Energy Storage Devices in Railway Systems

Martyn Chymera, Alasdair Renfrew, Mike Barnes

University of Manchester, UK, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Manchester M60 1QD +44(0)161 306 2843
martyn.chymera@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk
Keywords: Energy Storage, Power Quality, Traction,
Modelling.
Abstract
Efficiency and performance are key factors in railway
systems. This paper discusses a key performance limiting
factor, voltage regulation and uses tools to analyse the voltage
regulation and power consumption in a railway network. The
potential use of supercapacitors to improve voltage regulation
and efficiency is described, with simulation results used to
demonstrate the potential benefits of utilising energy storage
in a railway system.
1 Introduction
Railway systems can be described as electrical networks, with
moving and changing loads. These moving and changing
loads are demanding on the electrical supply and pose voltage
regulation problems. Trains can operate within a range of
voltages; however the performance of a motor is limited by
the voltage, and hence significant changes in voltage levels
limit the potential speed of a train.
The voltage drop across a transmission line is proportional to
the current. Each train drawing a current on a system
contributes to the voltage drop hence increases in traffic
density increase voltage regulation problems. If the voltage
falls below a minimum, trains are unable to operate.
The power demand is proportional to the traffic density; this
is limited by the substation capacities. The traffic density of a
railway system must be limited to ensure voltage levels
remain within specified levels for operations and substation
current limits are not exceeded.
To increase the capacity of a railway system, investment in
additional substations is often required. By increasing the
number of substations the required additional power is
provided. Using more substations can allow the substation
spacing to be decreased, hence using shorter lengths of
transmission line, and reducing the line impedances; this
reduces the voltage drops and improves the voltage
regulation. Voltage regulation can also be improved by using
lower impedance transmission lines; this also helps improve
the system efficiency, however cost and weight issues often
outweigh the benefits of changing the transmission lines.
Escalating energy costs have become a serious concern in
railway systems. Reducing energy consumption is a key
priority to rail system operators. Regenerative braking was
introduced to reduce energy consumption. Regenerative
braking is only effective if other trains are available to use the
regenerated energy. Regeneration also causes further voltage
regulation issues, introducing voltage surges. Successful
implementation of regenerative braking requires the use of
resistor banks to remove excess energy or inverting
substations to regenerate onto the local distribution network.
Recent developments in energy storage devices, particularly
supercapacitors and flywheels have made energy storage a
viable technology to apply to railway systems. Energy storage
devices can be used to tackle the issue of poor voltage
regulation and help improve energy efficiency by storing
regenerated energy from braking. This paper explores the use
of energy storage in mass transit systems, using Blackpool
Tramway as a case study.
2 Railway Electrical Network Analysis
Railway systems are complex electrical networks. Like a
distribution network a railway system contains a transmission
system: overhead lines or conductor rails, and loads: trains.
However these loads are moving, hence changing position,
the train loads are changing as speed and acceleration varies.

Figure 1 Simplified Electrical representation of a double end
fed DC railway section
Figure 1 shows an electrical representation of a simple
railway section. R
S1
and R
S2
, represent the overhead line
impedances. R
R1
and R
R2
represent the return conductor
impedances. As the train moves these impedances change. As
the train motors, coasts and brakes the current drawn vary.
The voltage across the train can be determined, by applying
network analysis to the system, equation (1). The train
voltage,
T
V is dependent on the impedances and train current,
as these change the train voltage changes.
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
S S S S R R
T T T
S S S S R R
R R V V R R
V I I
R R R R R R

= +

+ +

(1)
Voltage regulation is particularly a problem in mass transit
systems where trains are accelerating and braking regularly.
More significant voltage drops are experienced on systems
using lower voltages, as higher currents are drawn; this is
often experienced on mass transit systems which are
commonly use low voltage DC supplies (550V, 630V, 750V).
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
0 100 200 300
Time (s)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Figure 2 The tram voltage profile of a tram moving through a
double end fed section on the Blackpool Tramway
Figure 2 shows the voltage levels measured on a centenary
tram on the Blackpool tramway. The voltage profile shows
significant variation in the voltage level. These measurements
were made during the off-peak season, where a few trams
were present in a section. During the peak holiday seasons,
single sections can contain more trams, and hence further
variations in voltage levels can be experienced.
The performance of an electric motor is inhibited when the
terminal voltage falls. Hence a reduction in the overhead line
voltage inhibits the performance of a train and therefore
significant voltage drops are undesirable.
3 Regenerative Braking
Rheostatic braking is achieved by connecting resistor banks
across the motor terminals. The motors generate a braking
current which is dissipated through the resistors. The braking
force can be controlled by controlling the current using a
chopper. The braking energy is dissipated as heat, in cold
conditions; this is beneficial as it can be used to heat the
vehicle, at other times it is dissipated into the surroundings. If
the system is tunnel based the generated heat can contribute to
tunnel overheating [1].
Regenerative braking generates electrical energy onto the
overhead line. This energy can be used by other trains. By
regenerating onto the overhead line, overall system efficiency
gains can be made. The currents generated by regenerative
braking can cause voltage swells. This introduces a further
power quality problem. For operational purposes, the
overhead line voltage is limited; regenerated currents have to
be control so that this limited is not exceeded. The
effectiveness of regenerative braking is dependant on the
receptivity of the system. If no other trains are motoring
within the section, the regenerated energy cannot be used, and
the energy has to be dissipated through resistor banks.
The issues associated with regenerative braking; particularly
on DC systems can be avoided by using energy storage
devices. The energy storage devices can store regenerated
energy on board trains or at the track side, hence reducing the
magnitude of voltage swells. On board stored energy provides
an additional power source for acceleration, hence reducing
the acceleration currents drawn from the overhead line and
therefore reducing the magnitude of voltage sags.
4 Energy Storage Devices
Significant developments in energy storage devices have
recently been made, particularly for electric vehicle, power
system and aerospace applications. For use in railways
systems in conjunction with regenerative braking, an energy
storage device with large power density would be required.
Supercapacitors, flywheels, and SMES would be suitable for
railway applications.
Supercapacitors consist of two solid electrodes in a liquid
electrolyte. An ion permeable separator is used to electrically
insulating the electrodes, but allowing ions of the electrolyte
to pass through. Supercapacitors store charge at the interface
of the solid electrodes and the electrolyte, forming a double
layer [2]: a capacitance is formed by the two monolayers. The
distance between the charge layers is only a few atomic
diameters, hence a capacitance much greater than that
achieved by conventional capacitors is possible. A double
layer is formed at each electrode.

Flywheels store energy in the form of rotating inertia. Using
magnetic bearings and containing the flywheel in a vacuum
has reduced losses, enabling flywheels to store energy for
longer periods more efficiently [3].
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) devices
store energy in a magnetic field [4]. By applying a DC current
to a coil, a magnetic field is created, storing magnetic energy.
When the DC potential is removed, the energy is released. By
using low loss superconducting coils, high amounts of energy
can be stored in the magnetic field. SMES are used to
improve power quality in distribution networks [5].
5 Modelling of Railway Electrical System
A railway system model has been developed at the University
of Manchester for the purpose of power quality analysis [6].
The model is used to simulate the effect of train movement on
the overhead line voltage levels.
DYNAMICS
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK
SIMULATOR
TRAM
MOVEMENT
INPUT
Figure 3 Modelling approach
Figure 3 shows the model used. The inputs to the model are
the train position profiles. The dynamics block model is used
to equate the forces acting on the vehicle, the rolling
resistance, aerodynamic drag and gravitational force; this can
then be used to determine the required driving force.
_
cos
Driving drag rolling resistnace
F F F mg ma = + + + (2)
The train current is then determined from the required torque.
The motor current-torque characteristic is used to determine
this. Motor current-torque curves are plotted for different
voltages. Interpolation between the voltage curves is used to
derive the required value of current.
The electrical network simulator uses steady state network
analysis to determine the required system voltage levels. The
impedances are determined from the train positions.
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
Figure 4 Measured speed profile of a Blackpool Tram
Simulations of electric vehicles are often performed using
standardised driving cycles[7]. These driving cycles are
designed for automotive applications, driving cycles of cars
differ significantly from that of rail vehicles. A recorded
speed profile has been used for the analysis presented in this
paper. The speed profile, Figure 4, was recorded using a GPS
receiver, on a centenary tram on the Blackpool Tramway. A
tram travelling from Starr Gate to Blackpool Pleasure Beach
was simulated using this speed profile. An electrical
representation of the test section is shown in Figure 5.
R
SS1 R
SS2
R
NS1
R
NS2
V
S
R
R1
R
R2
GRID
Sub-station
Figure 5 Electrical Representation of the test section
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Figure 6 Simulated Current Profile of a Blackpool Tram
540
545
550
555
560
565
570
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Figure 7 Simulated Pantograph Voltage Profile of a
Blackpool Tram
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the simulated current and voltage
traces respectively. The effect of a single tram was simulated.
The simulation results show the current pulses drawn, and the
voltage drops that coincide with these current pulses.
Significant voltage drops are observed particularly when the
distance of the tram from the substation is greater, this occurs
at the start of the simulation. Additional trams on the system
would increase the magnitude and the frequency of the
voltage drops.
6 Energy Storage Devices in Railway Systems
Voltage regulation can be improved by adding energy storage
devices to a railway system. This allows the utilisation of
regenerative braking to be improved. Energy storage can be
added track side or onboard trams themselves.
Figure 8 Tramway with energy storage at the substation
Figure 8 shows the schematic for placing the storage device,
in this case a supercapacitor at the substation. The energy
storage device could in principle be placed at any position
along the track. Flywheels are used on the New York subway
to strengthen the supply [8]. A storage device could be placed
at the end of the single end fed section to improve the voltage
regulation.
Adding energy storage to the track side requires energy to be
transferred between the tram and the energy storage device
using the overhead lines, this leads to transmission loses.
These transmission losses can be avoided by placing the
energy storage devices on-board vehicles. A high power
density energy storage device such as a supercapacitor would
be ideal for this application.
A variety of methods have been implemented to control
systems with two energy sources, particularly on hybrid
vehicles [9]. Storing the energy from regenerative braking
and then using the energy in acceleration improves efficiency.
However by using the overhead line to provide a steady
power supply, and using the supercapacitor to provide the
transient energy, allows the pulse loading to be removed and
hence improve the voltage regulation. This can be achieved
by averaging the power requirement over a specified time
period. Typically a time period of 10s is used in electric
vehicle applications, however acceleration times are typically
longer in tram systems, and a time period of 30s would be
more suitable.
This energy storage system can be implemented using 6
Maxwell Ultracapacitor 140F 48V modules connected in
series, giving a total capacitance of 24F at 290V. Such a
supercapacitor bank has a capacity of 2MJ. The mass of the
supercapacitors would be 84kg and they would occupy 78l. In
addition to this a second DC-DC converter is required; this
would add another 100kg to the mass of the system.
The supercapacitor bank can be modelled as an equivalent
circuit with a voltage source, a equivalent series resistor
(ESR) and an equivalent parallel resistor (EPR), Figure 9.
Figure 9 Equivalent Circuit for a supercapacitor
Figure 4 shows the measured speed profile of a tram on the
Blackpool Tramway. This speed profile was used as a test
profile to simulate the effect of using supercapacitor energy
storage on board a tram.
Figure 6 shows the current profile of a tram without the use of
energy storage. The current profile contains large current
peaks, with amplitudes exceeding 250A. This current peaks
results in significant variation in voltage levels. Figure 7
shows the Voltage regulation, significant voltage sags are
experienced in the first part of the simulation, where the tram
is at the end of a single end fed section. The simulation results
only represent a single tram in operation; the operation of
multiple trams would magnify the voltage fluctuation.
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
I
)
Figure 10 Tram Current Profile with energy storage on board
the tram
Figure 10 show the current profile achieved by using the
supercapacitor bank on board the tram. A smoother current
profile is observed and the size of the current peaks are
reduced. Using the supercapacitors significantly reduces the
magnitudes of the voltage sags, providing a preferable
pantograph voltage profile, Figure 11.
540
545
550
555
560
565
570
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Figure 11 Pantograph Voltage profile with energy storage
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
S
t
a
t
e

o
f

C
h
a
r
g
e

(
%
)
Figure 12 Supercapacitor State of Charge During Operation
Figure 12 shows the supercapacitor state of charge during the
tram operation. The initial state of charge was 80%. The
graph shows the supercapacitor is utilised between 30% and
80% of its potential storage. The supercapacitor bank
maximum power output is related to the state of charge, when
state of charge reduces, the power available reduces, hence
the state of charge has be maintained above a minimum.
Better utilisation of the energy storage could be made.
Development of the control system use during operation can
improve this utilisation.
7 Conclusions
The benefits of using energy storage have been outlined. A
model has been used to simulate the use of supercapacitors on
board traction vehicles. The simulation results have showed
significant improvements in the overhead line voltage
regulation.
The paper demonstrates the use of a simple control system to
utilise the supercapacitor, this shows significant
improvements to the voltage profile can be achieved, by
further developments to the control system further
improvements could be achieved.
Acknowledgements
The research was conducted as part of an EngD research
project carried out at the University of Manchester. The EngD
is funded by the EPSRC and HILTech Developments Ltd.
The authors would particularly like to thank Peter Brown,
Chief Electrical Engineer and Blackpool Transportation for
providing data on the Blackpool tramway and their trams and
for the use of their system to verify simulation results.
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