Inner Mongolia region of China. Fossils of pterosaurs,
lissamphibians, coelurosaurian dinosaurs, and numerous invertebrates have also been unearthed in the same
formation.
It was discovered and described by Qiang Ji and Chong-Xi Yuan of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in
Beijing and Zhe-Xi Luo and Alan Tabrum of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History.
Importance of discovery
The discovery of Castorocauda lutrasimilis is the first sign that a close relative of mammals adapted to water before
dinosaurs lost dominance 66 million years ago, pushing back the estimated date for mammal relatives adapted to a
semi-aquatic lifestyle by 110 million years. Based on fossils known at present, the mammal line would not see
another semi-aquatic form evolve until the Eocene. Because few fossilized remains had been found, it was
previously thought that, until the CretaceousPaleogene boundary (KT boundary), all mammals were tiny,
ground-dwelling or tree-dwelling, nocturnal animals akin to shrews, hedgehogs, treeshrews, or tenrecs. This notion
has now been falsified by the armadillo-like Fruitafossor, the dinosaur-eating Repenomamus, the flying squirrel-like
Volaticotherium and now the otter-like Castorocauda.
Notes
References
Ji, Q., Z.-X. Luo, C.-X. Yuan, A. R. Tabrum. February 24, 2006. "A swimming mammaliaform from the Middle
Jurassic and ecomorphological diversification of early mammals". Science, 311:5764 pp.1123-1127.
External links
Carnegie Museum's Press release with images (http:/ / www. carnegiemnh. org/ press/ 06-jan-mar/ 022306caud.
htm)
Live Science article with artist's impression (http:/ / livescience. com/ animalworld/ 060223_aquatic_mammal.
html)
Times Online article (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,25689-2055852,00. html)
CNN article (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ science/ 02/ 23/ jurassic. beaver. ap/ index. html)
ABC News article (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Technology/ story?id=1648586& page=1)
Fossil Museum: Castorocauda lutrasimilis (http:/ / www. fossilmuseum. net/ UD desktop/ UD_destop_postings/
Paleobiology/ Castorocauda. htm)
Chapalmalania
4
Chapalmalania
Chapalmalania
Temporal range: Late Pliocene
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Procyonidae
Genus: Chapalmalania
Ameghino, 1908
Species
C. altaefrontis
C. orthognatha
Chapalmalania is an extinct procyonid genus from the Pliocene of South America, which lived from 5.3 to 1.8
million years ago.
Though related to raccoons and coatis, Chapalmalania was a large creature, reaching 1.5 metres (4.9ft) in body
length, with a short tail. It probably resembled the giant panda. Due to its size, its remains were initially identified as
those of a bear. It evolved from the "dog-coati" Cyonasua, which probably island-hopped from Central America
during the late Miocene (7.5 million years ago), as perhaps the earliest southward mammalian migrants of the Great
American Interchange. When the Isthmus of Panama rose from the sea to allow further invasions by other North
American species, Chapalmalania was unable to compete and its lineage went extinct, after being present in South
America for 5 million years.
References
Barry Cox, Colin Harrison, R.J.G. Savage, and Brian Gardiner. (1999): The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life. Simon & Schuster.
David Norman. (2001): The Big Book Of Dinosaurs. page 13, Walcome books.
List of prehistoric mammals
5
This is an incomplete list of prehistoric mammals. It does not include extant mammals or recently extinct
mammals. For extinct primate species, see: list of fossil primates.
Mammaliaformes
Adelobasileus
Genus Fruitafossor
Genus Adelobasileus
Genus Tricuspes
Genus Hadrocodium
Genus Sinoconodon
Order Haramiyida
Family Haramiyidae
Genus Haramiya
Order Morganucodontia
Megazostrodon
Family Morganucodontidae
Genus Eozostrodon
Genus Erythrotherium
Family Megazostrodontidae
Genus Megazostrodon
Order Docodonta
Middle to Late Jurassic
Family Docodontidae
Genus Castorocauda
Castorocauda lutrasimilis
Subclass uncertain
Order Gondwanatheria
Family Sudamericidae
Genus Dakshina
Genus Gondwanatherium
Genus Lavanify
Genus Sudamerica
6
Family Ferugliotheriidae
Genus Ferugliotherium
Subclass Prototheria
Infraclass Yinotheria
Family Shuotheriidae
Shuotherium
Pseudotribos
Order Monotremata
Steropodon
Middle CretaceousRecent
Family Ornithorhynchidae
Genus Monotrematum
Monotrematum sudamericanum
Obdurodon
Steropodon
Family Kollikodontidae
Genus Kollikodon
Family Tachyglossidae
Kryoryctes
Genus Zaglossus
Zaglossus hacketti
Zaglossus robustus
Genus Megalibgwilia
Family Steropodontidae
Genus Teinolophos
Subclass Allotheria
Order Multituberculata
Late JurassicEocene
Suborder "Plagiaulacida"
Family Albionbaataridae
Family Allodontidae
Family Eobaataridae
Family Hahnodontidae
Family Paulchoffatiidae
Family Pinheirodontidae
Family Plagiaulacidae
Family Zofiabaataridae
7
Suborder Cimolodonta
Superfamily Djadochtatherioidea
Superfamily Taeniolabidoidea
Genus Lambdopsalis
Genus Prionessus
Genus Sphenopsalis
Genus Taeniolabis
Superfamily Ptilodontoidea
Genus Neoliotomus
Family Eucosmodontidae
Genus Eucosmodon
Genus Stygimys
Family Microcosmodontidae
Genus Acheronodon
Genus Microcosmodon
Genus Pentacosmodon
Family Kogaionidae
Genus Hainina
Family Cimolomyidae
Genus Buginbaatar
Genus Cimolomys
Genus Meniscoessus
Family Boffiidae
Genus Boffius
to be sorted
Anconodon
Baiotomeus
Cernaysia
Kimbetohia
Liotomus
Mesodma
Mesodmops
Mimetodon
Neoplagiaulax
Prochetodon
Ptilodus
Sinobaatar
Xanclomys
Xyronomys
8
Order Triconodonta
Jeholodens
Gobiconodon
Late TriassicLate Cretaceous
Family Repenomamidae
Genus Repenomamus
Family Jeholodentidae
Genus Jeholodens
Genus Yanoconodon
Family Gobiconodontidae
Genus Gobiconodon
Subclass Theria
Infraclass Pantotheria
Order Symmetrodonta
Late TriassicLate Cretaceous
Superfamily Spalacotheroidea
Genus Maotherium
Family Zhangheotheriidae
Genus Zhangheotherium
Family Spalacotheriidae
Genus Akidolestes
Family Kuehneotheriidae
Genus Woutersia
Genus Kuehneotherium
Order Pantotheria (Eupantotheria)
Late TriassicLate Jurassic
Order Dryolestida
Family Dryolestidae
Genus Crusafontia
Infraclass Metatheria
Late CretaceousRecent
Order Alphadontia
Family Alphadontidae
Genus Alphadon
9
Order Dasyuromorphia
Family Dasyuridae
Genus Glaucodon
Family Thylacinidae
Genus Thylacinus
Thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus, Australia, died 1936)
Order Deltatheroidea
Family Deltatheridiidae
Genus Deltatheridium
Order Peramelemorphia
Family Peramelidae
Genus Perameles
Desert Bandicoot (Perameles eremiana)
Genus Chaeropus
Pig-footed bandicoot (Chaeropus ecaudatus) - recently extinct
Family Thylacomyidae
Genus Macrotis (Thalacomys)
Lesser Bilby (Macrotis leucura)
Order Diprotodontia
Diprotodon
Family Thylacoleonidae
Genus Thylacoleo
Marsupial Lion (Thylacoleo carnifex, Australia)
Suborder Vombatiformes
Family Diprotodontidae
Genus Diprotodon (1.6 Ma 50,000 BP, Australia)
Diprotodon australis
Diprotodon opatum
Diprotodon minor
Diprotodon loderi
Diprotodon annextans
10
Suborder Macropodiformes
Family Potoroidae
Genus Potorous
Broad-faced Potoroo (Potorous platyops)
Genus Caloprymnus
Desert Rat-kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris)
Family Macropodidae
Genus Lagorchestes
Eastern Hare Wallaby (Lagorchestes leporides)
Genus Onychogalea
Crescent Nailtail Wallaby (Onychogalea lunata)
Genus Procoptodon largest leaf-eating kangaroo
Giant Short-faced Kangaroo (Procoptodon goliah)
Order Paucituberculata
Ekaltadeta
Necrolestes
Family Caroloameghiniidae
Genus Chulpasia
Family Argyrolagidae
Genus Argyrolagus
to be sorted
Genus Ekaltadeta
Genus Maastrichtidelphys
Genus Necrolestes
Genus Palorchestes
Genus Peradectes
Pucadelphys andinus
Genus Silvabestius
Genus Simosthenurus leaf-eating (browsing) kangaroos
Genus Sinodelphys
Sinodelphys szalayi (125 Ma, China)
Yalkaparidon coheni ("Thingodon", 20 Ma, Australia)
Genus Wakaleo
Genus Zygomaturus
Genus Sthenurus "Strong Tail"
Genus Propleopus, carnivorous kangaroo during the pliocene and
pleistocene periods (e.g. giant rat kangaroo)
Simosthenurus,
Infraclass Eutheria
Genus Eomaia
Genus Maelestes
11
Palorchestes
Order Leptictida
Leptictidium
Genus Kennalestes
Family Gypsonictopidae
Genus Gypsonictops
Gypsonictops hypoconus
Gypsonictops illuminatus
Family Leptictidae
Genus Prodiacodon
Genus Palaeictops
Genus Myrmecoboides
Genus Xenacodon
Genus Leptictis
Genus Diaphyodectes?
Family Didymoconidae
Genus Zeuctherium
Genus Archaeoryctes
Family Pseudorhynchocyonidae
Genus Leptictidium
Leptictidium auderiense
Leptictidium nasutum
Leptictidium tobieni
Order Apatotheria
Family Apatemyidae
Genus Jepsenella
Genus Labidolemur
Genus Unuchinia
Order Pantolesta
Family Pentacodontidae
Genus Coriphagus
Genus Aphronorus
Genus Pentacodon
Genus Protentomodon
Genus Bisonalveus
12
Bisonalveus browni (60 Ma)
Family Pantolestidae
Genus Propalaeosinopa
Genus Bessoecetor
Genus Palaeosinopa
Genus Paleotomus
Genus Pantomimus
Genus Pagonomus
Genus Todralestes
Genus Nosella?
Order Insectivora
Late CretaceousRecent
Suborder Erinaceomorpha
Family Erinaceidae
Genus Deinogalerix
Family Amphilemuridae
Genus Pholidocercus
Family Dimylidae
Genus Dimylus
Suborder Soricomorpha
Family Palaeoryctidae
Family Micropternodontidae
Family Apternodontidae
Family Nyctitheriidae
Order Dermoptera
PaleoceneRecent
Family Paromomyidae
Family Plagiomenidae
Genus Planetetherium
Family Mixodectidae
Order Chiroptera
EoceneRecent
Family Archaeonycteridae
Genus Icaronycteris
Icaronycteris index
Order Plesiadapiformes
Family Purgatoriidae
Genus Purgatorius
Purgatorius unio
13
Purgatorius ceratops
Purgatorius titusi
Purgatorius janisae
Family Palaechthonidae
Family Microsyopidae
Family Toliapinidae
Family Micromomyidae
Family Plesiadapidae
Genus Plesiadapis
Family Saxonellidae
Family Carpolestidae
Family Picrodontidae
Order Primates
List of fossil primates
Order Anagalida
Family Anagalidae
Genus Anagale
Family Pseudictopidae
Family Astigalidae
Family Zalambdalestidae
Genus Zalambdalestes
Order Lagomorpha
EoceneRecent
Family Mimotonidae?
Order Rodentia
PaleoceneRecent
Giant Beaver
Family Eurymylidae
Family Alagomyidae
Family Paramyidae
to be sorted
Alphagaulus
Birbalomys
Castoroides
Ceratogaulus
Eocardia
Eomaia scansoria
Eougaulus
Giant hutia
Hepserogaulus
Ischyromys
Josephoartigasia
14
Kubwaxerus
Megapedetes
Mylagaulus
Palaeolagus
Phoberomys
Pterogaulus
Steneofiber
Telicomys
Umbogaulus
Order Cimolesta
Family Palaeoryctidae
Genus Palaeoryctes
Suborder Taeniodonta
Family Stylinodontidae
Genus Schochia
Genus Psittacotherium
Genus Stylinodon
Suborder Didelphodonta
Family Cimolestidae
Genus Maelestes
Genus Cimolestes
Suborder Pantolesta
Family Paroxyclaenidae
Genus Kopidodon
Family Pantolestidae
Genus Bisonalveus
Suborder Apatotheria
Family Apatemyidae
Genus Heterohyus
Suborder Pantodonta
Family Barylambdidae
Genus Barylambda
Family Coryphodontidae
Genus Coryphodon
Genus Hypercoryphodon
Family Pantolambdidae
Genus Pantolambda
Family Titanoideidae
Genus Titanoides
Suborder Tillodontia
Family Esthonychidae
Genus Trogosus
15
Order Condylarthra
Arctocyon
Note: The "condylarths" are considered paraphyletic, i.e. a grouping of
early ungulate-like mammals not necessarily closely related.
PaleoceneEocene
Family Arctocyonidae
Genus Arctocyon
Genus Chriacus
Family Periptychidae
Genus Ectoconus
Genus Oxyacodon
Family Hyopsodontidae
Genus Hyopsodus
Family Mioclaenidae
Family Phenacodontidae
Genus Meniscotherium
Genus Phenacodus
Family Protungulatidae
Genus Protungulatum
Family Didolodontidae
Genus Didolodus
Family Sparnotheriodontidae?
Family incertae sedis
Genus Abdounodus
Genus Ocepeia
Order Mesonychia
Family Triisodontidae
Genus Andrewsarchus
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis
Family Hapalodectidae
Genus Hapalodectes
Family Mesonychidae
Genus Ankalagon
Genus Mesonyx
Mesonyx obtusidens
Genus Dissacus
Genus Jiangxia
Genus Pachyaena
Genus Pyrokerberus
Genus Synoplotherium
Genus Sinonyx
Genus Yangtanglestes
16
Order Litopterna
PaleocenePleistocene
Family Protolipternidae
Superfamily Macrauchenioidea
Family Macraucheniidae
Genus Cramauchenia
Genus Macrauchenia
Genus Macrauchenidia
Genus Paranauchenia
Genus Promacrauchenia
Genus Scalabrinitherium
Genus Theosodon
Genus Victorlemoinea
Genus Windhausenia
Genus Xenorhinotherium
Family Notonychopidae
Family Adianthidae
Superfamily Proterothrrioidea
Family Prototheriidae
Genus Diadiaphorus
Genus Thoatherium
Order Notoungulata
Toxodon
PaleocenePleistocene
Suborder Notioprogonia
Family Henricosborniidae
Family Notostylopidae
Genus Notostylops
Suborder Toxodontia
Family Isotemnidae
Genus Thomashuxleya
Family Leontiniidae
Genus Scarrittia
Family Notohippidae
Genus Rhynchippus
Family Toxodontidae
Genus Adinotherium
Genus Toxodon
Genus Trigodon
17
Genus Mixotoxodon
Genus Nesodon
Family Homalodotheriidae
Genus Chasicotherium
Genus Homalodotherium
Suborder Typotheria
Family Oldfieldthomasiidae
Family Interatheriidae
Genus Protypotherium
Genus Interatherium
Family Archaeopithecidae
Family Campanorcidae
Genus Campanorco
Family Mesotheriidae
Subfamily Fiandraiinae
Genus Fiandraia
Subfamily Mesotheriinae
Genus Altitypotherium
Genus Caraguatypotherium
Genus Eotypotherium
Genus Eutypotherium
Genus Hypsitherium
Genus Mesotherium
Genus Microtypotherium
Genus Plesiotypotherium
Genus Pseudotypotherium
Genus Typotheriopsis
Subfamily Trachytheriinae
Genus Anatrachytherus
Genus Trachytherus
Suborder Hegetotheria
Family Archaeohyracidae
Genus Eohyrax
Eohyrax rusticus
Family Hegetotheriidae
Genus Hemihegetotherium
Species Hemihegetotherium trilobus
Genus Pachyrukhos
18
Order Astrapotheria
EoceneMiocene
Family Eoastrapostylopidae
Family Trigonostylopidae
Genus Trigonostylops
Family Astrapotheriidae
Genus Astrapotherium
Species Astrapotherium magnum
Order Xenungulata
Paleogene
Family Etayoidae
Genus Etayoa
Etayoa bacatensis
Family Carodniidae
Genus Carodnia
Carodnia feruglioi
Carodnia vieirai
Order Pyrotheria
EoceneOligocene
Family Pyrotheriidae
Genus Pyrotherium
Order Dinocerata
EoceneEocene
Family Uintatheriidae
Subfamily Gobiatheriinae
Genus Gobiatherium
Subfamily Uintatheriinae
Genus Prodinoceras
Genus Probathyopsis
Genus Dinoceras
Genus Bathyopsis
Genus Uintatherium
Genus Eobasileus
Genus Tetheopsis
Genus Ditetradon
Genus Jiaoluotherium
19
Order Arctostylopida
Family Arctostylopidae
Order Embrithopoda
Eocene-Oligocene
Family Arsinoitheriidae
Genus Arsinoitherium
Family Phenacolophidae?
Order Creodonta
PaleoceneLate Miocene
Hyaenodon
Family Oxyaenidae
Subfamily Abloctoninae
Genus Ambloctonus
Genus Dipsalodon
Genus Dormaalodon
Genus Palaeonictis
Subfamily Oxyaeninae
Genus Dipsalidictis
Genus Oxyaena
Genus Patriofelis
Genus Protopsalis
Genus Sarkastodon
Subfamily Tytthaeninae
Genus Tytthaena
?Subfamily Machaeroidinae
Genus Apataelurus
Genus Machaeroides
Family Hyaenodontidae
Genus Dissopsalis
Genus Hyaenodon
Hyaenodon leptorhynchus
Hyaenodon exicuus
Hyaenodon horridus
Hyaenodon mustelinus
Hyaenodon crucians
Hyaenodon vetus
Hyaenodon megaloides
Hyaenodon milloquensis
Hyaenodon bavaricus
Hyaenodon eminus
Hyaenodon yuanchensis
Hyaenodon mongoliensis
Hyaenodon incertus
Hyaenodon chunkhtensis
20
Hyaenodon montanus
Hyaenodon venturae
Hyaenodon microdon
Hyaenodon brevirostris
Hyaenodon raineyi
Hyaenodon gigas
Hyaenodon incertus
Hyaenodon pervagus
Hyaenodon eminus
Hyaenodon weilini
Genus Megistotherium
Order Carnivora
PaleoceneRecent
Suborder Caniformia (Dog-like carnivores)
Ekorus
Acrophoca
Infraorder Arctoidea
Parvorder Mustelida
Family Procyonidae (Raccoon family)
Genus Chapalmalania
Family Mephitidae (Skunks)
Family Mustelidae (Weasel family)
Genus Ekorus
Genus Plesictis
Genus Potamotherium
Parvorder Ursida
Superfamily Amphicyonoidea
Family Amphicyonidae (Bear-Dogs)
Genus Amphicyon
Genus Cynodictis
Genus Daphoenus
Superfamily Phocoidea
Family Otariidae (Eared seals)
Family Odobenidae (Walruses)
Genus Imagotaria
Family Phocidae (Earless seals)
Genus Acrophoca
Genus Desmatophoca
Family Enaliarctidae
Genus Enaliarctos
Superfamily Ursoidea
Family Ursidae (Bears)
Genus Hemicyon
Subfamily Ailuropodinae
21
Dire Wolf
Amphicyon
Genus Ailuropoda
Dwarf Panda (Ailuropoda minor)
Subfamily Tremarctinae
Genus Tremarctos
Florida Cave Bear (Tremarctos floridanus)
Genus Arctodus (Short-Faced Bears)
Giant Short-Faced Bear (Arctodus simus)
Short-Faced Bear (Arctodus pristinus)
Genus Arctotherium
Brazilian Short-Faced Bear (Arctotherium
brasilense)
Argentine Short-Faced Bear (Arctotherium
latidens)
Subfamily Ursinae
Genus Ursus
Auvergne Bear (Ursus minimus)
Genus Agriotherium
Etruscan Bear (Ursus etruscus)
European Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus)
Genus Ursavus
Infraorder Cynoidea
Family Canidae (Canids)
Genus Canis (Dogs and Wolves)
Dire Wolf (Canis dirus)
Giant fox (Vulpes gigas)
Genus Cerdocyon
Genus Cynodesmus
Genus Leptocyon
Genus Phlaocyon
Subfamily Hesperocyoninae
Genus Hesperocyon
Subfamily Borophaginae
Genus Aelurodon
Genus Borophagus
Genus Epicyon
Genus Osteoborus
22
Family Miacidae
Genus Miacis
Suborder Aeluroidea (Cat-like carnivores)
Saber-toothed cat
American Lion
Ictitherium
Family Felidae (Felids)
Genus Pseudaelurus
Subfamily Proailurinae
Genus Proailurus
Subfamily Machairodontinae (Sabre-toothed cats)
Genus Paramachairodus
Genus Dinofelis
Dinofelis abeli
Dinofelis barlowi
Dinofelis diastemata
Dinofelis paleoonca
Dinofelis piveteaui
Genus Homotherium
Homotherium serum
Genus Machairodus
Machairodus africanus
Machairodus aphanistus
Machairodus giganteus
Machairodus oradensis
Machairodus colorandensis
Genus Megantereon
Genus Smilodon (Saber-Toothed Cats)
Smilodon californicus
Smilodon fatalis
Smilodon gracilis
Smilodon populator
Genus Xenosmilus
Xenosmilus hodsonae
Subfamily Acinonychinae (Cheetahs)
Genus Acinonyx (Cheetahs)
Acinonyx aicha
Acinonyx intermedius
Acinonyx pardinensis
Subfamily Felinae (Small cats)
Subfamily Pantherinae (Big cats)
Genus Panthera
Lion (Panthera leo)
American Lion (Panthera leo atrox)
Cave Lion (Panthera leo spelaea)
Family Herpestidae (Mongooses)
23
Family Hyaenidae (Hyaenas)
Genus Chasmaporthetes
Genus Crocuta
Crocuta spelaea
Crocuta macrodonta
Crocuta eximia
Crocuta sivalensis
Crocuta dietrichi
Genus Protictitherium
Genus Ictitherium
Genus Chasmaporthetes
Genus Adcrocuta
Genus Pachycrocuta
Genus Percrocuta
Family Nandiniidae
Family Viverravidae (Viverravids)
Family Viverridae (Civets)
Genus Kanuites
Genus Viverra
Viverra leakeyi
Family Stenoplesictidae
Family Nimravidae (Nimravids or False sabre-toothed cats)
Genus Nimravus
Genus Metailurus
Genus Eusmilus
Genus Hoplophoneus
to be sorted
Genus Lokotunjailurus
Genus Enaliarctos
24
Order Xenarthra (Edentata)
PaleoceneRecent
Suborder Tardigrada
Eremotherium
Family Rathymotheriidae
Genus Rathymotherium
Family Scelidotheriidae
Family Mylodontidae
Genus Mylodon
Family Orophodontidae
Family Megalonychidae
Genus Megalonyx
Megalonyx leptostomus
Megalonyx wheatleyi
Ground Sloth (Megalonyx jeffersonii)
Family Megatheriidae
Genus Megatherium
Genus Eremotherium
Giant Ground Sloth (Eremotherium laurillardi)
Suborder Cingulata
Glyptodon
Family Glyptodontidae
Genus Doedicurus
Genus Glyptodon
to be sorted
Dasypus bellae
Eremotherium
Glossotherium
Glyptotherium
Hapalops
Metacheiromys
Nothrotheriops
Nothrotherium
Peltephilus
Protamandua
25
Order Pholidota
EoceneRecent
Family Epoicotheriidae (extinct)
Family Escavadodontidae (extinct)
Family Metacheiromyidae(extinct)
Family Manidae (extant)
Subfamily Eurotamandua (extinct)
Subfamily Maninae (extant)
Genus Eomanis (extinct)
Genus Necromanis (extinct)
Genus Patriomanis (extinct)
Order Tubulidentata
Eocene?Recent
Genus Leptorycteropus
Genus Myorycteropus
Genus Orycteropus
Order Bibymalagasia
?-1000 AD
Plesiorycteropus
Order Proboscidea
Woolly Mammoth
EoceneRecent
Family Moeritheriidae
Genus Moeritherium
(no family)
Genus Phiomia
Family Deinotheriidae
Genus Deinotherium
Family Mammutidae
Genus Mammut
American mastodon (Mammut americanum)
Borson's mastodon (Mammut borsoni)
Family Amebelodontidae
Genus Amebelodon
Genus Platybelodon
Family Gomphotheriidae
Genus Gomphotherium
Genus Cuvieronius
Genus Anancus
Family Elephantidae
Genus Stegotetrabelodon
Genus Stegodon
26
Columbian Mammoth
Stegodon sompoensis
Stegodon aurorae
Stegodon ganesha
Stegodon orientalis
Stegodon shinshuensis
Stegodon trigonocephalus
Stegodon sondaari
Stegodon florensis
Genus Elephas
Elephas antiquus
Elephas falconeri
Subgenus Palaeoloxodon
Genus Mammuthus
Columbian Mammoth (Mammuthus columbi)
Pygmy Mammoth (Mammuthus exilis)
Imperial Mammoth (Mammuthus imperator)
Jeffersonian Mammoth (Mammuthus jeffersonii)
Sardinian Mammoth (Mammuthus lamarmorae)
Mammuthus meridionalis
Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius)
Mammuthus trogontherii
See also:
Dwarf elephants
27
Order Hyracoidea
OligoceneRecent
Genus Titanohyrax
Genus Kvabebihyrax
Order Desmostylia
Desmostylus
MiocenePliocene
Family Desmostylidae
Genus Desmostylus
Family Paleoparadoxiidae
Genus Paleoparadoxia
Genus Ashoroa
Genus Behemotops
Order Sirenia
EoceneRecent
Family Prorastomidae
Genus Prorastomus
Genus Pezosiren
Family Protosirenidae
Genus Protosiren
Family Dugongidae
Genus Rytiodus
Steller's Sea Cow (Hydrodamalis gigas)
Family Trichechidae
Genus Miosiren
to be sorted
Sirenotherium
Order Cetacea
EoceneRecent
Suborder Archaeoceti
Family Pakicetidae
Genus Pakicetus
Pakicetus inachus
Genus Gandakasia
Genus Nalacetus
Genus Ichthyolestes
Family Ambulocetidae
Genus Ambulocetus
Genus Himalayacetus
Family Remingtonocetidae
28
Genus Kutchicetus
Family Protocetidae
Genus Rodhocetus (??? Ma)
Rhodocetus kasrani
Rodhocetus balochistanensis
Genus Protocetus
Family Dorudontidae
Genus Dorudon (4036 Ma)
Dorudon atrox
Genus Zygorhiza
Family Basilosauridae
Genus Basilosaurus (4037 Ma)
Basilosaurus cetoides
Basilosaurus hussaini
Basilosaurus isis
Suborder Mysticeti
Family Mammalodontidae
Genus Mammalodon
Family Cetotheriidae
Genus Cetotherium
Genus Piscobalaena
Family Janjucetidae
Genus Janjucetus
to be sorted
Genus Eobalaenoptera
Eobalaenoptera harrisoni
Suborder Odontoceti
Family Squalodontidae
Genus Prosqualodon
Genus Squalodon Shark Tooth dolphin
Family Eurhinodelphidae
Genus Eurhinodelphis
Family Kentriodontidae
Genus Kentriodon
Family Rhabdosteidae
Genus Rhabdosteus
Family Odobenocetopsidae
Genus Odobenocetops
29
Order Perissodactyla
EoceneRecent
Suborder Hippomorpha
Superfamily Brontotheroidea
Family Brontotheriidae
Genus Pakotitanops
Genus Nanotitanops
Subfamily Lambdotheriinae
Genus Lambdotherium
Genus Xenicohippus
Subfamily Palaeosyopinae
Genus Palaeosyops
Genus Mulkrajanops
Subfamily Dolichorhininae
Genus Metarhinus
Genus Sphenocoelus
Genus Mesatirhinus
Subfamily Brontotheriinae
Genus Duchesneodus
Genus Brontotherium
Genus Megacerops
Subfamily Embolotheriinae
Genus Titanodectes
Genus Embolotherium
Genus Protembolotherium
Subfamily Brontopinae
Genus Brachydiastematherium
Genus Pachytitan
Genus Dianotitan
Genus Gnathotitan
Genus Microtitan
Genus Epimanteoceras
Genus Protitan
Genus Rhinotitan
Genus Metatitan
Genus Dolichorhinus
Genus Protitanotherium
Genus Parabrontops
Genus Oreinotherium
Genus Brontops
Genus Protitanops
Genus Pygmaetitan
Subfamily Telmatheriinae
Genus Acrotitan
30
Genus Desmatotitan
Genus Arctotitan
Genus Hyotitan
Genus Sthenodectes
Genus Telmatherium
Genus Sivatitanops
Subfamily Menodontinae
Genus Diplacodon
Genus Eotitanotherium
Genus Notiotitanops
Genus Menodus
Genus Ateleodon
Superfamily Pachynolophoidea
Family Pachynolophidae
Superfamily Equoidea
Family Palaeotheriidae
Genus Hyracotherium
Genus Propalaeotherium
Genus Palaeotherium
Family Equidae
Genus Miohippus
Genus Orohippus
Genus Mesohippus
Subfamily Anchitheriinae
Genus Sinohippus
Genus Megahippus
Genus Anchitherium
Subfamily Equinae
Genus Archaeohippus
Genus Cormohipparion
Genus Eurygnathohippus
Genus Hipparion
Genus Hippidion
Genus Hippotherium
Genus Merychippus
Genus Parahippus
Genus Pliohippus
Genus Scaphohippus
31
Suborder Ceratomorpha
Superfamily Rhinocerotoidea
Family Amynodontidae (Hippo-rhinos)
Subfamily Amynodontinae
Subfamily Metamynodontinae
Genus Metamynodon
Family Hyracodontidae (Giant rhinos)
Subfamily Indricotheriinae
Genus Forstercooperia
Genus Juxia
Genus Benaratherium?
Genus Urtinotherium
Genus Indricotherium
Baluchitherium (Indricotherium transouralicum)
Genus Paraceratherium
Paraceratherium bugtiense
Subfamily Allaceropinae
Subfamily Hyracodontinae
Genus Hyracodon
Family Rhinocerotidae (Rhinos)
Genus Teleoceras
Genus Trigonias
Subfamily Rhinocerotinae
Genus Coelodonta
Woolly Rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis)
Genus Dicerorhinus (Sumatran Rhinoceros)
Dicerorhinus leakeyi
Subfamily Elasmotheriinae
Genus Sinotherium
Genus Iranotherium
Genus Menoceras
Genus Elasmotherium
Elasmotherium caucasicum
Giant Rhinoceros (Elasmotherium sibiricum)
Superfamily Tapiroidea
Genus Hyrachyus
Family Helaletidae
Genus Lophiodon
Family Tapiridae
Miotapirus
Superfamily Chalicotheroidea
Family Lophiodontidae
Genus Lophiodon
32
Genus Lophiaspis
Family Chalicotheriidae
Subfamily Chalicotheriinae
Genus Chalicotherium
Genus Anisodon
Genus Nestoritherium
Subfamily Schizotheriinae
Genus Ancylotherium
Genus Borissiakia
Genus Chemositia
Genus Kalimantsia
Genus Limognitherium
Genus Moropus
Genus Tylocephalonyx
Order Artiodactyla
EoceneRecent
Suborder Suina
Family Dichobunidae
Genus Messelobunodon
Genus Diacodexis
Family Entelodontidae (Entelodonts)
Genus Archaeotherium
Genus Brachyhyops
Genus Paraentelodon
Genus Cypretherium
Genus Daeodon
Genus Eoentelodon
Genus Entelodon
Genus Dinohyus
Family Suidae (Pigs)
Genus Metridiochoerus
Genus Kubanochoerus
Genus Kolpochoerus
Genus Nyanzachoerus
Genus Notochoerus
Family Tayassuidae (Peccaries)
Genus Platygonus
Genus Mylohyus
Family Oreodontidae (Oreodonts)
Genus Promerycochoerus
Genus Merycoidodon
Genus Brachycrus
Genus Leptauchenia
Genus Sespia
33
Genus Mesoreodon
Genus Miniochoerus
Genus Eporeodon
Family Cainotheriidae
Genus Cainotherium
Family Raoellidae
Genus Indohyus
Family Hippopotamidae (Hippopotamii)
Genus Archaeopotamus
Genus Hippopotamus
Hippopotamus gorgops
European Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus antiquus)
Madagascan Hippo (Hippopotamus madagascariensis)
Madagascan Dwarf Hippo (Hippopotamus lemerlei)
Cretan Dwarf Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus creutzburgi)
Maltese Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus melitensis)
Sicilian Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus pentlandi)
Genus Hexaprotodon
Hexaprotodon harvardi
Madagascan Pygmy Hippo (Hexaprotodon madagascariensis)
Genus Phanourios
Cyprus Dwarf Hippopotamus (Phanourios minutus)
Genus Kenyapotamus
Family Anthracotheriidae
Genus Elomeryx
Genus Bothriogenys
Genus Bothriodon
Genus Anthracotherium
Genus Libycosaurus
Genus Merycopotamus
Suborder Tylopoda
Oxydactylus
Family Camelidae (Camels)
Genus Aepycamelus (Miocene)
Genus Camelops (Pliocene Pleistocene)
Genus Camelus
Camelus gigas
Camelus hesternus
Camelus moreli
Camelus sivalensis
Genus Oxydactylus
Genus Poebrotherium
Genus Procamelus (Miocene)
Genus Stenomylus
Genus Titanotylopus (Miocene Pleistocene)
34
Family Oromerycidae
Genus Protylopus
Suborder Ruminantia
Family Protoceratidae
Genus Protoceras
Genus Syndyoceras
Genus Synthetoceras
Genus Kyptoceras
Genus Pseudoprotoceras
Family Climacoceratidae
Genus Climacoceras
Genus Prolibytherium
Prolibytherium magnieri (Miocene)
Genus Orangemeryx
Family Tragulidae (Chevrotains)
Genus Dorcatherium
Genus Dorcabune
Genus Siamotragulus
Genus Yunnanotherium
Family Giraffidae (Giraffes)
Genus Eumeryx (Oligocene)
Genus Palaeotragus
Palaeotragus primaevus (Miocene)
Palaeotragus germaini (Miocene)
Genus Amotherium
Amotherium africanum (Miocene)
Genus Samotherium (MiocenePliocene)
Samotherium boissieri (Pliocene)
Genus Sivatherium
Sivatherium giganteum (Pleistocene)
Sivatherium maurusium (Pleistocene)
Genus Bohlinia (Miocene)
Bohlinia attica (synonym: Giraffa attica)
Genus Bramatherium
Genus Giraffokeryx
Genus Helladotherium
Genus Honanotherium
Genus Libytherium
Genus Mitilanotherium
Genus Shansitherium
Genus Okapia (Okapis)
Okapia stillei (Pleistocene)
Genus Giraffa (Giraffes)
Giraffa punjabiensis (Pliocene)
35
Giraffa priscilla (Pliocene)
Giraffa jumae (Pleistocene)
Giraffa gracilis (Pleistocene)
Giraffa sivalensis (Pleistocene)
Family Leptomericidae
Genus Leptomeryx
Family Archaeomerycidae
Genus Archaeomeryx
Family Palaeomerycidae
Genus Ampelomeryx
Genus Cranioceras
Genus Pediomeryx
Genus Triceromeryx
Family Hoplitomerycidae
Genus Hoplitomeryx
Family Moschidae (Musk deers)
Genus Blastomeryx
Genus Longirostromeryx
Family Cervidae (Deer)
Subfamily Muntiacinae (Muntjacs)
Genus Dicrocerus
Genus Heteroprox
Subfamily Cervinae
Genus Candiacervus
Candiacervus ropalophorus
Candiacervus major
Candiacervus pygadienss
Candiacervus cretensis
Genus Megaloceros
Irish Elk (Megaloceros giganteus) (died ~5700 BC)
Genus Eucladoceros
Genus Sinomegaceros
Subfamily Capreolinae
Genus Navahoceros
American Mountain Deer Navahoceros fricki
Genus Libralces
Genus Odocoileus
Odocoileus lucasi
Genus Cervalces
Stag-moose Cervalces scotti
Family Antilocapridae (Pronghorns)
Genus Capromeryx
Capromeryx minor
Genus Hayoceros
36
Genus Ilingoceros
Genus Cosoryx
Genus Meryceros
Genus Merycodus
Genus Paracosoryx
Genus Ramoceros
Genus Submeryceros
Genus Proantilocapra
Genus Osbornoceros
Genus Ottoceros
Genus Plioceros
Genus Sphenophalos
Genus Ceratomeryx
Genus Hexameryx
Genus Hexobelomeryx
Genus Stockoceros
Genus Tetrameryx
Genus Texoceros
Genus Antilocapra
Antilocapra maquinensis
Family Bovidae (Bovids)
Subfamily Bovinae
Genus Bos
Bos acutifrons
Bos planifrons
Aurochs (Bos primigenius) (died 1627)
Genus Bison
Ancient Bison (Bison antiquus)
Steppe Wisent (Bison priscus) (died Late Pleistocene)
Giant Bison (Bison latifrons)
Bison occidentalis
Genus Bubalus
Bubalus cebuensis
Genus Pelorovis
Genus Eotragus
Genus Kipsigicerus
Genus Leptobos
Subfamily Alcelaphinae
Genus Megalotragus
Genus Parmularius
Subfamily Antilopinae
Genus Gazella
Gazella psolea
Gazella borbonica
Gazella deperdita
37
Gazella gaudryi
Gazella triquetrucornis
Subfamily Caprinae
Genus Myotragus
Cave goat Myotragus balearicus
Genus Bootherium
Harlan's muskox Bootherium bombifrons
Genus Euceratherium
Shrub-ox Euceratherium collinum
Genus Oioceros
References
Cox, Barry; Savage, R.J.G.; Gardiner, Brian; Dixon, Dougal (1988). Macmillan Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals. Macmillan London Limited. ISBN0-333-48699-4.
"Ordinal Classification of Mammals"
[1]
. Retrieved November 7, 2005.
"Mikko's Phylogeny Archive"
[2]
"Paleocene mammals of the world"
[3]
External links
Mammals
[4]
at Mikko's Phylogeny Archive
References
[1] http:/ / ib.berkeley. edu/ courses/ ib173/ lectures/ lecture1/ 173_lecture1. html
[2] http:/ / www. fmnh.helsinki. fi/ users/ haaramo/
[3] http:/ / www. paleocene-mammals.de/ index. htm
[4] http:/ / www. helsinki.fi/ ~mhaaramo/ metazoa/ deuterostoma/ chordata/ synapsida/ mammalian_orders. html
Megacerops
38
Megacerops
Megacerops
Temporal range: Late Eocene 3833.9Ma
Mounted skeleton, AMNH
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Brontotheriidae
Genus: Megacerops
Leidy, 1870
Species
M. coloradensis (type species)
[1]
M. curtus
M. hatcheri
M. kuwagatarhinus
M. osborni
M. platyceras
Synonyms
Titanotherium ramosum
Menodus peltoceras
Brontotherium
Brontops
Ateleodon
Oreinotherium
Megacerops ('large-horned face', from mga- large + kras horn + ps face) is an extinct genus of the prehistoric
odd-toed ungulate (hoofed mammal) family Brontotheriidae, an extinct group of rhinoceros-like browsers related to
horses. It was endemic to North America during the Late Eocene epoch (3833.9 mya), existing for approximately
4.1
[2]
million years.
[3]
Megacerops
39
Description
Restoration of M. coloradensis
All of the species had a pair of blunt horns on their snout (the size
varying between species), with the horns of males being much larger
than those of the females. This could indicate that they were social
animals which butted heads for breeding privileges.
Despite resembling a rhinoceros, it was larger than any living
rhinoceros: the living animal easily approached the size of the African
Forest Elephant, the third largest land animal today. It stood about
2.5m (8.2ft)Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources tall at the
shoulders and the body, including the head, could measure 5m (16ft)
in length.Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources It resembled a large rhinoceros, possessing a Y-shaped horn-like
protrusion on its nose, with blunt ends. One specimen is estimated to have weighed 3.3t (3.6 short tons) by Gregory
S. Paul
The dorsal vertebrae above the shoulders had extra long spines to support the huge neck muscles needed to carry the
heavy skull. Possibly, it had fleshy lips and a long tongue, perfect for carefully selecting food. The shape of its teeth
suggests that it preferred food such as soft stems and leaves, rather than tough vegetation.
Paleobiology
Restoration of battling males
The skeleton of an adult male was found with partially healed rib
fractures, which supports the theory that males used their 'horns' to
fight each other. No creature living in Megacerops' time and area
except another Megacerops could have inflicted such an injury. The
breathing movements prevented the fractures from completely healing.
The adults may have also used their horns to defend themselves and
their calves from predators, such as creodonts or nimravids.
Discovery
Skeleton of Brontotherium
Fossils were uncovered in the northern plains states. Life-sized models
of Megacerops families (a male, female, and juvenile) are displayed at
the James E. Martin Paleontological Research Laboratory, South
Dakota School of Mines & Technology
[4]
, and a different set at the
Canadian Museum of Nature.
Many remains have been found in South Dakota and Nebraska. In the
past, specimens exposed by severe rainstorms were found by Native
Americans of the Sioux tribe. The Sioux believed these creatures
produced thunderstorms when running over the clouds, and called
them 'thunder horses'. Many of the skeletons found by the Sioux
belonged to herds which were killed by volcanic eruptions of the Rocky Mountains, which were volcanically active
at the time.
Megacerops
40
Skeleton of Menodus in Field Museum of Natural
History
Taxonomy
Skull in Zurich
Megacerops was named by Leidy (1870). Its type species is
Megacerops coloradensis. It was synonymized subjectively with
Menodus by Clark and Beerbower (1967). It was assigned to
Brontotheriidae by Leidy (1870), Carroll (1988), Mader (1989), and
Mader (1998).
[5][6]
According to Mihlbachler and others, Megacerops includes the species
of the genera Menodus, Brontotherium, Brontops, Menops, Ateleodon,
and Oreinotherium.
References
[1] Megacerops (http:/ / museumu03. museumwww. naturkundemuseum-berlin. de/
cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?a=basicTaxonInfo& taxon_no=43043), Paleobiology Database
[2] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ timescale/ ?Ma=38-33. 9
[3] PaleoBiology Database: Megacerops, basic info (http:/ / paleodb. org/ cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?action=checkTaxonInfo& taxon_no=43043&
is_real_user=1)
[4] http:/ / news.sdsmt. edu/ press/ 143902/
[5] [5] J. Clark and J. R. Beerbower. 1967. Geology, paleoecology, and paleoclimatology of the Chadron Formation. Fieldiana
[6] [6] R. L. Carroll. 1988. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York 1-698.
Prehistoric mammal
41
Prehistoric mammal
An early drawing depicting prehistoric mammals
Prehistoric mammals are groups of mammals that became extinct
before humans developed writing. 164 million years ago, in the
Jurassic period, Castorocauda lutrasimilis, a mammaliaform
(mammal-shaped) animal weighing about 500 grams (1.1 lb), had a full
mammalian pelt, with guard hairs and underfur, webbed feet, and
scales on the tail like a modern beaver, as well as teeth specialized for
catching fish.
Later, about 130 million years ago in the Cretaceous, there existed
larger mammals; a fossil of Repenomamus giganticus indicates that the
animal was about 1 meter (3 ft) long. In the stomach of a smaller
cousin, Repenomamus robustus at 52 cm (20 in), the remains of a
juvenile dinosaur have been preserved.
The lineages of many varieties continued through the Cenozoic era where some reached very large sizes. Most of the
very large mammals became extinct in the last ice age, but have smaller descendants.
Prehistoric mammals include:
Aepycamelus Mammoths
Columbian Mammoth
Woolly Mammoth
Pygmy Mammoth
Imperial Mammoth
African Mammoth
African Wolf Marsupial Lion
Amebelodon Mastodons
American Mastodon
Palaeomastodon
Sinomastodon
American Cheetah Megaloceros
American Camel Megalocnus
American Lion Megatherium
American Zebra Meninatherium
Anancus Menodus
Ancient Bison Mesonyx
Andrewsarchus Metamynodon
Archaeobelodon Moeritherium
Arsinoitherium Morganucodon
Aztlan Rabbit North American Camel
Barylambda North American Llama
Barytherium Raccoon Panda
Basilosaurus Pakicetus
Beringian cave lion Paratetralophodon
Bone-crushing Dog Phenacodus
Brontotherium Phiomia
Castorocauda lutrasimilis Planetetherium
Prehistoric mammal
42
Camelus moreli Plesiadapis
Cave Bear Platybelodon
Cave Lion Primelephas
Chalicothere Propalaeotherium
Chalicotherium Purgatorius
Coryphodon Pygmy Giant Panda
Deinotherium Powerful Killer Whale
Diminutive Pronghorn
Repenomamus giganticus and r.robustus[1]
Diprotodon Rhynchotherium
Dire Wolf Rinston's Bottlenose Dolphin
Doedicurus Saber-toothed cats
Smilodon
Dorudon Samotherium
Dwarf elephant Sivatherium
Dwarf Thylacine Shark-toothed Dolphin
Dwarf killer whale Stegodon
Elasmotherium Stubby-Tusked Narwhal
Embolotherium Synthetoceras
Entelodont Teleoceras
Eobasileus Tetrabelodon
European Jaguar Tetralophodon
European Hippopotamus Thylacosmilus
Godinotia Toxodon
Four-Tusked Elephant Trilophodon
Giant Orangutan Uintatherium
Giant Koala Walrus Whale
Giant Swimming Sloth Wilmington's Ground Sloth
Giant Meerkat Woolly Rhinoceros
Giant Long-horned Buffalo Zygolophodon
Giant Vampire Bat
Giant Beaver
Giant Killer Whale
Giant Warthog
Giraffe Camel
Glyptodon
Gomphotherium
High Arctic Camel
Hypselephas
Hyracotherium
Indricotherium/Baluchitherium/Paraceratherium
Irish Elk
Kennalestes
Japanese Dwarf Elephant
Harrison's Whale
Hyaenodon
Juxia
Macrauchenia
Prehistoric mammal
43
References
[1] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ life/ mg18825315. 800. html;jsessionid=IPLHBBKJNEMG
Pliocene
System Series Stage Age(Ma)
Quaternary Pleistocene Gelasian younger
Neogene Pliocene Piacenzian 2.5883.600
Zanclean 3.6005.332
Miocene Messinian 5.3327.246
Tortonian 7.24611.608
Serravallian 11.60813.65
Langhian 13.6515.97
Burdigalian 15.9720.43
Aquitanian 20.4323.03
Paleogene Oligocene Chattian older
Subdivision of the Neogene Period
according to the IUGS, as of July 2009.
The Pliocene (/plasin/; also Pleiocene) Epoch (symbol P
O
) is the period in the geologic timescale that extends
from 5.332 million to 2.588
[1]
million years before present. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene
Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch.
Prior to the 2009 revision of the geologic time scale, which placed the 4 most recent major glaciations entirely within
the Pleistocene, the Pliocene also included the Gelasian stage, which lasted from 2.588 to 1.806 million years ago,
and is now included in the Pleistocene.
As with other older geologic periods, the geological strata that define the start and end are well identified but the
exact dates of the start and end of the epoch are slightly uncertain. The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not set
at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Miocene and the
relatively cooler Pleistocene. The upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations.
Etymology
The Pliocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. The name comes from the Greek words (pleion, "more") and
(kainos, "new") and means roughly "continuation of the recent", referring to the essentially modern marine
mollusc faunas. H.W. Fowler called the term (along with other examples such as pleistocene and miocene) a
"regrettable barbarism" and an indication that even "a good classical scholar" such as Lyell should have requested a
philologist's help when coining words.
Pliocene
44
Subdivisions
In the official timescale of the ICS, the Pliocene is subdivided into two stages. From youngest to oldest they are:
Piacenzian (3.6002.588 Ma)
Zanclean (5.3323.600 Ma)
The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, whereas the Zanclean is referred to as the Early
Pliocene.
In the system of
North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMA) include Hemphillian (94.75 Ma), and Blancan (4.751.806
Ma). The Blancan extends forward into the Pleistocene.
South American Land Mammal Ages (SALMA) include Montehermosan (6.84.0 Ma), Chapadmalalan (4.03.0
Ma) and Uquian (3.01.2 Ma).
In the Paratethys area (central Europe and parts of western Asia) the Pliocene contains the Dacian (roughly equal to
the Zanclean) and Romanian (roughly equal to the Piacenzian and Gelasian together) stages. As usual in
stratigraphy, there are many other regional and local subdivisions in use.
In Britain the Pliocene is divided into the following stages (old to young): Gedgravian, Waltonian, Pre-Ludhamian,
Ludhamian, Thurnian, Bramertonian or Antian, Pre-Pastonian or Baventian, Pastonian and Beestonian. In the
Netherlands the Pliocene is divided into these stages (old to young): Brunssumian C, Reuverian A, Reuverian B,
Reuverian C, Praetiglian, Tiglian A, Tiglian B, Tiglian C1-4b, Tiglian C4c, Tiglian C5, Tiglian C6 and Eburonian.
The exact correlations between these local stages and the ICS stages is still a matter of detail.
Climate
Mid-Pliocene reconstructed annual sea surface
temperature anomaly
The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene (3.33 mya) was
23 C higher than today,
[2]
global sea level 25 m higher
[3]
and the
Northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of
extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene
around 3 Ma.
[4]
The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an
abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North
Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds.
[5]
Mid-latitude glaciation was
probably underway before the end of the epoch. The global cooling
that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the
disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas.
Pliocene
45
Paleogeography
Examples of migrant species in the
Americas after the formation of the
Isthmus of Panama. Olive green
silhouettes denote North American
species with South American
ancestors; blue silhouettes denote
South American species of North
American origin.
Continents continued to drift, moving from positions possibly as far as 250km
from their present locations to positions only 70km from their current locations.
South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama
during the Pliocene, making possible the Great American Interchange and
bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive large marsupial
predator and native ungulate faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major
consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were
cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic
waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean.
Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the
remnants of the Tethys Ocean. The border between the Miocene and the Pliocene
is also the time of the Messinian salinity crisis.
Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia.
Pliocene marine rocks are well exposed in the Mediterranean, India, and China.
Elsewhere, they are exposed largely near shores.
Flora
The change to a cooler, dry, seasonal climate had considerable impacts on Pliocene vegetation, reducing tropical
species worldwide. Deciduous forests proliferated, coniferous forests and tundra covered much of the north, and
grasslands spread on all continents (except Antarctica). Tropical forests were limited to a tight band around the
equator, and in addition to dry savannahs, deserts appeared in Asia and Africa.
Fauna
Both marine and continental faunas were essentially modern, although continental faunas were a bit more primitive
than today. The first recognizable hominins, the australopithecines, appeared in the Pliocene.
The land mass collisions meant great migration and mixing of previously isolated species, such as in the Great
American Interchange. Herbivores got bigger, as did specialized predators.
The gastropod Oliva sayana,
from the Pliocene of Florida.
The coral Cladocora from the
Pliocene of Cyprus.
A gastropod and attached
serpulid wormtube from the
Pliocene of Cyprus.
The gastropod Turritella
carinata from the Pliocene of
Cyprus.
Pliocene
46
The thorny oyster Spondylus
right and left valve interiors from
the Pliocene of Cyprus.
Articulated Spondylus from
The limpet Diodora italica from
The scaphopod Dentalium
from the Pliocene of Cyprus.
The gastropod
Aporrhais from the
Pliocene of
Cyprus.
The arcid bivalve Anadara from
The pectenid bivalve
Ammusium cristatum
from the Pliocene of
Cyprus.
Tube of a serpulid
worm attached to a
branch of the coral
Cladocora from
the Pliocene of
Cyprus.
Mammals
In North America, rodents, large mastodons and gomphotheres, and opossums continued successfully, while hoofed
animals (ungulates) declined, with camel, deer and horse all seeing populations recede. Rhinos, three toed horses
(Nannippus), oreodonts, protoceratids, and chalicotheres went extinct. Borophagine dogs and Agriotherium went
extinct, but other carnivores including the weasel family diversified, and dogs and fast-running hunting bears did
well. Ground sloths, huge glyptodonts, and armadillos came north with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama.
In Eurasia rodents did well, while primate distribution declined. Elephants, gomphotheres and stegodonts were
successful in Asia, and hyraxes migrated north from Africa. Horse diversity declined, while tapirs and rhinos did
fairly well. Cows and antelopes were successful, and some camel species crossed into Asia from North America.
Hyenas and early saber-toothed cats appeared, joining other predators including dogs, bears and weasels.
Human evolution during the Pliocene
Pliocene
47
Pliocene mammals of North America
Africa was dominated by hoofed animals, and primates continued their evolution,
with australopithecines (some of the first hominids) appearing in the late
Pliocene. Rodents were successful, and elephant populations increased. Cows
and antelopes continued diversification and overtaking pigs in numbers of
species. Early giraffes appeared, and camels migrated via Asia from North
America. Horses and modern rhinos came onto the scene. Bears, dogs and
weasels (originally from North America) joined cats, hyenas and civets as the
African predators, forcing hyenas to adapt as specialized scavengers.
South America was invaded by North American species for the first time since
the Cretaceous, with North American rodents and primates mixing with southern
forms. Litopterns and the notoungulates, South American natives, were mostly
wiped out, except for the macrauchenids and toxodonts, which managed to
survive. Small weasel-like carnivorous mustelids, coatis and short faced bears migrated from the north. Grazing
glyptodonts, browsing giant ground sloths and smaller caviomorph rodents, pampatheres, and armadillos did the
opposite, migrating to the north and thriving there.
The marsupials remained the dominant Australian mammals, with herbivore forms including wombats and
kangaroos, and the huge diprotodon. Carnivorous marsupials continued hunting in the Pliocene, including dasyurids,
the dog-like thylacine and cat-like Thylacoleo. The first rodents arrived in Australia. The modern platypus, a
monotreme, appeared.
Birds
Titanis.
The predatory South American phorusrhacids were rare in this time; among the last was
Titanis, a large phorusrhacid that migrated to North America and rivaled mammals as top
predator. Other birds probably evolved at this time, some modern, some now extinct.
Reptiles and amphibians
Alligators and crocodiles died out in Europe as the climate cooled. Venomous snake
genera continued to increase as more rodents and birds evolved. Rattlesnakes first
appeared in the Pliocene. The modern species Alligator mississippiensis, having evolved
in the Miocene, continued into the Pliocene, except with a more northern range;
specimens have been found in very late Miocene deposits of Tennessee. Giant tortoises
still thrived in North America, with genera like Hesperotestudo. Madtsoid snakes were
still present in Australia. The amphibian order Allocaudata went extinct.
Pliocene
48
Oceans
Oceans continued to be relatively warm during the Pliocene, though they continued cooling. The Arctic ice cap
formed, drying the climate and increasing cool shallow currents in the North Atlantic. Deep cold currents flowed
from the Antarctic.
The formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 3.5 million years ago cut off the final remnant of what was once
essentially a circum-equatorial current that had existed since the Cretaceous and the early Cenozoic. This may have
contributed to further cooling of the oceans worldwide.
The Pliocene seas were alive with sea cows, seals and sea lions.
Supernovae
In 2002, Narciso Bentez et al. calculated that roughly 2 million years ago, around the end of the Pliocene epoch, a
group of bright O and B stars called the Scorpius-Centaurus OB association passed within 130 light-years of Earth
and that one or more supernova explosions gave rise to a feature known as the Local Bubble. Such a close explosion
could have damaged the Earth's ozone layer and caused the extinction of some ocean life (at its peak, a supernova of
this size could have the same absolute magnitude as an entire galaxy of 200 billion stars).
[6]
References
[1] See the 2009 version of the ICS geologic time scale (http:/ / www. quaternary. stratigraphy. org. uk/ correlation/ GSAchron09. jpg)
[2] Robinson, M., H.J. Dowsett, and M.A. Chandler, 2008: Pliocene role in assessing future climate impacts. Eos Trans. Amer. Geophys. U., 89,
501502. (http:/ / pubs.giss. nasa.gov/ docs/ 2008/ 2008_Robinson_etal. pdf)
[3] Dwyer, G.S., and M.A. Chandler, 2009: Mid-Pliocene sea level and continental ice volume based on coupled benthic Mg/Ca
palaeotemperatures and oxygen isotopes. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. A, 367, 157168, . (http:/ / pubs. giss. nasa. gov/ docs/ 2009/
2009_Dwyer_Chandler. pdf)
[4] [4] Bartoli, G. et al. Final closure of Panama and the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 237, 3344 (2005).
[5] [5] Van Andel (1994), p. 226.
[6] Comins & Kaufmann (2005), p. 359.
Further reading
Comins, Niel F.; William J. Kaufmann III (2005). Discovering the Universe (7th ed.). New York, NY: Susan
Finnemore Brennan. ISBN0-7167-7584-0.
Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G.; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
Ogg, Jim (June 2004). "Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" (http:/ / www.
stratigraphy.org/ gssp. htm). Retrieved 2006-04-30.
Van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1994). New Views on an Old Planet: a History of Global Change (2nd ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-44243-5.
External links
Mid-Pliocene Global Warming: NASA/GISS Climate Modeling (http:/ / www. giss. nasa. gov/ research/ features/
pliocene/ )
Palaeos Pliocene (http:/ / www. palaeos. com/ Cenozoic/ Pliocene/ Pliocene. htm)
PBS Change: Deep Time: Pliocene (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ evolution/ change/ deeptime/ pliocene. html)
Possible Pliocene supernova (http:/ / gsa. confex. com/ gsa/ 2007AM/ finalprogram/ abstract_129643. htm)
"Supernova dealt deaths on Earth? Stellar blasts may have killed ancient marine life" Science News Online (http:/
/ www. sciencenews. org/ articles/ 20020202/ fob5. asp) retrieved February 2, 2002
UCMP Berkeley Pliocene Epoch Page (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ tertiary/ pli. html)
Pliocene
49
Pliocene Microfossils: 100+ images of Pliocene Foraminifera (http:/ / www. foraminifera. eu/ querydb.
php?age=Pliocene& aktion=suche)
Neogene Period
Miocene Pliocene
Aquitanian
|Burdigalian
Langhian |
Serravallian
Tortonian |
Messinian
Zanclean |
Piacenzian
Quaternary
Pleistocene Holocene
Early | Middle |
Late
Preboreal | Boreal |
Atlantic | Subboreal |
Subatlantic
Diprotodon
50
Diprotodon
Diprotodon
Temporal range: Pleistocene
Mounted skeleton
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Infraclass: Marsupialia
Order: Diprotodontia
Suborder: Vombatiformes
Family: Diprotodontidae
Genus: Diprotodon
Owen, 1838
Species: D. optatum
Binomial name
Diprotodon optatum
Diprotodon, meaning "two forward teeth", sometimes known as the giant wombat or the hippopotamus wombat,
is the largest known marsupial ever to have lived. Along with many other members of a group of unusual species
collectively called the "Australian megafauna", it existed from approximately 1.6 million years ago until extinction
some 46,000 years ago (through most of the Pleistocene epoch).
Diprotodon species fossils have been found in sites across mainland Australia, including complete skulls and
skeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions. Female skeletons have been found with babies located where the
mother's pouch would have been. The largest specimens were hippopotamus-sized: about 3 metres (10ft) from nose
to tail, standing 2 metres (6.6ft) tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 2,800 kilograms (6,200lb).
[1][2]
Aboriginal
rock art images in Quinkan traditional country (Queensland, Australia) have been claimed to depict diprotodonts.
They inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs,
and some grasses.
The closest surviving relatives of Diprotodon are the wombats and the koala. It is suggested that diprotodonts may
have been an inspiration for the legends of the bunyip, as some Aboriginal tribes identify Diprotodon bones as those
of "bunyips".
Diprotodon
51
Discovery
The first recorded Diprotodon remains were discovered in a cave near Wellington in New South Wales in the early
1830s by Major Thomas Mitchell who sent them to England for study by Sir Richard Owen. In the 1840s Ludwig
Leichhardt discovered many Diprotodon bones eroding from the banks of creeks in the Darling Downs of
Queensland and when reporting the find to Owen commented that the remains were so well preserved he expected to
find living examples in the then unexplored central regions of Australia.
The majority of fossil finds are of demographic groups indicative of diprotodonts dying in drought conditions. For
example, hundreds of individuals were found in Lake Callabonna with well-preserved lower bodies but crushed and
distorted heads. It is theorised several family groups sank in mud while crossing the drying lake bed. Other finds
consist of age groupings of young or old animals which are first to die during a drought.
In 2012, a significant group of about 40 was found at Eulo, South-West Queensland.
[3]
Taxonomy
Diprotodon was named by Owen (1838). It was assigned to Diprotodontidae by McKenna and Bell (1997). The
historical classification of Diprotodon consisted of eight species (Diprotodon optatum Owen, 1838; Diprotodon
australis Owen, 1844; D. annextans McCoy, 1861; D. minor Huxley, 1862; D. longiceps McCoy 1865; D. loderi
Krefft, 1873a; D. bennettii Krefft, 1873b (nec D. bennettii Owen, 1877); and D. bennettii Owen, 1877 (nec D.
bennettii Krefft, 1873b); based on size or slight morphological differences of single specimens collected from
isolated geographic regions. Bimodal dental sizes, rather than a continuum of tooth sizes, and identical male and
female dental morphology, indicate sexual dimorphism instead of separate species, thus providing strong evidence
that the eight species are synonyms for D. optatum.
Description
Diprotodon compared to a human
Diprotodon superficially resembled a rhinoceros without a horn. Its
feet turned inwards like a wombats, giving it a pigeon-toed
appearance. It had strong claws on the front feet and its pouch opening
faced backwards. Footprints of its feet have been found showing a
covering of hair which indicates it had a coat similar to a modern
wombat.
Until recently it was unknown how many species of Diprotodon had
existed. Eight species are described although many researchers
believed these actually represented only three at most while some estimated there could be around twenty in total.
Paleobiology
Restoration
Recent research compared the variation between all of the described
Diprotodon species with the variation in one of Australias largest
living marsupials the Eastern Grey Kangaroo and found the range was
comparable, with a near continent-wide distribution. This left only two
possible Diprotodon species differing only in size with the smaller
being around half the size of the larger. According to Gauses
"competitive exclusion principle" no two species with identical
ecological requirements can coexist in a stable environment. However,
Diprotodon
52
both the small and large diprotodonts coexisted throughout the Pleistocene and the size difference is similar to other
sexually dimorphic living marsupials. Further evidence is the battle damage common in competing males found on
the larger specimens but absent from the smaller. Dental morphology also supports sexual dimorphism, with highly
sexually dimorphic marsupials, such as the grey kangaroo, having different tooth sizes between males and females,
but both sexes having the same dental morphology. An identical dental morphology occurs in the large and small
Diprotodon. The taxonomic implication is that Owens original Diprotodon optatum is the only valid species.
A single sexually dimorphic species allows behavioural interpretations. All sexually dimorphic species of over 5
kilograms (11lb) exhibit a polygynous breeding strategy. A modern example of this is the gender segregation of
elephants where females and the young form family groups while lone males fight for the right to mate with all the
females of the group. This behaviour is consistent with fossil finds where adult/juvenile fossil assemblages usually
contain only female adult remains.
[4][5]
Extinction
Most modern researchers including Richard Roberts and Tim Flannery argue that diprotodonts, along with a wide
range of other Australian megafauna, became extinct shortly after humans arrived in Australia about 50,000 years
ago.
Some older researchers including Richard Wright argue on the contrary that diprotodont remains from several sites,
such as Tambar Springs and Trinkey and Lime Springs suggest that Diprotodon survived much longer, into the
Holocene. Other more recent researchers, including Lesley Head and Judith Field, favour an extinction date of
28,000 - 30,000 years ago, which would mean that humans coexisted with Diprotodon for some 20,000 years.
[6]
However, opponents of "late extinction" theories have interpreted such late dates based on indirect dating methods as
artifacts resulting from redeposition of skeletal material into more recent strata, and recent direct dating results
obtained with new technologies have tended to confirm this interpretation.
Three theories have been advanced to explain the mass extinction.
Climate change
Diprotodon skull, clearly showing the large front
teeth for which the genus is named and the
dentition adapted for browsing
Australia has undergone a very long process of gradual aridification
since it split off from Gondwanaland about 40 million years ago. From
time to time the process reversed for a period, but overall the trend has
been strongly toward lower rainfall. The recent ice ages produced no
significant glaciation in mainland Australia but long periods of cold
and very dry weather. This dry weather during the last ice age may
have killed off all the large diprotodonts.
Critics point out a number of problems with this theory. First, large
diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages, and
there does not seem to be any particular reason the most recent one
should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do.
Also, climate change apparently peaked 25,000 years after the extinctions. Finally, even during climatic extremes,
some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt: for example, the tropical north stays fairly warm and
wet in all climatic circumstances; alpine valleys are less affected by drought, and so on.
Diprotodon
53
Human hunting
The "blitzkrieg theory" is that human hunters killed and ate the diprotodonts, causing their extinction. The
extinctions appear to have coincided with the arrival of humans on the continent, and in broad terms, Diprotodon
was the largest and least well-defended species that died out. Also, similar hunting-out happened with the megafauna
of New Zealand, Madagascar and many smaller islands around the world (such as New Caledonia, Cyprus, Crete and
Wrangel Island), and at least in part, in the Americasprobably within a thousand years or so. Recent finds of
Diprotodon bones which appear to display butchering marks lend support to this theory. Critics of this theory regard
it as simplistic, arguing that (unlike New Zealand and America) there is little direct evidence of hunting, and that the
dates on which the theory rests are too uncertain to be relied on. However, the high-resolution chronology of the
changes supports the hypothesis that human hunting alone eliminated the megafauna.
Human land management
Diprotodon optatum
The third theory says that humans indirectly caused the extinction of
diprotodonts, by destroying the ecosystem on which they depended. In
particular, early Aborigines are thought to have been fire-stick farmers
using fire regularly and persistently to drive game, open up dense
thickets of vegetation, and create fresh green regrowth for both humans
and game animals to eat. Evidence for the fire hypothesis is the sudden
increase in widespread ash deposits at the time that people arrived in
Australia, as well as land-management and hunting practices of
modern Aboriginal people as recorded by the earliest European settlers
before Aboriginal society was devastated by European contact and
disease. Evidence against the hypothesis is the fact that humans appear
to have eliminated the megafauna of Tasmania without using fire to modify the environment there.
Multiple causes
The above hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Each of proposed mechanisms can potentially support
the other two. For example, while burning an area of fairly thick forest and thus turning it into a more open, grassy
environment might reduce the viability of a large browser (an animal that eats leaves and shoots rather than grasses),
the reverse could also be true: removing the browsing animals (by eating them, or by any other means) within a few
years produces a very thick undergrowth which, when a fire eventually starts through natural causes (as fires tend to
do every few hundred years), burns with greater than usual ferocity. The burnt-out area is then repopulated with a
greater proportion of fire-loving plant species (notably eucalypts, some acacias, and most of the native grasses)
which are unsuitable habitat for most browsing animals. Either way, the trend is toward the modern Australian
environment of highly flammable open sclerophyllous forests, woodlands and grasslands, none of which are suitable
for large, slow-moving browsing animalsand either way, the changed microclimate produces substantially less
rainfall.
An examination of swamp sediment cores spanning the last 130,000 years from Lynch's Crater in Queensland
suggests that hunting may have been the primary cause of the extinction. Analysis of Sporormiella fungal spores
(which derive mainly from the dung of megaherbivores) in the cores shows that the megafauna of that region
virtually disappeared about 41,000 years ago, at a time when climate changes were minimal; the change was
accompanied by an increase in charcoal, and was followed by a transition from rainforest to fire-tolerant sclerophyll
vegetation. The high-resolution chronology of the changes indicates that fire increased about a century after the
disappearance of browsing megafauna, probably due to accumulation of fuel. Grass increased over the next several
centuries; sclerophyll vegetation increased following a lag of another century, and a sclerophyll forest developed
about a thousand years later. Earlier increases in sclerophyll vegetation during shifts to cooler, drier conditions about
Diprotodon
54
120,000 and 75,000 years ago did not have any obvious impact on megafaunal abundance.
References
[1] Ice Age Marsupial Topped Three Tons, Scientists Say (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2003/ 10/ 1016_031017_giantmarsupial.
html). Retrieved 17 September 2003.
[2] [2] 2,786 kg is the estimation for the specimen displayed in the Australian Museum which is considered to be of average size. According to latest
research the average male weight is estimated to lie between 2,272 kg and 3,417 kg.
[3] Giant marsupials' graveyard unearthed in Queensland (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ 2012-06-21/
giant-marsupial-fossils-found-in-queensland/ 4083158) By Chrissy Arthur - Australian Broadcasting Corporation - Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[4] Sex secrets of a prehistoric marsupial (http:/ / www.cosmosmagazine. com/ news/ 2042/ sex-secrets-prehistoric-marsupial-uncovered)
Cosmos Magazine 11 June 2008
[5] Australian Science Magazine June 2008 Pleistocene Goliath; Gilbert Price
[6] http:/ / www. abc.net.au/ science/ future/ theses/ theses1.htm
Danielle Clode (2009) Prehistoric giants: the megafauna of Australia. Museum Victoria.
Barry Cox, Colin Harrison, R.J.G. Savage, and Brian Gardiner. (1999): The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life. Simon & Schuster.
Jayne Parsons.(2001): Dinosaur Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley.
David Norman. (2001): The Big Book Of Dinosaurs. Welcome Books.
Gilbert Price. (2005): Article in Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. Queensland Museum.
http:/ / www. eaudrey. com/ myth/ bunyip. htm on bunyip theories
External links
Australia's lost kingdom on Diprotodon optatum (http:/ / australianmuseum. net. au/ Australias-extinct-animals)
BBC science and nature on Diprotodon optatum (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ nature/ wildfacts/ factfiles/ 3040.
shtml)
Regional Council of Goyder page on the genera (http:/ / www. goyder. sa. gov. au/ site/ page. cfm?u=301)
Museum Victoria on the Diprotodontids (http:/ / museumvictoria. com. au/ prehistoric/ mammals/ diprotodontids.
html)
Museum Victoria view of a Diprotodon skull (http:/ / museumvictoria. com. au/ treasures/ colldetails.
aspx?pid=66)
South Australian Museum information (http:/ / www. samuseum. sa. gov. au/ lop/ diprotodon. pdf)
Description of Price's research (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ newsitems/ 200505/ s1379450. htm)
Eocene
55
Eocene
System Series Stage Age(Ma)
Neogene Miocene Aquitanian younger
Paleogene Oligocene Chattian 23.0328.1
Rupelian 28.133.9
Eocene Priabonian 33.938.0
Bartonian 38.041.3
Lutetian 41.347.8
Ypresian 47.856.0
Paleocene Thanetian 56.059.2
Selandian 59.261.6
Danian 61.666.0
Cretaceous Late Maastrichtian older
Subdivision of the Paleogene Period
according to the ICS, as of January 2013.
The Eocene /isin/ (symbol Eo ) epoch, lasting from 56to33.9
[1]
million years ago, is a major division of the
geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans the time
from the end of the Palaeocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by
a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope
13
C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in
comparison with the more common isotope
12
C. The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande
Coupure (the "Great Break" in continuity) or the EoceneOligocene extinction event, which may be related to the
impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay. As with other geologic periods,
the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified,
[2]
though their exact dates are slightly
uncertain.
The name Eocene comes from the Greek (eos, dawn) and (kainos, new) and refers to the "dawn" of
modern ('new') fauna that appeared during the epoch.
Subdivisions
The Eocene epoch is usually broken into Early and Late, ormore usuallyEarly, Middle, and Late subdivisions.
The corresponding rocks are referred to as Lower, Middle, and Upper Eocene. Of the stages shown above, the
Ypresian and occasionally the Lutetian constitute the Early, the Priabonian and sometimes the Bartonian the Late
state; alternatively, the Lutetian and Bartonian are united as the Middle Eocene.
Climate
The Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the
Cenozoic Era and ends in an icehouse climate. The evolution of the Eocene climate began with warming after the
end of the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) at 56 million years ago to a maximum during the Eocene
Optimum at around 49 million years ago. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a
smaller difference in temperature from the equator to the poles. Following the maximum was a descent into an
icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene-Oligocene transition at 34 million years ago. During this
decrease ice began to reappear at the poles, and the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the period of time where the
Eocene
56
Antarctic ice sheet began to rapidly expand.
Atmospheric greenhouse gas evolution
Greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene in
controlling the surface temperature. The end of the PETM was met with a very large sequestration of carbon dioxide
in the form of methane clathrate, coal, and crude oil at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean, that reduced the atmospheric
carbon dioxide. This event was similar in magnitude to the massive release of greenhouse gasses at the beginning of
the PETM, and it is hypothesized that the sequestration was mainly due to organic carbon burial and weathering of
silicates. For the early Eocene there is much discussion on how much carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere. This is
due to numerous proxies representing different atmospheric carbon dioxide content. For example, diverse
geochemical and paleontological proxies indicate that at the maximum of global warmth the atmospheric carbon
dioxide values were at 700 900 ppm while other proxies such as pedogenic (soil building) carbonate and marine
boron isotopes indicate large changes of carbon dioxide of over 2,000 ppm over periods of time of less than 1 million
years. Sources for this large influx of carbon dioxide could be attributed to volcanic out-gassing due to North
Atlantic rifting or oxidation of methane stored in large reservoirs deposited from the PETM event in the sea floor or
wetland environments. For contrast, today the carbon dioxide levels are at 400 ppm or .04%.
During the early Eocene, methane was another greenhouse gas that had a drastic effect on the climate. In comparison
to carbon dioxide, methane has much higher consequences with regards to temperature as methane has ~23 times
more effect per molecule than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale (it has a higher global warming potential). The
majority of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands,
swamps, and forests. The atmospheric methane concentration today is 0.000179% or 1.79 ppmv. Due to the warmer
climate and sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests, and more coal deposits
would be available for methane release. Comparing the early Eocene production of methane to current levels of
atmospheric methane, the early Eocene would be able to produce triple the amount of current methane production.
The warm temperatures during the early Eocene could have increased methane production rates, and methane that is
released into the atmosphere would in turn warm the troposphere, cool the stratosphere, and produce water vapor and
carbon dioxide through oxidation. Biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor along
with the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation. The breakdown of methane in an oxygen atmosphere
produces carbon monoxide, water vapor and infrared radiation. The carbon monoxide is not stable so it eventually
becomes carbon dioxide and in doing so releases yet more infrared radiation. Water vapor, traps more infrared than
does carbon dioxide.
The middle to late Eocene marks not only the switch from warming to cooling, but also the change in carbon dioxide
from increasing to decreasing. At the end of the Eocene Optimum, carbon dioxide began decreasing due to increased
siliceous plankton productivity and marine carbon burial. At the beginning of the middle Eocene an event that may
have triggered or helped with the draw down of carbon dioxide was the Azolla event at around 49 million years ago.
With the equable climate during the early Eocene, warm temperatures in the arctic allowed for the growth of azolla,
which is a floating aquatic fern, on the Arctic Ocean. Compared to current carbon dioxide levels, these azolla grew
rapidly in the enhanced carbon dioxide levels found in the early Eocene. As these azolla sank into the Arctic Ocean,
they became buried and sequestered their carbon into the seabed. This event could have led to a draw down of
atmospheric carbon dioxide of up to 470 ppm. Assuming the carbon dioxide concentrations were at 900 ppmv prior
to the Azolla Event they would have dropped to 430 ppmv, or 40 ppmv more than they are today, after the Azolla
Event. Another event during the middle Eocene that was a sudden and temporary reversal of the cooling conditions
was the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum. At around 41.5 million years ago, stable isotopic analysis of samples
from Southern Ocean drilling sites indicated a warming event for 600 thousand years. A sharp increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide was observed with a maximum of 4000 ppm: the highest amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide detected during the Eocene. The main hypothesis for such a radical transition was due to the continental drift
and collision of the India continent with the Asia continent and the resulting formation of the Himalayas. Another
Eocene
57
hypothesis involves extensive sea floor rifting and metamorphic decarbonation reactions releasing considerable
amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
At the end of the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum, cooling and the carbon dioxide drawdown continued through
the late Eocene and into the Eocene-Oligocene transition around 34 million years ago. Multiple proxies, such as
oxygen isotopes and alkenones, indicate that at the Eocene-Oligocene transition, the atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentration had decreased to around 750-800 ppm, approximately twice that of present levels.
Early Eocene and the equable climate problem
One of the unique features of the Eocenes climate as mentioned before was the equable and homogeneous climate
that existed in the early parts of the Eocene. A multitude of proxies support the presence of a warmer equable climate
being present during this period of time. A few of these proxies include the presence of fossils native to warm
climates, such as crocodiles, located in the higher latitudes, the presence in the high-latitudes of frost-intolerant flora
such as palm trees which cannot survive during sustained freezes, and fossils of snakes found in the tropics that
would require much higher average temperatures to sustain them. Using isotope proxies to determine ocean
temperatures indicate sea surface temperatures in the tropics as high as 35C (95F) and bottom water temperatures
that are 10C (18F) higher than present day values. With these bottom water temperatures, temperatures in areas
where deep-water forms near the poles are unable to be much cooler than the bottom water temperatures.
An issue arises, however, when trying to model the Eocene and reproduce the results that are found with the proxy
data. Using all different ranges of greenhouse gasses that occurred during the early Eocene, models were unable to
produce the warming that was found at the poles and the reduced seasonality that occurs with winters at the poles
being substantially warmer. The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler
temperatures of up to 20C (36F) underneath the actual determined temperature at the poles. This error has been
classified as the equable climate problem. To solve this problem, the solution would involve finding a process to
warm the poles without warming the tropics. Some hypotheses and tests which attempt to find the process are listed
below.
Large lakes
Due to the nature of water as opposed to land, less temperature variability would be present if a large body of water
is also present. In an attempt to try to mitigate the cooling polar temperatures, large lakes were proposed to mitigate
seasonal climate changes. To replicate this case, a lake was inserted into North America and a climate model was run
using varying carbon dioxide levels. The model runs concluded that while the lake did reduce the seasonality of the
region greater than just an increase in carbon dioxide, the addition of a large lake was unable to reduce the
seasonality to the levels shown by the floral and faunal data.
Ocean heat transport
The transport of heat from the tropics to the poles, much like how ocean heat transport functions in modern times,
was considered a possibility for the increased temperature and reduced seasonality for the poles. With the increased
sea surface temperatures and the increased temperature of the deep ocean water during the early Eocene, one
common hypothesis was that due to these increases there would be a greater transport of heat from the tropics to the
poles. Simulating these differences, the models produced lower heat transport due to the lower temperature gradients
and were unsuccessful in producing an equable climate from only ocean heat transport.
Eocene
58
Orbital parameters
While typically seen as a control on ice growth and seasonality, the orbital parameters were theorized as a possible
control on continental temperatures and seasonality. Simulating the Eocene by using an ice free planet, eccentricity,
obliquity, and precession were modified in different model runs to determine all the possible different scenarios that
could occur and their effects on temperature. One particular case led to warmer winters and cooler summer by up to
30% in the North American continent, and it reduced the seasonal variation of temperature by up to 75%. While
orbital parameters did not produce the warming at the poles, the parameters did show a great effect on seasonality
and needed to be considered.
Polar stratospheric clouds
Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were polar stratospheric clouds. Polar
stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratospheric
clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness,
polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation. Different types of
polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with
nitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).
Methane is an important factor in the creation of the primary Type II polar stratospheric clouds that were created in
the early Eocene. Since water vapor is the only supporting substance used in Type II polar stratospheric clouds, the
presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is necessary where in most situations the presence of water vapor
in the lower stratosphere is rare. When methane is oxidized, a significant amount of water vapor is released. Another
requirement for polar stratospheric clouds is cold temperatures to ensure condensation and cloud production. Polar
stratospheric cloud production, since it requires the cold temperatures, is usually limited to nighttime and winter
conditions. With this combination of wetter and colder conditions in the lower stratosphere, polar stratospheric
clouds could have formed over wide areas in Polar Regions.
To test the polar stratospheric clouds effects on the Eocene climate, models were run comparing the effects of polar
stratospheric clouds at the poles to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The polar stratospheric clouds had a
warming effect on the poles, increasing temperatures by up to 20C in the winter months. A multitude of feedbacks
also occurred in the models due to the polar stratospheric clouds presence. Any ice growth was slowed immensely
and would lead to any present ice melting. Only the poles were affected with the change in temperature and the
tropics were unaffected, which with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide would also cause the tropics to
increase in temperature. Due to the warming of the troposphere from the increased greenhouse effect of the polar
stratospheric clouds, the stratosphere would cool and would potentially increase the amount of polar stratospheric
clouds.
While the polar stratospheric clouds could explain the reduction of the equator to pole temperature gradient and the
increased temperatures at the poles during the early Eocene, there are a few drawbacks to maintaining polar
stratospheric clouds for an extended period of time. Separate model runs were used to determine the sustainability of
the polar stratospheric clouds. Methane would need to be continually released and sustained to maintain the lower
stratospheric water vapor. Increasing amounts of ice and condensation nuclei would be need to be high for the polar
stratospheric cloud to sustain itself and eventually expand.
Hyperthermals through the Early Eocene
During the warming in the Early Eocene between 52 and 55 million years ago, there were a series of short-term
changes of carbon isotope composition in the ocean. These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon
from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8C (7.2-14.4F) at the surface of the
ocean. These hyperthermals led to increased perturbations in planktonic and benthic foraminifera, with a higher rate
of sedimentation as a consequence of the warmer temperatures. Recent analysis of and research into these
Eocene
59
hyperthermals in the early Eocene has led to hypotheses that the hyperthermals are based on orbital parameters, in
particular eccentricity and obliquity. The hyperthermals in the early Eocene, notably the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal
Maximum (PETM), the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3), were
analyzed and found that orbital control may have had a role in triggering the ETM2 and ETM3.
Greenhouse to icehouse climate
The Eocene is not only known for containing the warmest period during the Cenozoic, but it also marked the decline
into an icehouse climate and the rapid expansion of the Antarctic ice sheet. The transition from a warming climate
into a cooling climate began at ~49 million years ago. Isotopes of carbon and oxygen indicate a shift to a global
cooling climate. The cause of the cooling has been attributed to a significant decrease of >2000ppm in atmospheric
carbon dioxide concentrations. One proposed cause of the reduction in carbon dioxide during the warming to cooling
transition was the Azolla event. The increased warmth at the poles, the isolated Arctic basin during the early Eocene,
and the significantly high amounts of carbon dioxide possibly led to azolla blooms across the Arctic Ocean. The
isolation of the Arctic Ocean led to stagnant waters and as the azolla sank to the sea floor, they became part of the
sediments and effectively sequestered the carbon. The ability for the azolla to sequester carbon is exceptional, and
the enhanced burial of azolla could have had a significant effect on the world atmospheric carbon content and may
have been the event to begin the transition into an ice house climate. Cooling after this event continued due to
continual decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide from organic productivity and weathering from mountain building.
Global cooling continued until there was a major reversal from cooling to warming indicated in the Southern Ocean
at around 42-41 million years ago. Oxygen isotope analysis showed a large negative change in the proportion of
heavier oxygen isotopes to lighter oxygen isotopes, which indicates an increase in global temperatures. This
warming event is known as the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum. The cause of the warming is considered to
primarily be due to carbon dioxide increases, since carbon isotope signatures rule out major methane release during
this short term warming. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide is considered to be due to increased seafloor
spreading rates between Australia and Antarctica and increased amounts of volcanism in the region. Another
possible atmospheric carbon dioxide increase could be during a sudden increase with metamorphic release during the
Himalayan orogeny, however data on the exact timing of metamorphic release of atmospheric carbon dioxide is not
well resolved in the data. Recent studies have mentioned, however, that the removal of the ocean between Asia and
India could release significant amounts of carbon dioxide. This warming is short lived, as benthic oxygen isotope
records indicate a return to cooling at ~40 million years ago.
Cooling continued throughout the rest of the Late Eocene into the Eocene-Oligocene transition. During the cooling
period, benthic oxygen isotopes show the possibility of ice creation and ice increase during this later cooling. The
end of the Eocene and beginning of the Oligocene is marked with the massive expansion of area of the Antarctic ice
sheet that was a major step into the icehouse climate. Along with the decrease of atmospheric carbon dioxide
reducing the global temperature, orbital factors in ice creation can be seen with 100,000 year and 400,000 year
fluctuations in benthic oxygen isotope records. Another major contribution to the expansion of the ice sheet was the
creation of the Antarctic circumpolar current. The creation of the Antarctic circumpolar current would isolate the
cold water around the Antarctic, which would reduce heat transport to the Antarctic along with create ocean gyres
that result in the upwelling of colder bottom waters. The issue with this hypothesis of the consideration of this being
a factor for the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the timing of the creation of the circulation is uncertain. For Drake
Passage, sediments indicate the opening occurred ~41 million years ago while tectonics indicate that this occurred
~32 million years ago.
Eocene
60
Palaeogeography
During the Eocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.
At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents mixed
with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the planet and keeping global temperatures high, but when
Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were routed away from
Antarctica. An isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled
down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and icefloes north, reinforcing the
cooling.
The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart.
In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins
among uplifts, resulting in the deposition of the Green River Formation lagersttte.
At about 35 Ma, an asteroid impact on the eastern coast of North America formed the Chesapeake Bay impact crater.
In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean,
and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land
connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are
very similar.
India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, folding the Himalayas into existence.
It is hypothesized that the Eocene hothouse world was caused by runaway global warming from released methane
clathrates deep in the oceans. The clathrates were buried beneath mud that was disturbed as the oceans warmed.
Methane (CH
4
) has ten to twenty times the greenhouse gas effect of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Flora
At the beginning of the Eocene, the high temperatures and warm oceans created a moist, balmy environment, with
forests spreading throughout the Earth from pole to pole. Apart from the driest deserts, Earth must have been entirely
covered in forests.
Polar forests were quite extensive. Fossils and even preserved remains of trees such as swamp cypress and dawn
redwood from the Eocene have been found on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic. Even at that time, Ellesmere Island was
only a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today. Fossils of subtropical and even tropical trees and plants
from the Eocene have also been found in Greenland and Alaska. Tropical rainforests grew as far north as northern
North America and Europe.
Palm trees were growing as far north as Alaska and northern Europe during the early Eocene, although they became
less abundant as the climate cooled. Dawn redwoods were far more extensive as well.
Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry out, with forests
thinning out considerably in some areas. The newly evolved grasses were still confined to river banks and lake
shores, and had not yet expanded into plains and savannas.
The cooling also brought seasonal changes. Deciduous trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes,
began to overtake evergreen tropical species. By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the
northern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the Arctic, and rainforests held on only in equatorial
South America, Africa, India and Australia.
Antarctica, which began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical rainforest, became much colder as
the period progressed; the heat-loving tropical flora was wiped out, and by the beginning of the Oligocene, the
continent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of tundra.
Eocene
61
Fauna
Eocene fauna of North America
Crassostrea gigantissima (Finch, 1824), a giant
oyster from the Eocene of Texas.
Fossil nummulitid foraminiferans showing
microspheric and megalospheric individuals;
Eocene of the United Arab Emirates; scale in
mm.
The oldest known fossils of most of the modern mammal orders appear
within a brief period during the early Eocene. At the beginning of the
Eocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America. These
modern mammals, like artiodactyls, perissodactyls and primates, had
features like long, thin legs, feet and hands capable of grasping, as well
as differentiated teeth adapted for chewing. Dwarf forms reigned. All
the members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10kg;
based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60%
of the size of the primitive Palaeocene mammals that preceded them.
They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them. It is
assumed that the hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals that
were better able to manage the heat.
Both groups of modern ungulates (hoofed animals) became prevalent
because of a major radiation between Europe and North America,
along with carnivorous ungulates like Mesonyx. Early forms of many
other modern mammalian orders appeared, including bats,
proboscidians (elephants), primates, rodents and marsupials. Older
primitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance.
Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found in
western North America, Europe, Patagonia, Egypt and southeast Asia.
Marine fauna are best known from South Asia and the southeast United
States.
Reptile fossils from this time, such as fossils of pythons and turtles, are
abundant. The remains of Titanoboa, a snake the length of a school
bus, was discovered in South America along with other large reptilian
megafauna. During the Eocene, plants and marine faunas became quite
modern. Many modern bird orders first appeared in the Eocene.
Several rich fossil insect faunas are known from the Eocene, notably
the Baltic amber found mainly along the south coast of the Baltic Sea,
amber from the Paris Basin, France, the Fur Formation, Denmark and
the Bembridge Marls from the Isle of Wight, England. Insects found in
Eocene deposits are mostly assignable to modern genera, though
frequently these genera do not occur in the area at present. For instance
the bibionid genus Plecia is common in fossil faunas from presently
temperate areas, but only lives in the tropics and subtropics today.
Eocene
62
Oceans
Basilosaurus
Prorastomus, an early sirenian
The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with fish and other sea life. The
first carcharinid sharks evolved, as did early marine mammals, including
Basilosaurus, an early species of whale that is thought to be descended from
land animals that existed earlier in the Eocene, the hoofed predators called
mesonychids, of which Mesonyx was a member. The first sirenians, relatives
of the elephants, also evolved at this time.
EoceneOligocene extinction
The end of the Eocene was marked by the EoceneOligocene extinction
event, also known as the Grande Coupure.
References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ timescale/ ?Ma=5633. 9
[2] The extinction of the Hantkeninidae, a planktonic family of foraminifera became generally
accepted as marking the Eocene-Oligocene boundary; in 1998 Massignano in Umbria, central Italy, was designated the Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP).
Further reading
Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http:/ / www.
stratigraphy.org/ gssp. htm Accessed April 30, 2006.
Stanley, Steven M. Earth System History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
External links
PaleoMap Project (http:/ / www. scotese. com/ )
Paleos Eocene page (http:/ / www. palaeos. com/ Cenozoic/ Eocene/ Eocene. htm)
PBS Deep Time: Eocene (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ evolution/ change/ deeptime/ eocene. html)
Eocene and Oligocene Fossils (http:/ / www. dmap. co. uk/ fossils/ )
The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada (http:/ / www.
sas. upenn. edu/ earth/ arctic/ )
Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales (http:/ / members. cox. net/ pyrophyllite/ Basilosaurus1. html)
Basilosaurus - The plesiosaur that wasn't.... (http:/ / www. oceansofkansas. com/ Harlan1834b. html)
Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America (http:/ / jan. ucc. nau. edu/ ~rcb7/ terpaleo. html)
Map of Eocene Earth (http:/ / www. scotese. com/ newpage9. htm)
Eocene Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera (http:/ / www. foraminifera. eu/ querydb. php?age=Eocene&
aktion=suche)
Eocene Epoch. (2011). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved from http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/
topic/ 189322/ Eocene-Epoch
Mastodon
63
Mastodon
Mastodon
Temporal range: Late Miocene - Late Pleistocene, 5.30.011Ma
Mounted M. americanum skeleton, AMNH
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Mammutidae
Genus: Mammut
Blumenbach, 1799
Type species
Elephas americanus
Kerr, 1792
Species
M. americanum (Kerr, 1792)
M. matthewi Osborn, 1921
M. raki Frick, 1933
M. cosoensis Schultz, 1937
Synonyms
Mastodon Cuvier, 1817
Tetracaulodon Godman, 1830
Missourium Koch, 1840
Leviathan Koch, 1841 (Emend. Koch, 1843)
Pliomastodon Osborn, 1926
Mastodons (Greek: "breast" and , "tooth") are an extinct group of mammal species related to
elephants, that inhabited North and Central America during the late Miocene or late Pliocene up to their extinction at
the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 to 11,000 years ago. Their genus name is Mammut, and they are members of the
order Proboscidea. They lived in herds and were predominantly forest dwelling animals that fed on a mixed diet of
browsing and grazing with a seasonal preference for browsing, in contrast to living elephants that are mostly grazing
animals.
The American mastodon is the most recent and best-known species of the genus. They disappeared from North
America as part of a mass extinction of most of the Pleistocene megafauna, widely presumed to have been a result of
Mastodon
64
rapid climate change in North America, as well as the sophistication of stone tool weaponry used by the Clovis
hunters which may have caused a gradual attrition of the mastodon population.
Etymology
American mastodon molars at the State Museum
of Pennsylvania
The name Mastodon (or mastodont) means nipple tooth (Greek:
"nipple" and , "tooth"),
[1][2]
and was assigned by the
French anatomist George Cuvier, derived from the cone-shaped cusps
of their tooth which resembles the shape of nipples. Mastodon as a
genus name is obsolete; the valid name is Mammut, a name that
preceded Cuvier's description, making Mastodon a junior synonym.
The change was met with resistance, and authors sometimes applied
"Mastodon" as an informal name so it became the common term for
members of the genus.
Description
Mastodons were similar in appearance to elephants and mammoths, though not closely related. Compared to
mammoths, mastodons had shorter legs, a longer body and were more heavily muscled, a build similar to that of the
current Asian elephants. The average body size of the species M. americanum was around 2.3m (7ft 7in) in height
at the shoulders, corresponding to a large female or a small male, but large males could grow up to 2.8m (9ft 2in)
in height and weigh as much as 4.5 tonnes (5 short tons). Like modern elephants, the females were smaller than the
males. They had a low and long skull with long curved tusks, with those of the males being more massive and more
strongly curved. Mastodons had cusp-shaped teeth, different from mammoth and elephant teeth (which have a series
of enamel plates), well-suited for chewing leaves and branches of trees and shrubs.
Discovery
The first remnant of Mammut was discovered in the village of Claverack, New York in 1705 by French soldiers, who
carried it to the Mississippi River, from which it was transported to the National Museum of Natural History in Paris.
A tooth some 2.2 kilograms (5lb) in weight, it became known as the incognitum. Some time later, similar remains
were found in South Carolina, which according to the slaves, looked remarkably similar to those of African
elephants, soon followed discoveries of complete bones and tusks in Ohio, and people started referring to the
"incognitum" as a mammoth, like the ones that were being dug out in Siberia. Anatomists noted that the teeth of
mammoth and elephants were different from those of incognitum, which possessed rows of large conical cusps,
indicating that they were dealing with a distinct species.
Mastodon
65
Classification and species
Comparison of Woolly mammoth (L) and American mastodon (R)
Mammut is a genus of the extinct
family Mammutidae, related to the
proboscidean family Elephantidae
(mammoths and elephants) from which
it originally diverged approximately 27
million years ago. The following
cladogram shows the placement of the
American mastodon among other
proboscideans, based on hyoid
characteristics:
Mammut americanum (American mastodon)
Gomphotherium sp.
Stegodon zdanskyi
Loxodonta africana (African elephant)
Elephas maximus (Asian elephant)
Mammuthus columbi (Columbian mammoth)
Over the years, several fossils from localities in North America, Africa and Asia have been attributed to Mammut,
but only the North American remains have been named and described, one of them being M. furlongi, named from
remains found in the Juntura Formation of Oregon, dating from the late Miocene. However, it is no longer
considered valid, leaving only 4 valid species left.
M. matthewi: Found in the Snake Creek Formation of Nebraska, dating from the late Hemphillian. Some authors
consider it practically undistinguishable from M. americanum.
M. raki: Its remains were found in the Palomas Formation, nearby Truth or Consequences, New Mexico, dating from
the early-middle Pliocene, between 4.5-3.6 Ma. It coexisted with Equus simplicidens and Gigantocamelus and differs
from M. americanum in having a relatively longer and narrower third molar, similar to the description of the defunct
genus Pliomastodon which supports its arrangement as an early species of Mammut. However, like M. matthewi,
some authors don't consider it sufficiently distinct from M. americaum to warrant its own species.
M. cosoensis: Found in the Coso Formation of California, dating from the late Pliocene, originally a species of
Pliomastodon it was later assigned to Mammut.
M. americanum: The American mastodon, the most known and the last species of Mammut, its earliest occurrences
date from the early-middle Pliocene (early Blancan stage). It had a continent wide distribution, specially during the
Pleistocene epoch, known from fossil sites ranging from present-day Alaska and New England in the north, to
Florida, southern California, and as far south as Honduras. The American mastodon resembled a woolly mammoth in
appearance, with a thick coat of shaggy hair. It had tusks that sometimes exceeded five meters in length; they curved
Mastodon
66
upwards, but less dramatically than those of the woolly mammoth. Its main habitat was cold spruce woodlands, and
it is believed to have browsed in herds. It became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene approximately 11,000 years
ago.\
A complete mtDNA sequence has been obtained from the tooth of an M. americanum skeleton found in permafrost
in northern Alaska. The remains are thought to be 50,000 to 130,000 old. This sequence has been used as an
outgroup to refine divergence dates in the evolution of the Elephantidae. The rate of mtDNA sequence change in
proboscideans was found to be significantly lower than in primates.
Paleobiology
Social behavior
Female and calf American mastodon at the
George Page Museum.
Based on the characteristics of mastodon bonesites we can infer that,
like in modern proboscideans, the Mastodon social group consisted of
adult females and young, living in bounded groups called mixed herds.
The males abandoned the mixed herds once reaching sexual maturity
and lived either alone or in male bond groupings. Unlike modern
elephants, the evidence suggest that there probably was no seasonal
synchrony of mating activity, with both males and females seeking out
each other for mating when sexually active.
Range and habitat
Restoration of a herd by Charles R. Knight
The range of most species of Mammut is unknown as their occurrences
are restricted to few localities, the exception being the American
mastodon (M. americanum), which is one of the most widely
distributed Pleistocene proboscideans in North America, ranging in age
from the faunal stages of Blancan to Rancholabrean and with fossil
sites from as north as Alaska, as east as Florida and as south as the
state of Puebla in central Mexico, however there is an isolated record
from Honduras, probably reflecting the results of the maximum
expansion achieved by the American mastodon during the Late
Pleistocene. There is strong evidence to support that the members of Mammut were forest dwelling proboscideans,
predominating in woodlands and forests, feeding in sylvan vegetation. They apparently did not disperse southward to
South America, it is speculated this was because of a dietary specialization on a particular type of vegetation.
Diet
Mastodons have been characterized as predominantly browsing animals, most accounts of gut contents have
identified coniferous twigs as the dominant element in their diet, in other accounts (Burning tree mastodon) have
found no coniferous content and suggest selective feeding on low, herbaceous vegetation, implying a mixed
browsing and grazing diet, evidence supported by studies of isotopic bone chemistry but displaying a seasonal
preference for browsing.
Mastodon
67
Extinction
They are generally reported as having disappeared from North America about 10,500 years ago as part of a mass
extinction of most of the Pleistocene megafauna, widely presumed to have been as a result of human hunting
pressure. The latest Paleo-Indians entered the American continent and expanded to relatively large numbers 13,000
years ago, and their hunting may have caused a gradual attrition of the mastodon population. Analysis of tusks of
mastodons from the American Great Lakes region over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in
the area shows a trend of declining age at maturation; this is contrary to what one would expect if they were
experiencing stresses from an unfavorable environment, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific
competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting.
References
[1] mastodon (http:/ / www.etymonline.com/ index. php?term=mastodon) Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 10 November 2012
[2] mastodon (http:/ / www.merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ mastodon) Merriam-Webster Retrieved 30 June 2012
External links
The Rochester Museum of Science - Expedition Earth Glaciers & Giants (http:/ / www. rmsc. org/
MuseumAndScienceCenter/ exhibits/ GlaciersAndGiants/ )
Illinois State Museum - Mastodon (http:/ / www. museum. state. il. us/ exhibits/ larson/ mammut. html)
Calvin College Mastodon Page (http:/ / www. calvin. edu/ academic/ geology/ mastodon/ calvin_c. htm)
American Museum of Natural History - Warren Mastodon (http:/ / www. amnh. org/ exhibitions/ expeditions/
treasure_fossil/ Treasures/ Warren_Mastodon/ warren. html?acts)
BBC Science and Nature:Animals - American mastodon Mammut americanum (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ nature/
wildfacts/ factfiles/ 3004. shtml)
BBC News - Greek mastodon find 'spectacular' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 6913366. stm)
Paleontological Research Institute - The Mastodon Project (http:/ / www. priweb. org/ mastodon/
mastodon_home. html)
Missouri State Parks and Histroric Sites - Mastodon State Historic Site (http:/ / www. mostateparks. com/
mastodon. htm)
Saint Louis Front Page - Mastodon State Historic Site (http:/ / www. slfp. com/ Mastodon. htm)
The Florida Museum of Natural History Virtual Exhibit - The Aucilla River Prehistory Project:When The First
Floridians Met The Last Mastodons (http:/ / www. flmnh. ufl. edu/ natsci/ vertpaleo/ aucilla/ arpp01. htm)
Worlds longest tusks (http:/ / thexodirectory. com/ 2007/ 11/ worlds-longest-tusks. html)
Western Center for Archaeology & Paleontology, home of the largest mastodon ever found in the Western United
States (http:/ / westerncentermuseum. org)
Smithsonian Magazine Features Mammoths and Mastodons (http:/ / www. smithsonianmag. com/ science-nature/
Mammoths-and-Mastodons-All-American-Monsters. html)
360 View of Mastodon Skull from Indiana State Museum (http:/ / www. photospherix. com/ examples/ 240. aspx)
Article Sources and Contributors
68
Article Sources and Contributors
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Dante Alighieri, Dinoguy2, Doc Taxon, Dora Nichov, Earendil56, Gruekiller, Hanay, JQF, Kazvorpal, Lambiam, Leptictidium, Liriodendron, MWAK, Macdonald-ross, MisfitToys, Miwasatoshi,
Murzabov, Mxn, NatureA16, Nicols10, Obli, Paul H., Peter M. Brown, Petter Bckman, SuperCroc, Tekken50, UtherSRG, Wetman, WikHead, 16 anonymous edits
Chapalmalania Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=605068794 Contributors: Abyssal, Anaxial, Apokryltaros, Dmitri Lytov, Dvdgmz, First Light, Flavio.brandani, GCarty,
Glevum, Hey jude, don't let me down, Jerkov, Leptictidium, Mojo Hand, NatureA16, Od Mishehu, Rlendog, Tigerbreath13, Ucucha, WolfmanSF, 20 anonymous edits
List of prehistoric mammals Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=604103008 Contributors: Abyssal, Ahoerstemeier, Animalparty, Apokryltaros, Astropithicus, Bahudhara, Ben
Skla, BigrTex, Boomeropski, CommonsDelinker, DabMachine, Deanmo19, Debresser, Delldot, Dusti, Dysmorodrepanis, Enlil Ninlil, ErikHaugen, Erimus, Eris11, Fama Clamosa, Fedor,
Fornadan, GCarty, Gaius Cornelius, HMSSolent, Hartebeest, Helioseus, Hmains, JMK, Jackhynes, Jackvon, JayHenry, Jerkov, Jyril, Kadenh, Kappa, Kevmin, Lavateraguy, Materialscientist,
Megan1967, Mojo Hand, Muriel Gottrop, NatureA16, Nihilrat, Pearle, Peter M. Brown, Rich Farmbrough, Scottandrewhutchins, Scottfisher, TexasAndroid, That Guy, From That Show!,
UtherSRG, Valerius Tygart, Vasconicus, Voxii, Voxparadox, 189 anonymous edits
Megacerops Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=602786272 Contributors: Anaxial, Apokryltaros, ArthurWeasley, Bellhalla, Capitaneteja, Darwin's Bulldog, Dger, Dolfrog,
Eumys, FunkMonk, Helioseus, Hmains, Jerkov, Jyril, Menchi, Mgiganteus1, Mike.BRZ, NatureA16, Noles1984, Od Mishehu, Od Mishehu AWB, PageRob, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, SamX, Skwirl,
Ucucha, UtherSRG, Webclient101, WolfmanSF, Zoeperkoe, 18 anonymous edits
Prehistoric mammal Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=586627017 Contributors: Alataristarion, Astropithicus, Bobo192, CambridgeBayWeather, CameronPG, CesarB,
Dancxjo, DanielCD, DarkFantasy, Dracontes, Dragon Helm, DuncanHill, Dy2007, EncycloPetey, Eriksiers, Fornadan, Greatgavini, J. Spencer, James truong, Jerkov, Jpdinoman3, Jyril, Kcatena,
Kevjenzak, Khanhvukk, Kinghistory15, Liverpoolpaddy, NatureA16, Peter M. Brown, Phlebas, Piano non troppo, Poetaris, Pol098, PolarYukon, RANDREWF7777, Rtkat3, Tjmoel, Ucucha,
UtherSRG, Wavelength, Welsh, Wikid77, Wilson44691, Yurei-eggtart, 111 anonymous edits
Pliocene Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=602085455 Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, 216.192.75.xxx, 7, AMK152, Aboctok, Abyssal, Aesopos, Ahoerstemeier, Aidan
Elliott-McCrea, AlexR, Andre Engels, Andy M. Wang, Anomalocaris, Antandrus, Attilios, Autodidactyl, Awickert, Baad, Bejnar, Bender235, Bob luvs monkeys, Bomac, BrendanRyan,
Brighterorange, Brim, Bryan Derksen, Camerong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carlwoz, Casito, Chermundy, Chrisdab, Civil Engineer III, Conversion script, D99figge, Da nuke,
DangerousPanda, Danilot, David Newton, Davidiad, Dbachmann, Deflective, Denisarona, Deville, Discospinster, Don Kenney, Download, Durova, Dysmorodrepanis, E104421, El C,
Emeraldcityserendipity, Emperorbma, Epastore, EuroCarGT, Fama Clamosa, Fang 23, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Fluffernutter, Franco3450, FunkMonk, Gaurav1146, Gdo01, Gene Nygaard,
Geologyguy, Giorgiogp2, Glenn, Graham87, GregorB, Gtz, Hagedis, Halvermac, Homo stannous, IanOsgood, Iblardi, Igiffin, Invertzoo, IvanLanin, JHMM13, JMK, Janet1983, John.D.Ward,
Johnbod, Joy, Jsonitsac, Jyril, Kamakura, Kwamikagami, Laudak, Loren.wilton, Luna Santin, Mackinaw, Markjoseph125, Mattis, Megan1967, Metalraptor, MethaneIzKandy, Mexcellent, Mhese,
Micheletb, Mikenorton, Misza13, Moverton, Mr pand, Mrfebruary, Mrt3366, Mwidunn, Nanten, NatureA16, Niceguyedc, Noles1984, NorthernFire, Ojigiri, Omnipaedista, P.Geol,
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Siim, Skizzik, Smack, Sorsanmetsastaja, Spitfire, Spotty11222, Steven Weston, Szilas, Targaryen, Teecrosser, Thanatos666, The Anonymouse, Think outside the box, Tnxman307, Tobias1984,
Tom Radulovich, Tomruen, Ucucha, UtherSRG, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vsmith, Walking.eagle, Waso99, Wayiran, WeijiBaikeBianji, Wetman, Wikipelli, Wilson44691, Wimt, WolfmanSF,
Woohookitty, Woudloper, Xezbeth, Zenibus, Zundark, 201 anonymous edits
Diprotodon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=603081743 Contributors: 80.255, A3RO, AdjustShift, Aidan Elliott-McCrea, Alphasinus, Amblypygi, AndrewHowse,
Andy120290, Anthony Appleyard, Apokryltaros, Aranae, Aremisasling, Arria Belli, ArthurWeasley, Atethnekos, Attilios, Auntof6, BCtl, Bcasterline, BoundaryRider, Bsharitt, C96ghia,
CCRider345, Cablehorn, CanisRufus, Cashie, Cast, Ch'marr, Chazwazla, Chickenflicker, Clarkk, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Crackpot23, Cuchullain, Dante Alighieri, Darth Ag.Ent,
Dbenbenn, Diucn, DustFormsWords, Dysmorodrepanis, ESkog, Ekr145, Enlil Ninlil, Erich gasboy, ErikTheRed13, Figaro, First Light, Flyingidiot, Francisco Valverde, FritoKAL, FunkMonk,
GCarty, Ghelae, Gogo Dodo, Hartebeest, Hobartimus, Iblardi, Imc, Imdiprotodon, Jannox, JeLuF, Jeremyswest, Jerkov, Jimp, Jjron, Johnny542, Jonpaulusa, JorisvS, Jrdioko, Kadenh, Kbdank71,
Kesuari, Khcf6971, Klavierspieler, Klemen Kocjancic, L-Bit, LadyofHats, Leptictidium, Llywrch, Longbowman, Melly42, Mikenorton, Mimihitam, Mstroeck, Myrtleblesing, NCartmell, Naddy,
NatureA16, Nepomuk 3, Ost316, PDH, Pcb21, Pengo, Pgan002, Photnart, Piano non troppo, PierreAbbat, Pinguinus, Pollinator, Postdlf, Postglock, Praemonitus, Pthalo, Quuxplusone, Rcbutcher,
Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rlendog, SeanMack, Secret (renamed), Secret Squrrel, Sexysantagangnamstylewubmaster, Spotty11222, Stho002, T34, Tannin, Tawker, Tekken50, Template
namespace initialisation script, Tez, The Epopt, The Singing Badger, Theo Pardilla, Timwi, Toytoy, Ucucha, UtherSRG, Varwen, Vidioman, Vrkunkel, WLRoss, Walker000, Wilhelm Klave,
Wnissen, WolfmanSF, Zac&eden, 163 anonymous edits
Eocene Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=606021441 Contributors: 216.192.86.xxx, 37ophiuchi, A. Parrot, AMK152, AManWithNoPlan, Alan Liefting, Altenmann, Anaxial,
Andrewjlockley, Ap, Apollonius 1236, Aranae, Arthena, Autodidactyl, Awickert, Axeman89, BD2412, Baldhur, Bejnar, Bender235, Bento00, BlaiseFEgan, Bobrayner, Brothernight, Bryan
Derksen, Butko, Cadiomals, Calaschysm, Casito, Charles Matthews, Ched, Chermundy, Chris the speller, Civil Engineer III, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Crocadog, Css, DanielCD,
Dante Alighieri, Davidiad, Deanos, Deflective, Detect, Deville, Djma12, Dlloyd, Don Kenney, Donarreiskoffer, Dysmorodrepanis, Edward, Elisevil, Emperorbma, Eocenecoal, Epolk, Ericamick,
ErikHaugen, Erimus, Eu-151, Ewlyahoocom, Explicit, Ezod, Fafnir1, Fama Clamosa, Fanatix, Fang 23, Fedginator, Finbarr Saunders, Fotaun, FunkMonk, GVP Webmaster, Gaius Cornelius,
GeoGreg, Geologyguy, Gil Gamesh, Glenn, Gnostic804, Gob Lofa, Gug01, Hut 8.5, I dream of horses, Iblardi, Invertzoo, IronGargoyle, IvanLanin, JD7788, JLaTondre, Jamesinderbyshire,
Janet1983, Jdawg123454123, Jerryrd, Jillswin, John Troodon, JohnSka, Jojhutton, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joy, Jsonitsac, Jyril, Karath88, Karshan, Keith Edkins, Kevmin, Kits1952, Korovioff,
Kosigrim, Kristaga, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Kyzul, Leptictidium, Leszek Jaczuk, Livajo, Logan, Mackinaw, Maias, MangoWong, Materialscientist, Mav, Mejor Los Indios, Mhese, Mikenorton,
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Brown, Petrb, Phe, Pmokeefe, Pterre, Ran, Reach Out to the Truth, RedWolf, Rene Sylvestersen, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Keatinge, Rob Hooft, Rock4arolla, RockMagnetist, Rudolf Pohl,
Rursus, Rwflammang, Ryan Vesey, SeventyThree, Shyangs, Siim, SkyLined, Smack, Smith609, Stealth cat, Stephen MUFC, Storkk, TACO INSURANCE, Thanatos666, Uhai, UtherSRG,
Vsmith, Walking.eagle, Wayne Hardman, Wayne Miller, Websterwebfoot, Wenkbrauwalbatros, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Whoop whoop pull up, William M. Connolley, Wilson44691,
WolfmanSF, Wsanders, Xook1kai Choa6aur, Zamphuor, Zootsuits, 177 , anonymous edits
Mastodon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=603653261 Contributors: 80.255, A. di M., A.Ou, Abby, Abyssal, Academic Challenger, Achowat, Adrian J. Hunter, Affenbart,
Alansohn, Alecsdaniel, Alison22, Alphathon, Amblypygi, Anaxial, Angr, Anselmocisneros, Apokryltaros, Apostrophe, Aranae, Aremisasling, Arjayay, Ark25, ArthurWeasley, Aschiff, Ashwinr,
AstarothCY, Audaciter, Axeman89, Aymankamelwiki, Bacteria, Badagnani, Bamyers99, Battlekow, Bkonrad, Blah yap dribble, Bongwarrior, BookGuru, Bootboy41, Bruce1ee, Bruinfan12,
BryanG, Bselig, Bsharitt, Buaidh, BubbinsZass, CWY2190, CambridgeBayWeather, Camyoung54, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carampaima, Casliber, CharlesC, Chris857, ChrisCork,
ChrisGualtieri, Chuckiesdad, Civil Engineer 3, Civitano de la tero, Clconway, Cmdrjameson, Cntras, ColbertCanuck, Colonies Chris, Coredesat, Craig Butz, Cygnis insignis, DBaba, DVdm,
DanielBeaver, DanielCD, DanielCristofani, Danny Sprinkle, Dantheman9758, Delpino, Dentren, Derumi, Dia^, Dinoguy2, Dirkbb, Discospinster, DocWatson42, Doctorkismet, Doswald99,
Download, DoxTxob, Dragon Helm, Dthomsen8, Dyolf, Earthlyreason, Einbierbitte, Ekm02001, Elliskev, Epolk, Eras-mus, Eric TF Bat, ErikHaugen, Erimus, Esperant, Eugene-elgato, Evmore,
Fama Clamosa, First Light, FisherQueen, Florentino floro, Fonzy, Fornost, Francisco Valverde, Frietjes, FunkMonk, GCarty, Gabriel Kielland, Gaterion, Gene Nygaard, Gibby78, Goustien,
Gruzd, Gtstricky, Haab2178, HaeB, Hai ren, Hairy Dude, Hajenso, Haroldbethwelsh, Hephaestos, Heron, Hetar, Hibernian, Hmains, HornColumbia, Hunnjazal, Husond, Hydrargyrum, I dream of
horses, IRP, J. Spencer, J.delanoy, J.reed, Jack Greenmaven, Jandebreet, Jaranda, Jjtimbrell, JoanneB, John, Josh Grosse, Jrockley, Jstuby, Jtierney89, K123456, KathrynLybarger, Kbh3rd, Kbir1,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
69
file:Castorocauda BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Castorocauda_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com)
File:Red Pencil Icon.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Pencil_Icon.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Peter coxhead
file:Chapalmalania.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chapalmalania.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Monkeysdrawer
Image:Adelobasileus BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adelobasileus_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
Image:Megazostrodon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megazostrodon.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Nordelch
Image:Steropodon BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steropodon_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
Image:Jeholodens BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jeholodens_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com)]
Image:Gobiconodon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gobiconodon.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Pavel Riha = user Pavel.Riha.CB
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Image:Diprotodon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, FunkMonk, G.dallorto, Haplochromis, Kersti
Nebelsiek, Zscout370
Image:Ekaltadeta BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ekaltadeta_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
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User:Apokryltaros
Image:Palorchestes BW.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palorchestes_BW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Nobu Tamura
Image:Leptictidium auderiense skeleton.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leptictidium_auderiense_skeleton.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors:
LadyofHats
Image:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
User:Southpaw, User:Stevenj
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DiBgd, Haplochromis, Kevmin, Nicols10, Putnik, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Toxodon skeleton in BA.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toxodon_skeleton_in_BA.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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File:Hyaenodon Heinrich Harder.jpeg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hyaenodon_Heinrich_Harder.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Heinrich Harder
Image:Ekorus viverra.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ekorus_viverra.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was
Apokryltaros at en.wikipedia
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Image:Canis dirus.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canis_dirus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Charles R. Knight
Image:Amphicyon ingens.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amphicyon_ingens.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Ghedoghedo
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