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*Corresponding author (R. ROSTAMI).
H/P: +06-177187197 E-mail address:

raheleh.rostami@yahoo.com. 2012. American Transactions on Engineering &
Applied Sciences. Volume 1 No.3. ISSN 2229-1652 eISSN 2229-1660 Online
Available at http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS/V01/281-294.pdf
281

American Transactions on
Engineering & Applied Sciences

http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS, http://Get.to/Research

Contribution of Historical Persian Gardens for
Sustainable Urban and Environment Lessons
from Hot Arid Region of Iran

Raheleh ROSTAMI
a*
, Hasanuddin LAMIT
a
, and
Seyed Mysam Khoshnava
b

a
Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, MALAYSIA
b
Department of Construction Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, MALAYSIA

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received April 20, 2012
Received in revised form
J uly 03, 2012
Accepted J uly 24, 2012
Available online J uly 25, 2012

Keywords:
Sustainable Architect;
Hot arid regions;
Historical Persian gardens;
Sustainable environment.
Sustainable development is a widely accepted strategic
framework in city planning and urban green spaces have an important
role in it. Beside, increasing empirical evidence indicates that the
presence of natural areas contributes to the quality of life in many
ways. Also, urban nature provides important social and
psychological benefits to human societies, which enrich human life
with meanings and emotions. In order to exemplify the importance of
urban green spaces for sustainability this paper analyses some
historical Persian gardens for environmental sustainability and
citizens well-being. In this study, historical Persian Gardens were
chosen due to their historical background as first sample of Iranian
urban green spaces which are still being used successfully. Some
results of a survey conducted among visitors of historical gardens in
Iran are presented and discussed. The issues investigated peoples
motives for visiting gardens and the emotional dimension involved in
the experience of nature and its importance for peoples general
well-being.
2012 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.
2012 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences
282
Raheleh, Rostami, Hasanuddin Lamit, and Seyed Meysam Khsohnava

1. Introduction
Theory of sustainable architecture and urbanism is one of the contentious fields of
architecture. The idea of sustainable architecture is offered to answer the questions about quality
and types of relationship between design and environment. Sustainable architecture is a responsive
and active design toward environment and place features and conditions. Sustainable architecture
uses its ecological capabilities to create a suitable and desirable environmental condition. It
includes a mixture of aesthetic, environmental, political, social and moral values. Some studies on
the subject indicate that the concept of sustainability has a root in old customs and traditional
cultures of mankind. Therefore, traditional architecture are recognized for considering cultural and
social identities and help a great deal in creating social, environmental and economical
sustainability. So, traditional aspects were considered in sustainable design philosophy.

Furthermore, sustainability is also a widely accepted strategic framework in city planning and
urban green spaces have an important role in it and considered as one possible step towards
creating sustainable urban environments (Costanza et al., 1997; J ongman et al., 2004; Opdam et al,
2006; J ongman, 1995; Zhang and Wang, 2006). Also, open green spaces are of a strategic
importance for the quality of life of our increasingly urbanized society (Miller, 1988; Chiesura,
2004). In fact, increasing empirical evidence indicates that the presence of natural resources (i.e.
urban parks, gardens and forests, green belts) and components (i.e. trees, water) in urban contexts
contributes to the quality of life in many ways. Protective factors of nature for physical,
psychological, and social health of people and community have been emphasized by various
researches (Takano et al, 2002; St Leger, 2003; Maller et al, 2005). Physically and psychologically,
view of natural scenes or elements foster stress recovery (Ulrich, 1981) by evoking positive
feelings, reducing negative emotions, and blocking stressful thoughts and provide a sense of
peacefulness and tranquility (Kaplan, 1983) and resulted in mental (Hartig et al., 1991; Conway,
2000) and physical health (Godbey et al., 1992). Therefore, local people consider urban nature and
daily outdoor recreation opportunities to be the main factors that enhance their every day
well-being (Eronene et al., 1997) even if used occasionally (Solecki &Welch,1995; Thompson
2002; Tinsley and Croskeys 2002; Chiesura 2004; Krenichyn 2004). Socially, nature can
encourage the use of outdoor spaces, increase social integration and interaction among neighbors
(Coley et al., 1997) which lead to trust, mutual understanding, shared values and supportive
*Corresponding author (R. ROSTAMI). H/P: +06-177187197 E-mail address:
283

behavior (Loures et al., 2007). So, natural areas provide social, psychological and physical
services, which enrich human life with meanings and emotions which are of crucial significance
for the livability of modern cities and the well-being of urban dwellers which is a key component of
sustainable city.

Besides the aforementioned, the functions of urban nature can provide economic benefits for
both municipalities and citizens. Air purification by trees, for example, can lead to reduced costs of
pollution reduction and water purification, wind and noise filtration can lead to microclimate
stabilization. Furthermore, aesthetic, historical and recreational values of urban green spaces
increase the attractiveness of the city and promote it as tourist destination, thus generating
employment and revenues (Chiesura, 2004).

In order to exemplify the importance of urban green spaces for wellbeing of citizens and for
the sustainability of the city where they live in, this paper analyses some historical Persian gardens.
In this study, historical Persian Gardens were chosen due to their historical background as first
sample of Iranian urban green spaces which are still being used successfully. Beside, historical
Persian gardens are one of the well-known traditional methods in hot arid regions of Iran which
play a role in works of beauty and aesthetic as well as compensating poor humidity to create a
sustainable micro climate for human living.
2. MakingCitiesSustainable
Nowadays, increasing in population, urbanization and the impact of urban areas on global
environment mean that creating more sustainable urban areas is essential to sustainability
(Ozdemir, 2007). Now, the question is: what is a sustainable city and how we can make a
sustainable city?

Whereas, there is no acceptable definition for sustainable city; therefore, the concept of
sustainable development which includes aspects of urban planning and community development is
considered for cities sustainability. According to Bruntland commission (The World Commission
284

on Environment and Development, 1987) sustainable development meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Also, Sibley
(1998) stated that sustainability refers to the continuing ability of the planet to meet the needs of
its living inhabitants. So, some cities have been developing their own sustainability indicators and
aspects such as amount of public green spaces per inhabitant, public parks and recreation
areas which are often mentioned as important factors to make the city livable, pleasant and
attractive for its citizens (Chiesura, 2004). But, from another point of view, developing more
sustainable cities is not just about improving the abiotic and biotic aspects of urban life, it is also
about the social aspects of city life, that is about peoples satisfaction, experiences and perceptions
of the quality of their everyday environments and quality of life issues are central to all.

To reach these goals, it is essential to follow all dimensions of sustainable development
(environmental, social and economic). According to principles which were presented in The
European Landscape Convention in Florence, 2000; to achieve sustainability, development should
be based on a balanced and harmonious relationship between social needs, economic activities
and the environment. Researchers (Beck, 1992; Sachs, 1995, Ferris et al, 2001; Loureset et al,
2007) claimed that urban landscape can be very positively linked to sustainability policies.
Thompson (2000) indicates that sustainable development seems to offer landscape architects a
tangible way of relating their aesthetic, social and ecological values. Urban green spaces benefits
urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally, psychologically, socially and
economically (Grahn, P., 1985; Burgess, J ., Harrison, C., Limb, M.,1988; Conway, H., 2000; Gehl,
J ., Gemzoe, L, 2001). Once more, urban green spaces are considered as key components in urban
sustainability.
3. MaterialandMethod
Both, secondary (literature review) and primary data collection have been gathered. Primary
data have been collected through a survey conducted among residents of two historical cities of
Iran where, a lot of historical Persian gardens still exist and being used actively by urban residents.
To find the most popular and memorable garden among the existing samples, a pilot test was
undertaken based on residents preferences. The pilot test concluded Hasht Behesht Garden or/
Bagh-e- Bolbol (literally: Eight Paradise Garden or/ Nightingle Garden) which dating back to
285

1660, in Isfahan city and Shahzdeh Garden (literally: Prince garden), which is created in 18
th

century, in Kerman as the most frequented.

Respondents were randomly selected among visitors of gardens from various age groups.
Also, personal attributes like gender, occupation, and educational background were considered.
Respondents were asked to fill the questionnaire during their stay in the gardens, so the answers
would reflect their immediate experiences. Questionnaires were distributed on weekdays and
weekends, in different hours of the day, and in different parts of the gardens. Responses formats
were either closed (multiple choices) and open ended. The questionnaires addressed a broad range
of issues, ranging from motives for respondents to visit gardens, their activities during visit periods
and their feelings towards the gardens. Both descriptive and inferential techniques have been used
to analyze and interpret the answers.
4. Results
In total, 252 respondents took part in both cities. Sample includes 152 respondents (60.31%) in
Esfahan and 100 respondents (39.68%) in Kerman. In total, male gender constitute prevalent
respondents (57.5%). Age classes ranged from below 10 years old to over 60 and prevalent by
20-30 age groups (48.0%). Most of the respondents had university degree and categorized as
student in occupation. The mean of living period in cities is about 23 years (S.D =16.16).
4.1 MotivesforVisitingGardens
To calculate the data about peoples motives to visit the gardens, respondents were asked:
Why do you visit this garden? The following alternative options were given: I visit this garden
because of its nature and vegetation, its diversity, its beauty, its fascinating, its restorativeness
effect, its accessibility, its silence, its familiarity, its representativeness and others. A frequency
analysis of peoples motives to visit gardens showed that gardens nature and vegetation achieved
highest percentage (54.4%) among other options (Fig. 1). This motive reflects the need of natural
environment in urban context.

286

Figure 1: Motivations of gardens for visitors: Frequency distribution.

Beauty of gardens stands out as second most effective factor for 42.9% of respondents. This
motive revealed the relation of aesthetic attributes and peoples preferences and emphasized the
effect of aesthetic on preferences like other researches (See: Nasar, 1983; Lothian, 1999;
Kaltenborn & Bjerk, 2002; Parsons & Daniel, 2002; Hidalgo, Berto, Galindo, and Getren, 2006).

So, gardens became fascinating for 29% of the respondents. Also, aesthetic attributes can
affect places restorativeness (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Kaplan, 1995; Hernandez, Hidalgo,
Berto, and Peron, 2001; Staats, Kieviet, and Hartig, 2003; Koole, Vnder, and Wulp, 2003; Galindo
and Hidalgo, 2005) which was mentioned by almost 28% of respondents. Restorativeness effects
of gardens can create a place for relaxation and step away from daily worries, breath fresh air and
relax mentally and physically.

Gardens open view and easy accessibility were cited by almost 24% of respondents. Findings
also, indicates that 18.3% of respondents visit garden because of its visual diversity and because it
is a representative place of the city. 62.7% of respondents mentioned that these gardens are historic
and represent a symbol for their cities. Hence, sense of attachment to these gardens was identified
by 17.5% of respondents. Sense of attachment to a place result in a sense of belonging to towns and
society and consequently enhance societys health status. Silence of gardens, meeting people and
familiarity option follow in decreasing frequency. Motives like gardens silence and consideration
of garden as meeting place reflect needs of experiencing solitude, as well as social relation and
integration.
54.4%
42.9%
29%
27.4%
24.6%
24.2%
18.3%
18.3%
17.5%
17.5%
11.9%
8.3%
Its Nature
Its Beauty
It's Fascinating
Its restorativeness effect
Its open view
Its accessibility
Its visual diversity
It is a representative place of city
Its silence
A sense of attachment to place
Its a meeting place
I'm familiar with it
287

4.2 FunctionalAspectsoftheGardens
Another aspect of gardens is how gardens are to be used by residents. To understand the
functions of gardens in urban area, respondents were asked: What is your experience and activity
during visitation of garden? The following alternative options were given: I come to visit this
garden for recreation, for sitting alone, for wandering and walking, for family picnic, to be with
others, to do exercise, to observe nature and to be part of nature. A frequency analysis of peoples
activity in gardens revealed that the most important experience which is considered by respondents
is recreation. 49.6% of respondents visit gardens for recreation (Fig. 2). This result denotes the
psychological effects of nature which evoke calm and relaxation as well as stress reduction.
Subsequently, this confirms why 40% of respondents considered natural observation as second
most important experience of garden. Also, 27.8% of respondents mentioned that visiting gardens
is like being a part of nature. This result reflects again the importance of nature.

Figure 2: Experiences and activities in garden.

Family picnic (25.4%) and to be with others (22.2%) constitute another important aspects of
gardens function. These functions reveal the social aspects of gardens which encourage people to
use urban green spaces as part of their daily life style and to be with others. Subsequently, increase
social interaction and integration invoke trust and supportive behaviors. Other activities like
sitting, exercising and walking follow in decreasing frequency and less considered by respondents.
4.3 TheEmotionalDimensionofGardensExperience
Another important research interest was to explore the emotional dimension of nature based
49.6%
27.8%
25.4%
22.2%
17%
7.5%
4%
ForRecreation
Toobservenature
Forfamilypicnic
Tobewithothers
Forsitting
Todoexercise
Forwalking
288

experiences, the benefits people perceive through natural contact and the relationship with their
well-being. To explore emotional aspects of garden, respondents were asked to answer the
following question: What feelings do gardens evoke you? and the following alternative options
were given: safety, freedom, comfortable, happiness, calm and tranquility, memories
remembrance, feeling healthier, feeling that you are closer to nature and feeling that you are
different. Frequency analysis of the answers about the feelings experienced (Fig. 3) shows that
calm and tranquility is the feeling most frequently cited by respondents, which accounts for 50%
of the answers. The tranquil atmosphere of the garden inspires reflection, meditation, and a general
feeling of harmony between one self and the surrounding. Also, it is assumed that feelings and
emotions we perceive in natural environment are relevant part of our experiences in nature. So,
integration of results of first important experience in gardens (recreation) and current finding verify
the assumption. Memories remembrance is another emotional aspects which was considered by
42.8% of respondents.

Figure 3: Feelings and emotional experiences.

Happiness is another feeling that gardens evoke for respondents, accounting almost 35% of the
answers. Also, 33.7% of respondents mentioned feeling closer to nature. Therefore, it can be
proven that there is a relationship between nature and positive feelings like happiness as well as
comfortable (21.8%) and feeling healthier (19.4%). Feeling safe and freedom follow in decreasing
frequency. Feeling I am different in this garden was less considered by respondents (2%).
50%
42.8%
35.3%
33.7%
21.8%
19.4%
15.5%
14.7%
2%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Calmandtranquility
Memoriesremembrance
Happiness
Closertonature
Comfortable
Feelhealthier
Safety
Freedom
FeelIamdifferent
289

4.4 GardenVisitationandWellbeing
For better understanding about the importance of natural experience for peoples well-being,
respondents were asked to rank the importance of visiting gardens for emotional and physical
disease like: depression, sadness, tiredness and sickness along a 15 points measurement scale (1,
not important at all; 2, not important; 3, important; 4, very important; 5, essential). A frequency
analysis showed that responses range from important to essential. Respondents believed that
visiting gardens could mostly reduce depression (94%) as well as removing tiredness, accounting
almost 90% of answers. Also, results show that sadness (81.6%) and physical sickness (76.3%)
could be better during and after garden visitations. Overall, findings revealed nature effects on
betterment of both emotional and physical disease, widely emotional ones.

Table 1: Variables that Affect People Presence in the Gardens.
Variables Very Much Much Less Very Less Not Effective
Organization 37.9% 6.7% 6.7% 0.0% 3.0%
Representative 37.9% 6.3% 6.5% 1.3% 2.4%
Accessibility 27.2% 12.5% 10.1% 0.0% 4.5%
Familiarity 27.2% 17.2% 8.4% 0.2% 1.3%
Symbolism 28.2% 14.4% 6.0% 1.1% 4.3%
Emotion 14.2% 14.7% 1.1% 0.9% 1.9%
Activity 13.4% 5.4% 6.5% 2.4% 5.2%
Memories 7.8% 8.6% 7.3% 3.4% 6.6%
Naturalness 17.9% 6.5% 3.9% 0.6% 3.9%

At the end, to articulate aspects of historical Persian garden that could affect peoples
presence, respondents were asked to rank the importance of the following features for people
presence. Features include: gardens organization, accessibility, familiarity, activity, naturalness,
emotion and memory of respondents about gardens, gardens representativeness and symbolisms.
Findings indicate that all features ranged as essential one with different frequency (See Table 1).
Gardens organizations as well as representativeness are considered as most important features that
could affect people presence for almost 37.9% of respondents. Symbolism identified as second
290

most important feature that affect 28% of people who visit these gardens. Most of respondents
mentioned that people visit this garden because these gardens are historic. Accessibility and
familiarity achieved a same value (27.2%) for people presence in gardens. Emotional and physical
(activity) aspects of gardens follow in decreasing frequency, accounting around of the answers.
Respondents garden related memories identified as the last factor that could affect people
presence in gardens (7.8%).
5. DiscussionsandRecommendations
The information emerged from the survey indicates that historical Persian gardens fulfils
important residents needs in urban context. Obtained results are according to previous researches
regarding peoples need to experience nature (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). People visit gardens
primarily because they want to relax. Recreation is as an important need fulfilled in Persian
gardens (49.6%). Residents considered gardens as recreational area which is mentioned in
Chiesura (2004) research and important factors to make the city livable, pleasant and attractive for
its citizens and this is why of respondents carry out social activities like being with others and
family picnic in these gardens. Social activities that happened in these gardens signify Coley et al
(1997) results that nature can encourage the use of outdoor spaces and increase social integration
and interaction among neighbors which lead to trust, mutual understanding, shared values and
supportive behavior (Loures et al., 2007). Therefore from the social point of view, historical
Persian gardens considered by residents as urban nature and daily outdoor recreation opportunities
are the main factors that Eronene et al (1997) believed could enhance every day well-being.

Furthermore, findings show that the experience of nature in the city is a source of a large array
of positive feelings to people. Calm and tranquility is the most important feeling that residents
experience in historical Persian gardens. Besides, feeling happiness, comfortable, safety, freedom
and even healthier were frequently mentioned by respondents. Results confirmed psychological
health effects of nature on positive moods like pleasure which were indicated by Ulrich (1982) as
well as reduction of negative effects like anger and anxiety (Rohde and Kendle, 1994) which evoke
calmness and tranquility and provide restorative environments that can help strengthen the
activities of the right hemisphere of the brain and restore harmony to functions on the brain as a
whole (Furnas, 1979). In other words, people who have access to nearby natural settings were
291

found to be healthier overall than other individuals (Kaplan, 1989). And, all these emotional and
psychological benefits contribute critically to the quality of human life, which in turn is a key
component of sustainable development (Chiesura, 2004). This is why respondents ranged the
importance of visiting gardens for emotional and physical disease as important and even as
essential factors. Most of the respondents believed that during and after gardens visitation,
depression and tiredness decreased and even sadness and physical disease could be lessened.
6. Conclusion
In the context of this study, the role of historical Persian gardens as provider of social services
and their importance for city sustainability has been addressed. Some results have been presented
of a survey aimed at exploring the motives and perceptions of visitors of two well-known samples
of historical Persian gardens. Some conclusive remarks can be made.

First of all, historical Persian gardens as natural urban area fulfill many social functions and
psychological needs of citizens, which make these gardens a valuable municipal resource, and a
key ingredient for city sustainability.

Secondly, attributes of the physical environment interact with various human characteristics,
such as socio demographics and peoples perceptions of the environment could affect physical
activities and this in turn influences health outcomes. So, links among environmental attributes,
physical activity, body weight, and health can result in environmental compatibility and sense of
attachment to a place which result on the quality of life and well-being.

Therefore, valuation of the various amenities, social and psychological services of urban areas
should be integrated into project assessments procedure and be properly accounted for in policy
decisions and urban planning strategies as well as users satisfactions, needs and their
representation and participation in all aspects of urban life which are critical components in a
sustainable city.
292

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Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication
according to the guidelines given at the journals website. Note: This article
was accepted and presented at the 2
nd
International Conference-Workshop on
Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD) organized by School of
Housing, Building & Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia from
March 3
rd
-5
th
, 2012.

Raheleh Rostami received her MSc in Architecture in 2006 from Islamic Azad University of
Kerman. Currently she is a PhD Candidate in Landscape Architecture in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Her current research interests are landscape design and its history and philosophy, people's
perceptions and behaviors with regard to urban landscapes and integration of public perceptions
and values in planning and management of urban open spaces.

Dr.Hasanuddin Lamit received his PhD in Architecture from Sheffield University, United Kingdom.
Currently, he is an Associated Professor in the Faculty of Built Environment Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia. His current research interests are urban design and history / philosophy of landscape
architecture.

Seyed Meysam Khoshnava is currently a master student in Construction Management in Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. His current research interests are Green and Sustainability, and application of
softwares such as BIM, Autodesk Ecotech, and Auto desk Green Studio.

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