GEOG 301: SOILS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY

LECTURE 1 SOIL FORMATION AND SOIL HORIZONS

Definition n! Co"#o$ition of Soi%$
Soil has been defined differently by various scholars. Foth (1978:1) defines it as &t'e
%oo$e $()f*e of t'e e)t'+, Soil is comprised of "ine)%$- o).ni* "tte)- i) n!
/te). Another useful definition iven by !ac"onald (#$$%:%#) is that: &Soi% i$ t'e
(##e)"o$t %0e) of "ine)% n! o).ni* "tte) fo(n! on t'e e)t'1$ $()f*e+,
Soil is comprised of minerals, organic matter, air and water. !inerals and oranic
mater constitute the $o%i! "te)i% part. Air and &ater form the #o)e $#*e.
Althouh the proportion of these components may vary slihtly from one soil to
another' minerals enerally comprise about ()* of the total volume of a typical
surface soil. About )* of the volume of a ood surface soil is made up of oranic
matter. +he remainin )$* soil pore space contains rouhly e,ual amounts of &ater
(#)*) and air (#)*).
Soi% Fo)"tion
Soil formation (also -no&n as pedoenesis) beins &ith the &eatherin of roc-s or
transported sediments into small particles. .hysical &eatherin occurs durin the
early staes of soil formation as free/e0tha& processes and differential heatin and
coolin brea-do&n parent material. After underlyin roc- or roc- framents are
bro-en do&n into smaller particles that can retain sufficient &ater and support plant
life' the soil formation process no& continues more rapidly. +he decomposition of
oranic materials leads to the production of carbon dio1ide' &hich dissolves in &ater
to form carbonic acid. 2arbonic acid' in turn' reacts &ith and alters many of the
primary minerals in the ne&ly formed soil to form smaller soil particles of sand' silt'
and clay minerals. +hus' chemical &eatherin is very important at the latter staes of
soil formation.
3t is important to stress that the transformation of #)ent "te)i%$ into soil is
affected by a number of factors' notably *%i"te- to#o.)#'0- %i2in. o).ni$"$- n!
ti"e. "ependin on the environment' soils produced from &eatherin of roc-s are
further affected by various pedoenic (soil formin) processes. For instance' in the
&arm moist climates' heavy rainfall may cause the leachin of some ions from the
surface soil. +his pedoenic process is -no&n as laterization.
Soi% Ho)i3on$

A soil hori/on can be defined as %0e) in t'e $oi% /'i*' "e$()e$ #)%%e% to t'e
$oi% $()f*e n! #o$$e$$ #)o#e)tie$ /'i*' !iffe) f)o" t'e %0e)$ 4enet' n!
4o2e, +he vertical se,uence of soil hori/ons found at a iven location is collectively
called the soil profile. 3n other &ords' soil profile is a 42e)ti*% *)o$$5$e*tion of t'e
$oi% $'o/in. t'e 2)io($ 'o)i3on$ of /'i*' it i$ *o"#o$e! n! e6ten!in. into t'e
1
#)ent "te)i%+ (Ahn' 199%: 5i). +he processes involved in the formation of soil
profiles are (a) T)n$fo)"tion$- such as &eatherin and oranic matter brea-do&n6
(b) T)n$%o*tion$ or movement of inoranic and oranic materials from one hori/on
to another' the materials bein moved mostly by &ater but also by soil oranisms6 (c)
A!!ition$ of "te)i%$ to the soil profile from outside sources' such as oranic
matter from leaves, dust from the atmosphere, or soluble salts from
the ground water; (d) Losses of materials from the soil profle by
leaching or erosion of surface materials.
Soil scientists normally use the capital letters O- A- B- C- n! E to denote the main or
4master7 hori/ons. 8ot all soils have all these hori/ons. For instance' only unmanaed
forest soils have an oranic 9 hori/on on the surface and a leached /one (: hori/on)
belo& the A hori/on. 3n any soil' each 4master7 hori/on may have subdivisions. +here
are also transitional /ones bet&een master hori/ons (see Fiure 1.1). 3n some
classification systems' these capital letters (i.e. 9' A' ;' 2 and :) are follo&ed by
several alphanumerical modifiers hihlihtin particular outstandin features of the
hori/on. +he main characteristics of each of the 4master7 hori/ons of a typical soil
profile are presented belo&:
O Ho)i3on: +his lies at the top of the soil profile and it is primarily composed of
oranic matter. +he surface of the layer is normally made up of fresh litter. <o&ever'
at depth' litter may have been destroyed by decomposition. As sho&n in Fiure 1.1'
the hori/on may be further divided into three layers' based on the state of the oranic
matter (&hether it is fully decomposed or partially decomposed). +he decomposed
oranic matter enriches the soil &ith nutrients' such as potassium and nitroen. This
horizon usually occurs in forested areas, but are generally absent in
grassland regions
A Ho)i3on: +he A hori/on lies beneath the 9 hori/on. +his hori/on mar-s the
beinnin of the t)(e "ine)% $oi%. 3t is' therefore' sometimes referred to as the
surface soil or topsoil. +he hori/on is usually coarser than the subsoil layer (;
hori/on)' and contains more oranic matter than the other soil layers beneath it. +he
colour of this topsoil is bro&nish or blac-' due to the presence of oranic matter. +he
A hori/on is enerally more fertile than the hori/ons beneath it.
E Ho)i3on: +he : hori/on' found =ust beneath the A hori/on' is enerally liht
coloured. Some scientists see this as part of the surface soils or topsoil (see' for
instance' "aniels and <aerin' #$$>). E%(2ition (the movement of dissolved
chemicals and minerals do&n&ard throuh the soil due to the movement of round
&ater) is the dominant process in this hori/on. ?eachin of oranic matter' clay
particles' and o1ides of aluminium and iron is active in this hori/on. Soil in this layer
tends to be *i!i* because of the intense leachin that occurs in the /one.
B Ho)i3on: ;eneath the : hori/on is the ; hori/on' &hich is also referred to as the
subsoil. +his is a /one of illuviation &here do&n&ard movin chemicals and fine
materials are accumulated. +his layer is enerally denser and finer in te1ture than the
surface soil. 9ranic matter content of the ; hori/on is also much lo&er than that of
the A hori/on. "ue to the accumulation of iron coated clays in this layer' the soil
colours are often brihter' &ith shades of yello&' bro&n' and red.
#
C Ho)i3on: +his hori/on comprises partially &eathered parent material. +he
characteristics of materials here are more li-e the parent material from &hich they
have been formed. ;eneath the 2 hori/on is the bedroc-' &hich is often denoted by
the letter @.
Fiure 1.1 A typical soil profile
Source: "aniels and <aerin (#$$>: %>)
%
3t must be emphasised that various soil types have different derees of hori/on
development. Ahile some 4older or mature7 soils may display the full profile of the
hori/ons described above' youner or 4immature7 soils may only have an 9' A' 2
se,uence. For instance' relatively ne& deposits of soil parent material' such as
alluvium and volcanic ash' may not have &ell developed hori/ons.
An important term that is related to soil hori/on is 4solum7. The solum (plural, sola)
consists of the surface and subsoil layers that have undergone the same soil forming
conditions. Some soils may not have any solum. For instance' a soil that consists only
of recently deposited alluvium does not have a solum. 3n terms of soil hori/on
desinations' a solum enerally comprises of A' :' and ; hori/ons and their
transitional hori/ons. 3n some cases' the 9 hori/on is also part of the solum. 3n other
&ords' the solum is that part of the soil &hich contains &ell &eathered parent
materials.
Di2e)$it0 of Soi% P)ofi%e$
As hinted already' soil profiles differ from place to place. Ahile some soils may sho&
all the master hori/ons discussed above (i.e. 9' A' :' ; and 2 hori/ons)' some soil
profiles may be characteri/ed by only a fe& hori/ons. Aain' &hile the profiles of
some soils may be several metres deep before they reach the consolidated roc-s' some
other profiles may be so shallo& that plants do not have enouh root room' &ith roc-
or ironstone at less than 1 m. Ahat causes these differences in the nature of soil
profilesB ;asically' the variations in the nature of soil profiles are due to differences
in the soil0formin factors (i.e. *%i"te- #)ent "te)i%- 4iot- to#o.)#'0 n!
ti"e).
3n relation to climate' variations in temperature and precipitation influences
&eatherin and profile development factors. In t'e 'ot- /et t)o#i*$' for instance'
roc- &eatherin is deep and e1tensive. <ence' soils formed in such reions tend to
have deeper profiles. For instance' the forest o1ysols in the South Aestern part of
Chana enerally have deeper profiles. 3n contrast' soils formed in arid reions (e.
Aridisols) have thin profiles due to as &eatherin is not rapid in such reions.
.recipitation also influences hori/on development factors' such as the translocation of
dissolved ions throuh the soil. ?eachin tends to be more pronounced in places &ith
hih amount of rainfall. P)e*i#ittion %$o !ete)"ine$ t'e e6tent of e)o$ion. 3n
some reions' rainfall may erode the top soil.
Aith reards to parent material' it must be understood that soils that develop over
very hard roc-s may have shallo& profiles. 3n contrast soil materials that &eather
faster are li-ely to produce deeper soil profiles. @elatively ne& deposits of soil parent
material' such as alluvium' sand dunes' or volcanic ash' may not have distinct
hori/ons. Deetation influences hori/on development in various &ays. 3n places &ith
lo& levels of plant residues' the topmost soil may be lihter than places &ith hih
amount of oranic matter' &here the top soil may be dar-ened. Aain' in some places
burro&in animals such as earth&orms may help to move soil from one hori/on to
another.
(
+ime also affects soil hori/on formation. 3n fact' the "t()e of a soilEs profile
depends on ho& lon the soil formation processes have been occurrin. +he loner a
soil surface has been e1posed to soil formin aents' the reater the development
of soil hori/ons. 9lderFmature soils tend to have &ell0developed se,uence of
hori/ons. As the soilEs ae increases' hori/ons enerally are more easily observed.
<o&ever' in a fe& cases' older soils may undero so much leachin that distinct
layers are not clearly visible. 3t is important to note that the ae of soils does not only
depend on time' it also depends on the parent materials and other factors. Soils that
develop on very hard roc-s may ta-e more years to mature than those developin on
very soft roc-s.
+oporaphy also affects soil profile development. Soils on stable surfaces are usually
characterised by &ell defined hori/ons. 3n contrast' those developed over steep slopes
may not have enouh time to develop deep profiles' as a result of pronounced erosion
on steep slopes.
LECTURE 7 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF SOILS
P'0$i*% P)o#e)tie$ of Soi%$
Ae shall discuss four important soil physical properties' namely texture, structure,
colour and porosity.
Soi% Te6t()e
Soil te1ture is a term used to indicate the proportionate distribution of the different
si/es of mineral particles in a soil. 3n other &ords' soil te1ture refers to the relative
amounts of the different mineral particles in the soil. 3t can also be seen as a measure
of the coarseness or fineness of the mineral particles that a soil contains. 9ranic
matter is not considered in soil te1ture analysis. ;ased on their si/es' mineral particles
are rouped into 4separates7. A soil separate is a group of mineral particles that fit
within definite size limits expressed as diameter in millimetres7 (;ro&n #$$%:1). 3n
soil te1ture analysis' mineral particles over # mm in diameter (i.e. roc- framents) are
normally not considered. 9nly three particles' namely clay' silt and sand' are
considered in soil te1ture analysis. Soil te1ture' therefore' precisely refers to &t'e
)e%ti2e #)o#o)tion$ of $n!- $i%t n! *%0 in $oi%+ (Ahn' 199%:1>). ;elo& are the
characteristics of each of these particles.
Characteristics of different soil particle as copied directly from aniels and !aering
("##$%&')
G Sand particles vary in size from very fine (#.#( mm) to very coarse (".# mm) in
average diameter. )ost sand particles can be seen without a magnifying glass. *ands
feel coarse and gritty when rubbed between the thumb and fingers, except for mica
fla+es which tend to smear when rubbed.
)
, Silt particles range in size from #.#( mm to #.##" mm. -hen moistened, silt feels
smooth but is not slic+ or stic+y. -hen dry, it is smooth and floury and if pressed
between the thumb and finger will retain the imprint. *ilt particles are so fine that
they cannot usually be seen by the unaided eye and are best seen with the aid of a
strong hand lens or microscope.
, Clay is the finest soil particle size class. .ndividual particles are finer than #.##"
mm. Clay particles can be seen only with the aid of an electron microscope. They feel
extremely smooth or powdery when dry and become plastic and stic+y when wet. Clay
will hold the form into which it is moulded when moist and will form a long ribbon
when extruded between the fingers.
H .lease note that for the same soil' te1tural class names and limits can differ
dependin on the soil classification system used. For instance' clay is defined as less
than $.$$# mm in diameter by some classification systems' but others define it as soil
&ith particles less than $.$$) mm (+abor' #$$1).
Dete)"intion of Soi% Te6t()% C%$$
3n the field' the percentaes of clay' silt' and sand particles in a soil can be estimated
by feel. +he soil is rubbed bet&een the thumb and the finers and an estimate of its
te1ture is made based on the characteristics observed. 3t is sometimes difficult to use
this traditional method for the determination of te1ture of a soil that has rouhly e,ual
proportions of different particles. A Te6t()% T)in.%e (Fiure 1.#) can be used to
determine the e1act te1tural class of any soil. +o determine the te1tural class of any
iven soil' you &ill need to -no& the percentaes of clay' silt and sand in your soil. +o
do this' you &ill have to ta-e a sample of the soil to the laboratory for soil particle
si/e analysis. 9nce the percentaes of clay' silt and sand are determined in the
laboratory' you can no& use the te1tural trianle to determine the te1tural class of
your soil. As sho&n in Fiure 1.#' the sides of the soil te1tural trianle are scaled for
the proportions of clay' silt' and sand. 2lay percentaes are sho&n on the left side of
the trianle and are read from left to riht. Silt percentaes are indicated on the riht
side and are read from the upper riht to the lo&er left. Sand is read alon the base of
the trianle from the lo&er riht to&ards the upper left. +he bold lines indicate the
boundaries of the soil te1tural classes. +he intersection of the three si/es on the
trianle indicates the te1tural class of the soil. 3n this case' a soil &ith #$* sand' >$*
silt' and #$* clay falls &ithin the 4silt loam7 class.
.lease note that althouh &e usually s-etch all the three lines and use their
intersection to determine the te1tural class' any t&o properly s-etched lines (e. clay
and sand or sand and silt) &ill correctly indicate the te1tural class name of any soil
sample (;ro&n' #$$%).
>

Fiure 1.# +e1tural +rianle
Source: Soil Survey "ivision Staff (199%).
Inf%(en*e of $oi% te6t()e on $oi% #)o#e)tie$ n! #%nt %ife 8Si.nifi*n*e of $oi%
te6t()e9
Soil te1ture has a sinificant influence on other soil properties. First' it affects plant
life as it determines the availability and movement of &ater and other nutrients in the
soil (Curevitch et al.' #$$#). .lants cannot obtain nutrients from very coarse soil
particles. Soils that contain hih proportion of sand tend to be lo& in oranic matter
and fertility. +hey also have lo& &ater holdin capacity. 2onse,uently' coarse sandy
soils may re,uire irriations and application of fertili/ers to meet the needs of specific
crops. 3n contrast' soils containin relatively hiher percentae of silt andFor clay
particles are more fertile' contain more oranic matter and are able to retain more
&ater and nutrients. +hus' to some e1tent' fine0te1tured soils are ood for plant
ro&th. <o&ever' &hen soils are so fine0te1tured to be classified as clayey' they are
li-ely to e1hibit properties &hich are difficult to manae. 2lay0dominated soils are
usually too stic-y &hen &et and too hard &hen dry. +his ma-es them difficult to
cultivate (;ro&n' #$$%). So &hich soil type is best for plantsB +here is no straiht
for&ard ans&er to this ,uestion. As you &ill learn later' various plants have different
7
&ater and nutrient re,uirements. +herefore' different soils are ood for different
plants. 3n eneral' ho&ever' loam soils' &ith a relatively e,ual mi1ture of sand' silt'
and clay' are best for plant ro&th because they hold and e1chane &ater easily and
supply mineral nutrients in a form useful to plants (!ac"onald' #$$%).
3t is clear from the above that a ood -no&lede of soil te1ture can help a farmer in
hisFher choice of the type of crop that &ill ro& &ell on a iven parcel of land.
Ade,uate -no&lede of soil te1ture can also help farmers to choose the type of soil
treatments that &ill improve farmin success. Aain' iven that the rate at &hich
&ater runs throuh the soil is partly a function of te1ture' -no&lede about the e1act
soil te1ture can help us desin appropriate irriation and drainae systems. Soil
te1ture also determines its suitability for construction &or-s. For instance' clayey
soils tend to e1hibit 4shrin-0s&ell7 characteristics' &hich ma-e them unsuitable for
the construction of roads and buildins.
Soi% St)(*t()e
Accordin to !c2auley et al' /soil structure is the arrangement and binding together
of soil particles into larger clusters, called aggregates or peds0 ()cCauley et al.
"##(% &). Cenerally' oranic matter and iron o1ides act as adhesives to bind soil
particles into peds. +here is a relationship bet&een a soilEs structure and its te1ture.
Fine0te1tured soils' &ith a hiher proportion of clay' tend to have a stroner' more
defined structure than coarse0te1tured soils. +his is due to more cohesive strenth
bet&een clay particles.
T0#e$ of $oi% $t)(*t()e
+he ma=or soil structural types are: Cranular' ;loc-y' .laty' .rismatic and
Structureless. +hese are summarised in Fiures 1.% and table 1.1 belo&.

Fiure 1.% !a=or types of soil structure
8
+able 1.1 2haracteristics of the ma=or types of soil structure
St)(*t()e t0#e De$*)i#tion
G)n(%) Soil particles are arraned in small' rounded units.
Cranular structure is very common in surface soils
(A hori/ons) and is usually most distinct in soils
&ith relatively hih oranic matter content.
B%o*:0 Soil particles are arraned to form bloc-0li-e units'
&hich are about as &ide as they are hih or lon.
Some bloc-y peds are rounded on the edes and
corners6 others are anular. ;loc-y structure is
commonly found in the subsoil' althouh some
eroded fine0te1tured soils have bloc-y structure in
the surface hori/ons.
P%t0 Soil particles are arraned in plate0li-e sheets.
+hese plate0li-e pieces are appro1imately
hori/ontal in the soil and may occur in either the
surface or subsoil' althouh they are most common
in the subsoil. .laty structure stronly limits
do&n&ard movement of &ater' air' and roots.
.laty structure may occur =ust beneath the plouh
layer' resultin from compaction by heavy
e,uipment' or on the soil surface &hen it is too
&et to &or- satisfactorily.
P)i$"ti* Soil particles are arraned into lare peds &ith a
lon vertical a1is. +ops of prisms may be
some&hat indistinct and normally anular.
.rismatic structure occurs mainly in subsoils' and
the prisms are typically much larer than other
typical subsoil structure types such as bloc-s.
St)(*t()e%e$$ :ither:
G )assive' &ith no definite structure or shape' as in
some 2 hori/ons or compacted material.
9r:
G *ingle grain' &hich is typically individual sand
rains in A or 2 hori/ons not held toether by
oranic matter or clay.
Source: "aniels and <aerin (#$$>:($)
Effe*t$ of Soi% St)(*t()e on ot'e) Soi% #)o#e)tie$
Soil structure has some effects on &ater and air movement &ithin the soil. Accordin
to ;andel (#$$#)' the reater the deree of areation' the more pore space available
to supply &ater and air to plant roots. 2rac-s and channels bet&een peds are
important for &ater and air movement and deep &ater drainae. Since &ater and air
are both important for plant life' it can be stated that soil structure also affects its
ability to support plant life. Aain' since plant roots move throuh the same channels
in the soil as air and &ater' &ell0developed structure also promotes e1tensive root
9
development. 3n a nutshell' soil areation is important for increasin stability
aainst soil erosion' for maintainin soil porosity and soil &ater movement (8ichols
et al.' #$$().3 &ant to stress that even stable structures can be lost by careless handlin
of the soil. 2ultivatin the soil &hen it is too &et or sub=ectin it to the stresses and
compaction of vehicles and heavy machinery can destroy its structure.
Soi% Co%o()
9ne of the most important physical properties of soil is its colour. 2olour of surface
soil tends to reflect a stron imprint of bioloical processes' particularly those
influenced by the ecoloical oriin of oranic matter. Surface soils that contain hih
amount of oranic matter or humus tend to have blac- or dar-0bro&n colours. A
surface soil &ith briht0liht colour can be associated &ith the hori/on of eluviation
(usually the : hori/on)' &here oranic matter' carbonates and clay minerals have been
leached out.
Subsoil colour is more stronly influenced by physical and chemical processes'
especially the redo1 status of iron (Fe). Aell aerated soils contain Fe
%I
&hich ives
soil a red or yello& colour. +his is normally the situation in a &ell drained soil. 3n
poorly drained soils (i.e. under anaerobic conditions)' iron compounds are reduced'
and the soil e1hibits the rey colours of Fe
#I
or the bluish0reen colours of iron
sulphides and iron carbonates. Ahile iron enerally e1erts the reatest influence on
subsoil colour' mananese can also influence the colour of subsoil. A blac- colour in
the subsoil may reflect an accumulation of mananese.
3n some cases' the colour of soils may be inherited from the minerals of the parent
materials from &hich those soils have developed. For instance' liht rey colours in
the subsoil can be inherited from parent material ,uart/. Aain' basalt can imprint a
blac- colour to the subsoil hori/ons.
Soi% Co%o() n! D)in.e
Soil drainae is the rate of vertical or horizontal water removal from the soil.
Cenerally' briht red and yello& subsoil colours are associated &ith &ell0drained soils
&here iron is present in its o1idi/ed form. Soils that are e1tremely poorly drained
usually have rey colours. +he reason is that &hen soils are saturated for a lon period
of time' the o1idi/ed (red or yello&) forms of iron are reduced to soluble forms &hich
are easily moved &ith drainae &ater. +hrouh this process' the soil colour eventually
chanes from redFyello& to rey.
Ahile many soils have a dominant colour' others in environments &here soil formin
factors vary seasonally (e.. &et and dry seasons)' tend to e1hibit a mi1ture of
different colours. +he term "ott%in. is used &hen several colours are present in a
iven soil. Soils &hich are &et in their upper layers for a lon period of time (e.
&etlands) are referred to as '0!)i* $oi%$. "rainae mottles in these soils are termed
)e!o6i"o)#'i* fet()e$. Subsoil layers &ith mi1tures of redFyello& and rey
mottlin are indicative of seasonally fluctuatin &ater tables' &here the soil is
saturated durin the rainy season and unsaturated in the dry season.
1$
I"#o)tn*e of Soi% Co%o()
Soil colour is used to classify various soils of the &orld into roups (e. blac- soils'
red soils etc). Soil colour also ives us an indication of the type of minerals that are
li-ely to be present in any iven soil. For instance' a briht redFyello& colour in the
subsoil may indicate the presence of iron minerals. 3t has also been e1plained that soil
colour ives us an indication of the drainae condition of an environment. 3t can also
tell us somethin about the oranic matter content of a soil. A blac- colour in the
surface soil may indicate the presence of humus and for that matter a hih fertility.
Soi% Po)o$it0
Soil porosity refers to the amount of pore space bet&een soil particles. 3n other &ords'
soil porosity is to the volume percentae of the total soil that is not occupied by solid
particles. Cenerally' pores smaller than $.$) mm in diameter are termed "i*)o#o)e$-
&hile those larer than $.$) mm in diameter are called "*)o#o)e$. +here is a
relationship bet&een te1ture and porosity. 2oarse0te1tured soils have many
macropores because of the loose arranement of larer particles. 2onversely' fine0
te1tured soils have more micropores because the fine particles are often more tihtly
arraned than lare particles (!c2auley et al. #$$)). !acropores in fine0te1tured
soils e1ist bet&een soil areates or peds. Since fine0te1tured soils have both
micropores and macropores' they tend to have a reater total porosity (or sum of all
pores) than coarse0te1tured soils.
Soil porosity and other properties' such as te1ture and structure' have some effects on
soil0&ater relationships. !acropores allo& the free movement of &ater' air and roots
of plants. 9n the other hand' micropores in &et soils are enerally filled &ith &ater'
and this ma-es it difficult for much air to move into or out of the soil. 3nternal &ater
movement is also very slo& in micropores. +he movement of &ater and air throuh a
coarse0te1tured sandy soil can be very fast despite its lo& total porosity because of the
dominance of macropores. 3n contrast' fine0te1tured clay soils' especially those
&ithout a stable ranular structure' may have reduced movement of &ater even
thouh they have a lare volume of total pore space. +he reason is that micropores are
dominant in these fine0te1tured clay soils. Stated differently' sandy soils hold little
&ater since their lare pore spaces allo& &ater to drain easily from the soils. Fine0
te1tured clay soils' on the other hand' absorb relatively lare amount of &ater' and
their small pore spaces do not allo& the &ater to drain freely. +his e1plains &hy fine0
te1tured clay soils hold more &ater than coarse0te1tured sandy soils. 3t must be
stressed that clayey soils hold &ater much more tihtly than sandy soils. 3n effect' not
all the moisture retained in clayey soils is readily available to plants. 2onse,uently'
moisture stress can become a problem in clayey soils even thouh they have hih
&ater0holdin capacity ("aniels and <aerin' #$$>). 3n addition' because micropores
in fine0te1tured clay soils are often full of &ater' aeration' especially in the subsoil'
can be inade,uate for root development.
11
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS
+&o important chemical properties &ill be discussed here. +hese are soil p< and
2ation :1chane 2apacity.
Soi% #H
Soil p< refers to the deree of acidity or al-alinity of the soil. 3n other &ords' soil p<
is a measure of hydrogen ion (!
1
) concentration in the soil (!c2auley et al. #$$)).
+he measurement of hydroen ion is based on the pH scale. +he p< scale ranes from
$ to 1(. +he p< of pure &ater is 7 and this is considered neutral. p< values belo& 7
are considered as acidic' &hile those above 7 are said to be al-aline or basic.
Cenerally' ood aricultural soils have a soil p< bet&een ) and 7 (@itter' #$$>).
C($e$ n! Effe*t$ of Soi% A*i!it0
Accordin to "aniels and <aerin (#$$>)' soils become acidic &hen basic cations (e.
calcium) are leached from the soil' and are replaced by aluminum ions. +his process
of acidification is enerally accelerated by the decomposition of oranic matter &hich
also releases acids into the soil. +hus' hih rate of leachin and hih amount of
oranic matter are li-ely to produce acidic soils. Soils that develop under hih rainfall
conditions and abundant veetative cover tend to be acidic because of hih rate of
leachin and hih oranic matter content.
Soils &ith very hih levels of hydroen ions (i.e. acidic soils) are enerally not ood
for crop production' since they lac- important nutrients. Al-aline soils are also
sometimes not very ood for crop production' since they sometimes contain
sinificant amounts of sodium that may e1ceed the tolerances of plants.
Soi% Ction E6*'n.e C#*it0
2ation :1chane 2apacity (2:2) refers to the net ability of a soil to hold, retain, and
exchange cations (positively charged ions), such as calcium, potassium, magnesium
and sodium ("aniels and <aerin' #$$>: (7). +he finest clay and oranic matter
particles are referred to as soil *o%%oi!$ (!c2auley et al. #$$)). +hey enerally
possess neative surface chares' &hich are present in e1cess of any positive chares
that may be present in the soil. 2onse,uently' soil surface has a net neative chare
("aniels and <aerin' #$$>). +he neatively chared colloids attract cations
(positively chared ions)' such as calcium (2a
#
)' potassium (J
I
)' manesium (!
#I
)
and sodium (8a
I
)' and prevent their leachin. +he cations that are retained are often
&ea-ly held to the colloids and can therefore be replaced or e1chaned for other
cations' in the soil solution (@itter' #$$>). For instance' 2a
#I
can be e1chaned for
aluminum (Al
%I
). +hus' the ability of a soil to attract' retain and e1chane cations is its
2ation :1chane 2apacity. +he hiher a soilEs 2ation :1chane 2apacity' the more
cations it can retain. Since cations are attracted by colloids (humus and clay particles)'
a soil &ith a hiher amount of clay and humus (colloids) is li-ely to have a hiher
2ation :1chane 2apacity.
Effe*t$ of Ction E6*'n.e C#*it0 on Soi% P)o#e)tie$
1#
A soil &ith a relatively hih 2ation :1chane 2apacity is li-ely to have hih oranic
matter content. 2:2 also provides an estimate of nutrient storae and release from
soil particles. Soils &ith hiher 2:2 values have hih amount of nutrients to support
plant life. +he 2:2 also provides an appro1imation of soil te1ture. Soils &ith a hiher
2:2 values tend to have hiher clay and silt particles. 2onversely' coarseKte1tured
sandy soils enerally have lo& 2:2 value (!ac-o&ia-' #$$7). Also' soils &ith hih
2:2 values enerally have a relatively hiher &ater0holdin capacity than those &ith
lo& 2:2 values.
Cood ?uc-L
.repared by "r. M.J. +eye
F()t'e) Re!in.
"aniels' A. ?. N <aerin' J. 2. (#$$>) 42oncepts of ;asic Soil Science7 The )id2
Atlantic )anagement !andboo+. February #$$>' 2hapter %.
!ac"onald' C.!. (#$$%) 0 ;ioeoraphy: 3ntroduction to Space' +ime and ?ife. @ead
paes %#0%(.

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