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Page 1

Solid-State Physics
Angular momenta
For any angular momentum J in quantum mechanics:
j j m m J
j j J
j j Z
,..., where ,
value absolute ) 1 ( | |
= =
+ =

In particular, for orbital and spin angular momenta L and S:


l l m m L
) l ( l |L|
l l Z
,..., where
1
= =
+ =

(with step 1)
s s m m S
) s ( s |S|
s s Z
,..., where
1
= =
+ =

[One-electron atom: l = 0, 1, 2, for S, P, D, ]


[One-electron atom: s = ! only]
Interaction between L and
S of an electron may result
in their addition. This is
called spin-orbit coupling.
j j j m
s l s l s l j
S L J
j
)..., 1 ( ,
) ( ,..., 1 | | |, |
+ =
+ + =
+ =

B
L
S
J
j=l s
Page 2
Solid-State Physics
( +1) 2(2+1) 6
0, 1 2
0, 1 , 2
l
z l
l l
m l to l
L m
= = =
= =
= =
L L
-2
m = 2
m = -2
m = 1
m = -1
m = 0
L
Z

2
0
-
6 2.45 L = ~
Angular Momenta: Vector Diagrams
Examples:
m
s
= +!
S
Z


!
-!
m
s
= !

( )
1 1 3
1 1
2 2 4
S s s
| |
= + = + =
|
\ .
1 1
and
2 2
2
s
s z
m
m S
=
= =
1) A particle with l = 2
2) An electron with s = 1/2
Page 3
Solid-State Physics
Angular Momenta: Energy Diagrams
j
1
j
2

interaction
j
1
=2, j
2
=1
B = 0
-3
m
j

j
tot
= 3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-2
-1
0
1
2
-1
0
1
j
tot
= 2
j
tot
= 1
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
5
1 1 2 3
1 1 for each
5.79 10 /
( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
1 0 1 0 2
2 ( 1)
j
j B B
j j j , j j , ..., j j , ,
m j, j , ..., j , j j
E g m B eV T
j j s s l l
g s g l g
j j


= + + =
= +
A = A =
+ + + +
= + = = = =
+
General case
( )
( )
1 2
1
tot
tot
tot j
z
J J J
J j j
J m
= +
= +
=
Page 4
Solid-State Physics
Energy Levels: One-electron atom
-490
-122
-54
-31
0
E (eV)
n =1

s p d f
l = 0 l = 1 l = 2 l = 3
n =2
n =3
n =4
SO splitting
l
Example: C
5+

(Z = +6)
2
0
2
Z E
E
n
=
Each level is degenerate
(several states with the
same energy)
Page 5
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
If we dont neglect the intrinsic spin of the
electrons, how many energy levels can be
observed in the 6s state of a Hydrogen atom?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 6
d) 36
Page 6
Solid-State Physics
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
n = 4
n =

Energy
(eV)
Many-electron Atoms: Carbon
0
-Z
2
E
0
=
-490 eV
-Z
2
E
0
/4
-Z
2
E
0
/9
One- electron
ion C
5+

C atom
(6 e
-
)
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
n =

Energy
(eV)
0
s
p
}
12 eV
122 eV
R=a
0

2
0
2
2
0
n
n
Z
E E
n
n
r a
Z
=
=
Page 7
Solid-State Physics
Many-electron Atoms
Schrdinger equation cannot be solved exactly for multi-electron atoms
because interaction between electrons creates complex potentials.
However it can be computed.
Estimate energies using single-electron wave functions and
correcting energies with the perturbation theory.

Orbitals are filled as follows:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p .
Only ONE electron per state (n, l, m
l
, m
s
) - Pauli Exclusion
Rule!
Why is 4s filled before 3d? Specifics of shielding: the electrons
with higher l are more shielded from the nuclear charge, feel less
Coulombic attraction, and lie higher in energy.
1 2
2
r r
ke
V

=
Page 8
Solid-State Physics
Building Atoms
1s
3d
4s
4p
5s
3p
3s
2s
2p
Shell (n=2)
Subshell (n,l)
nl
m
-2 -1 0 1 2
l is split for a
given n due to
different shielding.
The electrons in
an atom tend to
occupy the lowest
levels.
Only one electron
can be in a state
with a given set of
n,l,m
l
,m
s
.


Hunds rules:
a) Total S should be
maximized, and
b) L should be max.
1/2
-1/2
m
S

Page 9
Solid-State Physics
Periodic Table
l = 1 (p)
l = 0 (s)
l = 2 (d)
l = 3 (f)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I
n
e
r
t

G
a
s

H
a
l
o
g
e
n

A
l
k
a
l
i
s

G
r
o
u
p

V
I

G
r
o
u
p

I
V

G
r
o
u
p

V

G
r
o
u
p

I
I
I

n
Transition metals
Lanthanides
Actinides
Page 10
Solid-State Physics
Periodic Table: Trends for Radii and Ionization Energies
Effective atomic radii decrease
across each row of table.
Why? Effective nuclear
charge increases and more
strongly attracts outer
electrons, decreasing their
radius.
Ionization energies increase
across each row of table until
the complete shell is filled.
Alkali atoms easily give up
s-orbital electrons.
Halogens have strong
affinity for outer electrons.
Maxima = inert gases
Maxima = alkali metals
Page 11
Solid-State Physics
Topic #7: Solid State Physics
Types of Solids are determined by Types of Bonds:
Ionic (NaCl), Covalent (Si), Metallic (Cu)
Classical Theory of Conduction
Current density j, drift velocity v
d
, resistivity .
Band Theory and Band Diagrams
Energy levels of separate atoms form energy band
when brought close together in a crystal.
Fermi Function for how to fill bands.
Metal, Insulator, and Semiconductor band diagrams.
Donor and Acceptor dopants. Hall Effect.
Devices
p-n junction, diode, LED, solar cell, laser.
Page 12
Solid-State Physics
Why solids are formed
Molecules and solids are formed
when total energy of a molecule or a
solid is lower than the total energy of
the constituent atoms when they are
separated.
U
0
cohesive energy (required to
break the bonds and free the ions).
E
d
- dissociation energy (required to
separate ions and form atoms).
E
i
ionization energy (required to
remove an electron from a neutral
atom to form ion).
_ - electron affinity (energy released
when an atom receives an electron to
become an ion).
E
A
activation energy (E
A
= E
i
- _)
Na + Cl = NaCl
Na e Na
+
: E
i
= 5.14 eV
Cl + e Cl

: _ = 3.62 eV
(Na+Cl)


(Na
+
+Cl

): E
A


= E
i
_
E
d
= 4.26 eV; U
0
= E
d
+ E
i
_
Example: NaCl (salt)
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

E
n
e
r
g
y
Atom Separation (nm)
0
r
0
0
E
T=0
U
0
E
d
E
A
Na
+
+Cl
-

Page 13
Solid-State Physics
How solids are formed
3 phases of the matter:
Gas large distances between atoms or molecules.
Liquid short-range bonds: break and re-form due to T.
Solid frozen bonds (at lower T): a) amorphous
b) polycrystalline
c) crystalline
!
"
#
$
%
#
&
'
(

*
%
$
+
,
-

.
$
/
0
$
+
'
#
1
+
$

!
+
$
2
2
1
+
$

The phase of the matter depends on T, P, and strength of
interatomic bonds.
Depending on how fast a solid is cooled, and at what P, it may
stay in different state (amorphous, polycrystalline, or crystalline).
Crystal has long-range symmetry. Unit cell the smallest unit of
a crystal which is periodically repeated.
The structure of a crystal (cubic, hexagonal, etc.) depends on
type of bonding, sizes of constituent atoms, also on T and P.
Page 14
Solid-State Physics
Simple Cubic
(Po)
Body-Centered Cubic
(Fe, Cr, W, Nb)
Face-Centered Cubic
(Al, Cu, Ag, Au)
Face-Centered
Cubic structure:
(NaCl, KI)
Na
+

Cl
-
Examples of Crystal Structures (totally 14 types)
Each Na (Cl)
ion has 6 Cl
(Na) neighbors
Page 15
Solid-State Physics
Diamond
Tetrahedral sp
3
bonding
(very hard!)
Graphite
Planar sp
2
bonding
(good lubricant)
Semiconductors such as Ge, Si,
GaAs have the above structure
Semiconductor GaN has a
stable hexagonal structure and
a metastable cubic structure
Examples of Crystal Structures
Page 16
Solid-State Physics
Types of Solids: (by bonding)
Ionic formed by Coulombic attraction between ions.
Examples: group I-VII salts (group I alkali cations paired with
group VII halide anions), e.g. Na
+
Cl
-
.
Covalent atoms share their outer shell electrons
Examples: group IV semiconductors, e.g. Si, Ge, C.
Intermediate with prevailing ionic or covalent type of bonding
Examples: group II-VI and III-V semiconductors, e.g. ZnO,
GaAs, GaN (GaN is more ionic than GaAs).
Metallic atoms share their outer shell electrons (unlike covalent
bonding, all atoms share all of the electrons, and the valence
electrons are free to move).
Examples: all metals
Page 17
Solid-State Physics
Spacing between atoms in Solids
Potential Energy: U
total
= U
attractive
+ U
repulsive


Repulsive Potential exp(-r/a)
Attractive Potential -1/r
Total Potential
r
0
mean
separation of
atoms
U
0
cohesive or
dissociation
energy (required
to separate atoms
or ions)
U
0

r
0

r
Potential Energy
Due to the Pauli exclusion principle
In Ionic crystals - the Coulomb
attraction between ions
Page 18
Solid-State Physics
T
o
t
a
l

E
n
e
r
g
y
Atom Separation (nm)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0
E
T=0
Solids: Thermal Expansion
V 1/r
V exp(-r/a)
At T = 0 Energy of the
system (crystal lattice with
N atoms) is minimal.
Energy is quantized (as in
the SHO problem!).
With increasing T,
amplitude of oscillations
increases.
The mean separation
between atoms increases
due to asymmetric shape
of potential V.
At some T, the atomic
ordering is lifted (solid
liquid), and eventually, at E
> 0, atoms are completely
separated (liquid gas).
Page 19
Solid-State Physics
Metals
Formed by Coulomb attraction between (+) crystal lattice ions and
() electron gas. Examples: Na 1 free electron per atom, Mg 2.
Metallic bonds allow electrons to move freely through lattice.
Relatively small cohesive energy (1-4 eV).
High electrical conductivity.
Absorb visible light (non-transparent, shiny due to high reflection).
Good alloy formation (due to non-directional metallic bonds).
How to find number of atoms and electrons in some volume of a metal?
3
23
3
Concentration of atoms: , where - mass density [g/cm ],
- molar mass [g/mol], = 6.02 10 atoms/mole.
Total number of atoms: , where - volume [cm ].
In group-I metals, numbe
a
a
N
a
V
a
A
A
N
n
M
M N
N n V V

= =

=
r of electrons: .
a e
N N =
Page 20
Solid-State Physics
Current density:
d
q
j env E
A t
o
A
= = =
A
V IR = , =1/ ,
L
R V EL
A

= =
Macroscopic:
Microscopic:
where resistivity, conductivity,
current, current density,
voltage drop, electric field
- resistance, , - conductor area and length
I j
V E
R A L
o


where carrier density
drift velocity
- electron mean speed
- mean free path
d
n
v
v

2
e
m v
ne

=
Classical Theory of Conduction (E&M Review)
Current density:
I
j E
A
o = =
Drift velocity v
d
is net motion of electrons (~ 10
-4
cm/s for j = 1A/cm
2
)
Electron mean speed <v> is average speed between collisions
Scattering time t = /<v> is time between electron-lattice collisions
Ohms law:
8
e
kT
v
m t
=
Page 21
Solid-State Physics
Classical Theory of Conduction: Electron Motion
Electron travels at fast velocity v for a time t and then collides with
the crystal lattice (ions).
Results in a net motion opposite to the E field with drift velocity v
d
.
<v> ~ 10
7
cm/s at 300 K; v
d
~ 10
-4
cm/s, [t ~ 10
-14
s; ~ 1 nm]
Classical theory gives: a) too small (real ~ 100 nm).
b) T
0.5
(because of <v>

T
0.5
). Experimentally: T

Start
Finish
E
Mean free
path: = <v>t
Drift path = v
d
t
v
d
t
<v>t
Page 22
Solid-State Physics
2
Classical theory: because
e
m v
E
T v T
j
ne

= =
Metal: Resistance increases with Temperature.
Why? |Temp + , n is const. |
Semiconductor: Resistance decreases with Temperature.
Why? |Temp + but |n (exponentially) +
Theory of Conduction: Resistivity vs. T
Temperature dependence of resistivity.
1
2
Quantum theory: because
e F
m u E
T T
j
ne


= =
Page 23
Solid-State Physics
Band Theory: Two Approaches
There are two approaches to find the electron energies associated
with atoms in a periodic crystal lattice.
Approach #1: Bound Electron Approach (single atom energies!)
Isolated atoms brought close together to form a solid.
Approach #2: Free Electron Approach (E = p
2
/2m)
Free electrons modified by a periodic potential (i.e. lattice ions).
Both approaches result in grouped energy levels with allowed and
forbidden energy regions.
Energy bands overlap or partially filled for metals.
Energy bands do not overlap (have a gap) and completely
filled with electrons for semiconductors and insulators.
Page 24
Solid-State Physics
Solid of N atoms Two atoms Six atoms
Band Theory: Bound Electron Approach
For the total number N of atoms in a solid (~10
23
cm
3
), N energy
levels split apart within a width AE.
Leads to a band of energies (about 10
23
close levels for 1cm
3
)
for each initial atomic energy level (e.g. 1s energy band for 1s
energy level).

Electrons must occupy
different energies due to
Pauli Exclusion principle.
Page 25
Solid-State Physics
Band Theory: Metals, Insulators, Semiconductors
Metal
Li: 1S
2
2S
1

E
F

Vacant levels
Occupied levels
Valence
band
Insulator
C: 1S
2
2S
2
P
2

Vacant
Valence
band (full)
Conduction
band (empty)
n=1 band
(full)
Insulators and
semiconductors have a
gap between the valence
band (completely filled)
and the conduction band
(empty).
Page 26
Solid-State Physics
At T = 0 K, electrons have 100% probability to be below Fermi energy E
F
and
0% probability above E
F
. At T > 0 K, probabilities decrease below E
F
and
increase above E
F
, causing the step function to smear out.
( )
( )
1
1
F
FD
E
k
E
T
f E
e

=
+
Band Diagram: Fermi-Dirac Filling Function
Probability of electrons (fermions) to be found at various energy levels.
At 300 K, E E
F
= 0.05 eV f
FD
(E) = 10
1

E E
F
= 0.5 eV f
FD
(E) = 10
8
E E
F
= 5 eV f
FD
(E) = 10
308
Exponential dependence has HUGE effect!
Fermi : http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/semicon/fermi/functionAndStates/functionAndStates.html
Moderate T High T T = 0 K
Page 27
Solid-State Physics
At T = 0, energy levels below E
F
are filled with electrons, while all levels
above E
F
are empty.
Electrons are free to move into empty states of conduction band with only
a small electric field E, leading to high electrical conductivity!
At T > 0, electrons have a probability to be thermally excited from below
the Fermi energy to above it.
Band Diagram: Metal
E
F

E
V
Fermi filling
function

T>0
E
F

E
V
T = 0 K
Page 28
Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Semiconductor with small gap

At T = 0, valence band is filled with electrons and conduction band is empty,
leading to zero conductivity.
At T > 0, electrons are thermally excited from valence to conduction band,
leading to incompletely filled valence and partially filled conduction bands.
(E
g
= 0.1 - 1 eV)
E
F

E
C
E
V
Conduction band
(Partially Filled)
T > 0

Valence band
(Incompletely Filled)
A hole
absence of
an electron in
incompletely
filled band
Ge 0.78 eV
Si 1.2 eV
InSb 0.25

eV
GaAs 1.5 eV
InAs 0.44 eV
GaSb 0.78eV
Page 29
Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Insulator or s/c with large gap

At T = 0, the valence band is filled with electrons and the conduction band
is empty, leading to zero conductivity.
Fermi energy E
F
is nearly at midpoint of the energy gap between
conduction and valence bands.
At T > 0, electrons are NOT thermally excited from valence to conduction
band, leading to zero conductivity (because exp[(E-E
F
)/kT] is too large).
(Eg = 2-10 eV)
E
F

E
C
E
V
Conduction band
(Empty)
Valence band
(Filled)
E
gap
T > 0

GaP - 2.4 eV
CdS - 2.6 eV
GaN - 3.5 eV
ZnO - 3.4

eV
AlN - 6.2 eV
diamond - 5.5 eV
Page 30
Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Donor Dopant in Semiconductor
For group IV (Si, Ge, C) add a group
V element to donate an electron
and make n-type semiconductor
(more negative electrons!). For III-V
compound (GaAs), a group IV
impurity substituting group III atom
(or group VI impurity in the site of
group V atom) act as a donor.
The donor energy level E
D
is just
below E
C
. Extra electrons can be
ionized to the conduction band and
result in increase of conductivity.
Fermi level E
F
moves up with
increasing T because there are more
carriers in the conduction band.
Increase the conductivity of a semiconductor by adding a small amount of
another material called a dopant (instead of heating it!)
Fermi Function & Doping: http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/semicon/fermi/bandAndLevel/fermi.html
E
F
E
D
n-type Si
E
C
E
V
T > 0

Si
P
Page 31
Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Acceptor Dopant in Semiconductor
For Si, add a group III element. For GaAs,
group II elements substituting Ga atoms or
group IV elements substituting As atoms
act as acceptors. These impurities will
accept an electron (to remain neutral)
and make p-type Si or GaAs (more
positive holes!)
With increasing T, electrons from the
valence band are trapped on acceptor
energy level E
A
located close to E
V
.
Resultant holes in the valence band
increase conductivity.
Fermi level E
F
moves down with
increasing T because there are fewer
electrons in the valence band.
E
C
E
V
E
F
p-type Si
E
A
T > 0

Si Al
hole
Page 32
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
Energy bands diagrams for three unknown materials are shown
below. Determine which case corresponds to
(i) metal, (ii) n-type semiconductor, (iii) p-type semiconductor.
E
F
E
F
E
F
A 1, 2, 3 D 1, 3, 2
B 2, 3, 1 E 2, 1, 3
C 3, 2, 1 F 3, 2, 1
(i),(ii),(iii)
(i),(ii),(iii)
1
2
3
Page 33
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
Which impurity will be an acceptor in Ge?
A P
B As
C Sb
D all above
E none of above
Ge- 4s
2
4p
2
P- 3s
2
3p
3
As- 4s
2
4p
3
Sb- 5s
2
5p
3
Page 34
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
Which impurity will be a donor in Si?
E
F
A N
B Al
C Zn
D all above
E none of above
n-type Si
Si- 3s
2
3p
2
Al- 3s
2
3p
1
N- 2s
2
2p
3
Zn- 4s
2


Page 35
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
Which impurity can be a donor in GaN?
E
F
A C
B Si
C Ge
D all above
E none of above
n-type GaN
Si- 3s
2
3p
2
Ga- 4s
2
4p
1
N- 2s
2
2p
3
C- 2s
2
2p
2
Ge- 4s
2
4p
2
Page 36
Solid-State Physics
Which impurity can be a donor in GaN?
E
F
Si
Ga
donor but Si
N
is acceptor in GaN
O
N
- donor
Mg
Ga
acceptor
Zn
Ga
- acceptor
n-type GaN
Page 37
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
Which impurity can be a donor in CdSe (II-VI) ?

E
F
A Cl (IIV)
B Al (III)
C Ga (III)
D all of the above
E none of the above
n-type CdSe
Cd- 5s
2
Se- 4s
2
4p
4
Cl- 3s
2
3p
5
Al- 3s
2
3p
1
Ga- 4s
2
4p
1
Page 38
Solid-State Physics
CPS Question
Which impurity can be a donor in CdSe (II-VI) ?

E
F
n-type CdSe
Cl (IIV) as Cl
Se

Al (III) as Al
Cd

Ga (III) as Ga
Cd

All of the above are donors

But Cl
Cd
, Al
Se
, and Ga
Se

apparently not
Page 39
Solid-State Physics
Why Useful? Determines carrier type (electron vs. hole) for a semiconductor
and carrier concentration n for a semiconductor or a metal.
How? Place a semiconductor into external B field, direct current along one
axis, and measure induced Hall voltage V
H
along perpendicular axis.


Derived from Lorentz equation qE = qvB (F
E
= F
B
).
Carrier concentration n = (current I) (magnetic field B)
(carrier charge q) (thickness t)(Hall voltage V
H
)
Semiconductor: Dopant Concentration via Hall Effect
Hole Electron
+ charge
charge
B
F qv B =
+ charge
charge
( ), I nqv wt V Ew = =
Page 40
Solid-State Physics
pn Junction: Band Diagram
At equilibrium, Fermi levels
(or charge carrier densities)
must equalize.
Hence, electrons move from n
to p-side (diffusion process).
Depletion zone occurs at
junction where immobile
charged ion cores remain.
Results in a built-in electric
field (10
3
to 10
5
V/cm), which
opposes further diffusion.
Depletion Zone
pn regions connect & free carriers move
electrons
pn regions in equilibrium
E
V
E
F
E
C
E
F
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+












p-type
n-type
PIN junction: http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/pin/pin/#
E
V
E
F
E
C
Page 41
Solid-State Physics
Minority Carriers
pn Junction: Band Diagram under Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias Equilibrium
e
Forward Bias: negative voltage on n-side decreases built-in junction
potential higher current of (majority) electrons from n- to p-side.
Reverse Bias: positive voltage on n-side increases junction potential
only very low current of (minority) electrons from p- to n-side.
e
Majority Carriers
p-type n-type
p-type n-type
p-type n-type
V
+V
Page 42
Solid-State Physics
Current-Voltage Relationship



Forward Bias: current
exponentially increases.
Reverse Bias: low leakage
current equal to ~ I
o
.
Rectifying pn junction passes
current in only one direction!
pn Junction: I-V Characteristics
0
/
[ 1]
B
eV k T
I I e =
Reverse
Bias
Forward
Bias
k
B
= 8.610
-5
eV/K
Page 43
Solid-State Physics
The number of transistors
integrated into Intel processor.
Courtesy of Intel Corporation.
http://www.intel.com/technology/silicon
/mooreslaw/index.htm
Schematic of the Field
Effect Transistor (FET)
Band diagram of
the npn Transistor
npn Junction: Transistors, Integrated Cirquits
Page 44
Solid-State Physics
Devices: Light-emitting
Three major ways for light to interact with a material:
Absorption: incoming photon creates electron-hole pair (solar cell).
Spontaneous Emission: electron-hole pair spontaneously decays to eject
photon (LED).
Stimulated Emission: incoming photon stimulates electron-hole pair to
decay and eject another photon, i.e. one photon in two photons out
(LASER).
Absorption
Spontaneous
Emission
Stimulated
Emission
Energy
E
C
E
V
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
C V g
hc
E E E

= =
C-band
V-band
Page 45
Solid-State Physics
Solar Cell (photo-diode)
pn Devices: Solar Cell
Converts light input to
electrical output:
photon in electron out
(generated electrons are
swept away by E field of
pn junction)
Renewable energy
source!
Page 46
Solid-State Physics
Light-emitting diode (LED)
Converts electrical input to light
output: electron in photon out
Light source with long life, low
power, compact design.
Applications: traffic and car
lights, large displays, lighting.
pn Devices: LED
Page 47
Solid-State Physics
Applications of LED
Traffic signals

Outdoor displays
Page 48
Solid-State Physics
Applications of LED
Automotive backlighting
Others
Page 49
Solid-State Physics
QW Blue LED (Nichia)
pn Devices: Quantum-Well LED
Structure
Band diagram
Page 50
Solid-State Physics
GaAs Laser
Devices: LASER
Laser creates inverted
population of electrons in
upper energy levels and then
stimulates them to all
coherently decay to lower
energy levels.
Applications: fiber optics, CD player, machining, medicine, etc.
e.g. GaAs laser: 25% efficiency, 100 yr lifetime, mm size, IR to visible
LASER = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Page 51
Solid-State Physics
Sapphire
substrate
p-type
GaN
n-type
GaN
InGaN
-GaN
MQW
Ohmic contacts
E
F

E
D

E
A

E
C

E
V

Devices: Blue and UV Laser Diode (LD)
A single-layer Blu-ray Disc can
hold 25GB, which can be used
to record over 2 hours of
HDTV or more than 13 hours
of standard-definition TV.
There are also dual-layer
versions of the discs that can
hold 50GB.
The benefit of using a blue-
violet laser (405nm) is that it
has a shorter wavelength than
a red laser (650nm), which
makes it possible to focus the
laser spot with even greater
precision.
Source: www.blu-ray.com
Page 52
Solid-State Physics
Gas Lasers: He-Ne laser (red, 632.8 nm)
E
n
e
r
g
y
,

e
V

1S
2

He levels
2P
6

0
Ne levels
20
10
1S
1
2S
1
2P
5
5S
1

2P
5
3S
1

Stimulated emission
(632.8 nm)
Excitation by
electrical discharge
Energy transfer
by collisions

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