Define elasticity

Ans. The property of the body due to which body regains its original shape and size on
removal of deforming force is called as elasticity
The body which posses this property are called as elastic body
Examples: rubber, spring, etc

Define plasticity
Ans. The property of the body due to which body does not regains its original shape and
size on removal of deforming force is called as plasticity
The body which posses this property are called as plastic body
Example: plastic materials, steel, Teflon, nylon, etc

Define rigidity
Ans. The property of the body due to which the body does not changes its shape and size
on application of large force is called rigidity
The body which posses this property are called rigid body
Example: wall, heavy metals etc

Define stress
Ans. It is defined as the internal restoring force acting per unit cross section area.
Its unit is N/m2

Stress =

Define strain
Ans. It is defined as the ratio of change in dimension per unit original dimension
Its unit: no unit

Explain the Molecular theory of elasticity.
Consider an elastic body as shown in figure. Molecules are at equal distances from
each other. There is a force of attraction between the molecules. Hence, molecules
are at equal distances.
Consider an external force applied on a body. Because of external force, every
molecule starts moving undesirely in the direction of force. They stop moving at a
particular position where this applied force is balanced due to equal and opposite
force.
Due to shifting of molecules, body changes its shape and size and body is said to be
deformed. Under deformed condition, every shifted molecule tries to achieve its
original position due to which an internal restoring force is developed inside the
body inside the body.
Now if external applied force is removed then because of internal restoring force the
body again regains its original shape and size that is elasticity.



Types of stress:
1) Tensile /longitudinal stress
The stress corresponding to the length of the body or object is called as tensile
/longitudinal stress.



2) Volume stress
The stress corresponding to the volume of the body or object is called as volume stress.
Volume stress = change in pressure

3) Shear stress
The stress corresponding to the lateral displacement of the body is called as the shear
stress.


Types of strain
1) Tensile /longitudinal strain.
It is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length.

Tensile/ Longitudinal strain =

2) Volume strain.
It is define as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume.

Volume strain =

3) Shear strain:
It is define as the ratio of lateral displacement to its distance from fixed end.

Shear strain = tan

Elastic limit:
It is defined as the limit of force that can be applied to the body without causing permanent
deformation.

Hooks law:
It states that within elastic limit stress is directly proportional to the strain in the body
Stress Strain



Modulus of elasticity

1) Young's modulus of elasticity (Y)
It is defined as the ratio of tensile /longitudinal stress to the tensile /longitudinal strain.

Y =




2) Bulk modulus of elasticity (K)
It is defined as the ratio of volume stress to the volume strain.

K =




3) Modulus of rigidity ()
It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.

=




Behaviour of wire under continuously increasing load
A wire is subjected to increasing load step by step. A graph of stress against strain is
as shown. It can be explained as follows.
OE: This portion is straight line which indicates that stress is directly proportional to strain
i.e. Hooks law is obeyed up to point E.
EE': This portion is curved towards strain axis which shows that increase in strain is more
than increase in stress and stress is not proportional to strain i .e. Hooks law is not obeyed.
At any point between E and E' if all load is removed, then some permanent elongation
occurs in the wire, this is called set.



Y point: This point is called as yield point. At this stage the strain increases without
increasing stress, this is called as plastic flow.
B point: This point is called as the break point, if the load is increased further then the wire
will break at this point. The stress corresponding to this point is called as breaking stress.

Factor of Safety
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to the working stress.

Factor of safety =




Poisons ratio ()
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.

=





Ultimate stress:
It is defined as the ratio of maximum load that a system is capable of withstanding to its
original cross section area.

Ultimate stress =





Application of elasticity
1) While constructing the building, the elastic properties of material are studied i.e. Elastic
limit, breaking stress, etc.
2) In study of strength of material, elastic properties are studied
3) It is used in hydraulic machinery
4) It is used in designing torsion pendulum which is used for many applications in civil
engineering.













Viscosity:

Consider the flow of liquid on the horizontal plane surface. Imagine liquid is made
up of number of horizontal layers. It is observed that different liquid layers moves with
different velocities. The bottom most layer has minimum speed on account of friction with
the surface also it has to carry the weight of the upper layers, while the speed of the
topmost layer is maximum.

Consider layer P and Q. Layer P which has more speed tries to accelerate layer Q. At
the same time layer Q which has less speed, tries to decrease the sped of layer P and thus
because of different tendencies of different layers, a force is created between two layers
called as viscous force which tries to oppose the relative motion between different
layers called as viscosity.

Viscosity:
Viscosity is the property of liquid on account of which liquid tries to oppose relative motion
between its different layers.

Velocity Gradient:
It is defined as the change in velocity per unit vertical distance of liquid layers.



Velocity gradient =

Newtons law of viscosity:
The law states that the viscous force F developed between two liquid layers is
1) Directly proportional to surface area A of liquid layer,
2) Directly proportional to velocity gradient.
Thus,
F A
And F

Combining, F A

F = A

Where is called as coefficient of viscosity, is constant for a given liquid.
=

Unit of is Ns/m
2
.

Coefficient of viscosity is defined as the viscous force developed between two liquid
layers of unit surface area for unit velocity gradient.

Terminal velocity (v):
The constant velocity attained by the body falling freely into the liquid after covering
certain distance is called as terminal velocity.

Stokes law:
It states that the force of viscosity experienced by a small metal sphere falling freely
through a viscous medium, with terminal velocity is directly proportional to
1) Radius of metal sphere r
2) Terminal velocity v
3) Coefficient of viscosity of liquid
i.e. F rv
F = 6rv where 6 is stokes constant

Streamline flow:
It is the flow of liquid in which every particle of liquid moves in the same direction of flow
of liquid with same velocity.

Turbulent flow:
It is the flow in which every particle is not moving in line and they move in random
direction with different velocity.



Critical velocity:
The value of velocity of flow of liquid upto which flow is streamline is called critical velocity
vc. Critical velocity is given by the relation

vc =

Where Vc - Critical velocity
- Coefficient of viscosity
R- Reynolds number
r- Radius of the tube.

Significance of Reynolds number:
Reynolds number determines the nature of flow of liquid through the tube.
When R is less than 2000, then liquid flow is streamline.
When R is in between 2000 to 3000, the liquid flow is unstable.
When R is greater than 3000, the liquid flow is turbulent.


Effect of temperature and adulteration on viscosity of liquid

1) As temperature of liquid increases, its viscosity decreases i.e.
Viscosity

2) When adulteration such as soluble substance is added to liquid, its viscosity goes on
increasing i.e. viscosity adulteration.

Application of viscosity:
1) Oils are used to lubricate machinery, because of its viscosity to reduce the friction.
2) Principle of Stokes law is used for determination of charge of electrons in Millikans
method.
3) Viscosity of oil is referred for classifying grades of oils.
4) The operation speed of hydraulic machine depends on viscosity.




Surface tension

Adhesive force: It is the intramolecular force of attraction between two different types of
molecules.
Example forces of attraction between glass molecule and water molecules.

Cohesive force: It is the molecular force of attraction between two molecules of same
substances.
Example the force of attraction between mercury molecules

Sphere of influence: The imaginary sphere drawn with molecule as a centre and
molecular range as the radius where the force of attraction is present is called as sphere of
influence.

Molecular range: It is the distance between two molecules where force of attraction is
present.

Molecular theory of surface tension:

Consider three molecules m1 m2 and m3 of liquid as shown in figure.

Molecule m1: It its sphere of influence is totally inside the liquid that is it is equally
surrounded by neighbouring molecule. Therefore molecule m1 will be attracted by other
molecule in its sphere of influence equally in all directions and the resultant force of
attraction is zero.

Molecule m2: Its part of sphere of influence lies outside the liquid. Means it is not equally
surrounded by neighbouring molecules. The molecules in the lower part of sphere of
influence are more. Therefore, it will get attracted downside and resultant force acting on
molecule m2 is in downward direction.

Molecule m3: Its half part of sphere of influence lies outside the liquid. Therefore there are
no liquid molecules on the upper side, hence no upward force. Therefore, molecule m3
experiences more downward resultant force than m2.
Thus, molecules which lie on the surface of liquid experience downward resultant force
and are being pulled inside the liquid. To balance this downward force, molecules come
closer to each other which reduce the surfaces area of liquid. This shows that there is a
downward force of attraction on the liquid surface and it is under constant tension.

Surface tension:
Surface tension is defined as the property of liquids by virtue of which the surface of liquid
is under constant tension due to the tendency to contract and occupy minimum surface
area.
Surface tension can be defined as the force of attraction for unit length in the free surface of
liquid.

Shapes of liquid:
For water the adhesive force is more as compared to the cohesive force there for the
shape of water is concave.
For mercury the cohesive force is more as compared to adhesive for therefore the
shape of mercury is convex.
For pure water the adhesive force is equal to cohesive force and thus the shape of
pure water is plane.
The figure shows the shape of different liquids

Angle of contact: The angle made by tangent to the curved part of liquid surface at the
point of contact with the wall of container measured through the liquid is called angle of
contact.

Capillary tube: It is a long narrow tube having uniform bore throughout its length.

Capillary action: The rise and fall of liquid inside the capillary tube is called as capillary
action.


Effect of impurity and temperature on surface tension of liquid:
If the impurity of organic substance in liquid increases, then surface tension of
liquid decreases.
Surface tension also decreases with increase in temperature.

Application of surface tension:
1) It is used to prepare the ball bearings or bullets
2) It is used in detergent powder, in order to spread the soap solution all over the clothes.
3) A liquid of low surface tension can be used to detect cracks in jobs.
4) Oil of low surface tension can be used as lubricant.
5) The rise of oil in oil lamp unto the tip of wick is due to capillary action.
6) Purity of water can be checked with the help if surface tension.



Conduction: It is the process of transfer of heat from a part of body at higher temperature
to a part of body at lower temperature without actual movement of particles. It takes place
through solids.

Convection: It is the process of transfer of heat from a part of body at higher temperature
to a part of body at lower temperature with actual movement of particles. It takes place
through liquids.

Radiation: It is the process of transfer of heat in which heat is transferred from one place
to other directly without necessity of intervening medium e.g., we get heat from sun
without affecting the intervening medium. Heat radiations can pass through vacuum.


Good Conductor:
The material through which heat conducts easily and speedily is called as good conductor.
E.g. copper, iron, aluminum, etc.

Bad conductor:
The material through which heat does not conduct is called bad conductor of heat. E.g.
wood, wool, plastic.


Law of thermal conductivity:
Suppose AB is a bar of metal, of cross sectional area as shown in figure. Consider bar to be
in steady state. No amount of heat is lost to the surrounding by means of radiation.

Consider two planes C and D in the bar.
Let Q = the amount of heat flowing from C to D
D = distance between C and D or distance between two thermometers
1 = temperature of plane C
2 = temperature of plane D
1 > 2
Then the amount of heat flowing (Q) from C to D is directly proportional to
1) Dross sectional area A of rod,
2) Temperature difference between two planes i.e. (1 > 2),
3) Time t for which heat flows,
And inversely proportional to distanced between two planes or distance between
two thermometers.
Thus, Q A

Q (1 > 2)

Q t

Q

Combining Q

therefore, Q = K

where K is constant of proportionality which is

called as coefficient of thermal conductivity.


Coefficient of thermal conductivity (K):
It is defined as amount of heat conducted in one second, in steady state of
temperature through unit cross sectional area of an element material of unit
thickness with unit temperature difference between its opposite faces.
Unit of K is watt/m
o
k.


Temperature Gradient:
It is defined as change in temperature per unit length of rod.

Temperature gradient =

Application of good conductor:
1) It is used as heat sink in electronic circuits. In most of electronic circuits in which
heat is generated, the costly electronic components may damage because of
overheating. In such cases, a good conducting material piece like aluminum of
more area is kept in contact with the components.
2) Spiral tube covering the coil of electric heater is made of good conductor so that
the heat developed is conducted to liquid in contact quickly.
3) The spiral tube used in Searles apparatus is made of good conducting material.
Such a tube, through which water is circulated, absorbs all heat from rod quickly
and thus outgoing water gets heated.
4)
Application of Bad Conductor:
1) In Searles apparatus, a metal rod is covered by a piece of wool or cotton i.e. bad
conducting material to avoid heat losses due to radiation and convection.
2) A bad conducting material like thermocole is used in ice box in which ice melts
very slowly.

Gas laws

Boyles law:
It states that for fixed mass of a gas, temperature of a gas remaining constant, its pressure
is inversely proportional to its volume.
P

at Constant temperature
Therefore, P = constant X

PV = constant
i.e. P1V1 =P2V2


Charles law:
It states that for a fixed mass of a gas, pressure of gas remaining constant, its volume is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Thus, V T at constant pressure

Therefore

= constant

i.e.

Gay Lussacs Law:
It states that for fixed mass of a gas, volume of a gas remaining constant, its pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Thus, P T at constant volume

Therefore

= constant

i.e.

Gas equation and universal gas constant:

According to Gay Lussacs law, P T . (1)
According to Charles law, V T (2)
Combining equation (1) and (2) we can write,
PV T
PV = Constant X T
If mass of gas is measured in kg or gm then constant used is K.
Therefore, PV = KT Ideal gas equation
Where, K is constant for K = 1kg then it is called as specific gas constant.
If mass of gas is 1 kg-mole or 1 gram-mole then constant K will have same value for all
gases. Therefore K is replaced by R called universal gas constant.
Therefore PV = RT General gas equation
Where, R is universal gas constant.

Specific Heat of Gases:
Specific heat of gas (C): It is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of
1kg of gas by 1
0
C.

Specific heat of gas at constant volume (Cv): It is the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of 1kg of gas by 1
0
C at constant volume.

Specific heat of gas at constant pressure (Cp): It is the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of 1kg of gas by 1
0
C at constant pressure.






Relation between Cp and Cv / Mayors relation:



Cv is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of a gas by 1
0
C at
constant volume.
Consider 1 kg of a gas heated at constant volume. In this case, since the volume of a gas is
kept constant, the heat supplied is used to increase the temperature only.
Cp is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of a gas by 1
0
C at
constant pressure.
Consider 1kg of a gas heated at constant pressure. In this case, pressure of gas is constant
but volume increases. Therefore heat supplied in this case is used to
1) Increase the temperature and
2) Increase the volume of gas.
Thus in case of Cp, some additional heat is required for expansion.
Cp = Cv + heat required to increase the volume of a gas
Cp = Cv + H
Cp Cv = H .. (1)
But according to Joules law
J =

J =

H =

. (2)

But W = P (V2- V1) .. (3)
Where V1 = Initial volume
V2 = Final Volume

Combining equations (1), (2) and (3) we get

Cp Cv =

But, PV1 = RT1
PV2 = RT2 by general gas equation

Therefore, Cp Cv =

Where T2-T1 = Increase in temperature
= 1
0
C, because for specific heat, change in temperature is 1
0
C
Therefore, Cp Cv =