Running head: BLOOD 1

Blood
Name:
Course:
Institution:
Instructor:
Date:




BLOOD 2

Which of the formed elements would increase after the donation of a pint of blood and why?
Reticulocytes are released into the blood after donation. (Martini, F. & Nath, J. 2009).
When one loses a large amount of blood, reticulocytes are quickly produced to enable bodies
quickly replenish the blood supplies. (Martini, F. & Nath, J. 2009).
Describe the three phases of the normal blood-clotting process.
Vascular phase: Soon after blood vessels are injured, prothrombotic activities are initiated as a
result of exposure of collagen, subendothelial tissues and basement membrane. The clotting
activities in this phase include platelet adhesion and aggregation through release of von
Willebrand factor (vWF) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (Gerard J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds
Grabowski; 2003). At this juncture, the initial layer of platelet plug is developed at the injury
site.
Platelet phase: Platelets play a role in blood clotting process which includes: maintaining the
health of inner lining of vascular wall; forming platelet plug when there is vessel wall injury;
initiating coagulation phase. In the platelet phase, the platelets stick and adhere to the damaged
surface, change shape, and aggregate forming a hemostatic platelet plug in the injured vessel site
(Gerard J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds Grabowski; 2003). This results to primary cessation of the
particular bleed by hemostatic plug formation.
Coagulation phase: This phase begins with initiation of plasma proteins produced by the liver.
These coagulation factors are gradually activated within their respective pathways. The extrinsic
pathway is activated by a plasma protein factor VII when its exposed to tissue factor within the
BLOOD 3

injured blood vessel while the intrinsic pathway is activated when plasma protein factor XII
contacts with the injury-exposed tissues (Gerard J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds Grabowski; 2003).
The pathways then merge and a factor X is initiated, yielding the initiation of a common
pathway. This results to conversion of prothrombin to thrombin which acts as a catalyst for
conversion of fibrinogen, which is a precursor to fibrin (Gerard J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds
Grabowski; 2003). The fibrin is then converted to an insoluble and stringy protein which forms
minute delicate structures referred to as fibrils. This results to plasma and blood cells being
enmeshed in the fibrils network to form a clot (Gerard J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds Grabowski;
2003). The fibrils are therefore responsible for the tightly binding and stabilizing the platelet
plug, as well as affixing it to the injury site. This definitive clot therefore prevents excessive
bleeding from the injury site.
Describe ABO and Rh blood groups
ABO The ABO is the basic system of classifying blood types. It divides blood into 4 types
namely A, B, AB and O. There are two definite antigens found on the surface of ones red blood
cells. A persons blood contains an inherited as well as a specific set of distinct antigens (Gerard
J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds Grabowski; 2003). In this classification system, one of the antigens
is named A while the other is B. If the red blood cells have only A antigen, then that blood
is type A. If the red blood cells have B antigen, then the blood is type B. If the red blood
cells have both A and B antigen, then the blood is type AB. If the red blood cells have neither
antigen, then the blood is type O.
BLOOD 4

Rhesus system The Rh system is the second main blood grouping system. The Rh factor is a
form of inherited blood antigen or protein on the red blood cells (Cecelia Gatson Grindel;
Leonard V Crowley; Charlotte A Johnston; 1997). Those with it are Rh positive while those
without are Rh negative. Rh positive is more common with about 85% people being Rh
positive. From the Rh system, there are around 35 different possibilities which can be inherited
from each parent, which are grouped into positive or negative types.
For example, when ones blood is AB+, this means that they have a type AB blood and are Rh
positive. If one has O- blood, then it means they have blood O type and are RH negative. This
shows that there is a connection between Rh factor and ABO blood type.
Explain the antigen-antibody response as it relates to blood groups.
Antigens are surface proteins that are found in all cells. Antigen-antibody response is
activated if a person receives transfusion of blood that contains antigens which it identifies as
being foreign (Martini, F. & Nath, J. 2009). The antibodies found in an individuals blood
usually bind the foreign antigen, causing clumping. The complexes of antigen-antibody clogs
small blood vessels while the foreign red blood cells are lysed, thereby releasing hemoglobin
into the bloodstream.




BLOOD 5

References
Martini, F. & Nath, J. (2009). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology New York: Wiley.
Gerard J Tortora; Sandra Reynolds Grabowski; (2003) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
New York: Wiley.
Cecelia Gatson Grindel; Leonard V Crowley; Charlotte A Johnston; (1997) Anatomy and
Physiology Springhouse, Pa: Springhouse Corp.