Library

1
Library
For other uses, see Library (disambiguation).
Library at Melk Abbey in Austria
St. Florian Library at Melk Abbey in Austria
A library is an organized collection of sources of information and
similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for
reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to
material, and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or
both.
[1]
A library's collection can include books, periodicals,
newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform,
CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books,
audiobooks, databases, and other formats. Libraries range in size from
a few shelves of books to several million items. In Latin and Greek, the
idea of bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothk (Greek:
): derivatives of these mean library in many modern
languages, e.g. French bibliothque.
The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of
writingthe clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer,
some dating back to 2600 BC. Private or personal libraries made up of
written books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In
the 6th century, at the very close of the Classical period, the great
libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople
and Alexandria.
A library is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an
institution, a corporation, or a private individual. Public and
institutional collections and services may be intended for use by people
who choose not toor cannot afford topurchase an extensive
collection themselves, who need material no individual can reasonably
be expected to have, or who require professional assistance with their
research. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the
services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing
information and at interpreting information needs. Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also
often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide public facilities for
access to their electronic resources and the Internet. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to
get unrestricted access to information in many formats and from many sources. They are extending services beyond
the physical walls of a building, by providing material accessible by electronic means, and by providing the
assistance of librarians in navigating and analyzing very large amounts of information with a variety of digital tools.
Library
2
History
Main article: History of libraries
Early libraries
Tablet from the Library of Ashurbanipal
containing part of the Epic of Gilgamesh
The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of
writingthe clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple
rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which
mainly consisted of the records of commercial transactions or
inventories, mark the end of prehistory and the start of history.
[2]
Things were much the same in the government and temple records on
papyrus of Ancient Egypt. The earliest discovered private archives
were kept at Ugarit; besides correspondence and inventories, texts of
myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new
scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC
and those at Nineveh about 700 BC showing a library classification
system.
[3]
Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been
discovered at Nineveh, providing modern scholars with an amazing
wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious and administrative work.
Among the findings were the Enuma Elish, also known as the Epic of Creation,
[4]
which depicts a traditional
Babylonian view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh,
[5]
a large selection of "omen texts" including Enuma Anu Enlil
which "contained omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction with planets and fixed stars,
the sun, its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their
visibility, appearance, and stations",
[6]
and astronomic/astrological texts, as well as standard lists used by scribes and
scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of medical diagnoses.
Philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou
dynasty.
[7]
Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of
librarians.
Classical period
Artistic rendering of the Library of Alexandria,
based on some archaeological evidence
The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most
significant great library of the ancient world.
[8]
It flourished under the
patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of
scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the
Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and
opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323283 BC) or
during the reign of his son PtolemyII (283246 BC).
[9]
An early
organization system was in effect at Alexandria.
The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Seluk,
Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus
Polemaeanus (completed in 135 AD) by Celsus son, Gaius Julius
Aquila (consul, 110 AD). The library was built to store 12,000 scrolls
and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus.
Library
3
Private or personal libraries made up of written books (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in
archives) appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. The celebrated book collectors of Hellenistic Antiquity
were listed in the late 2nd century in Deipnosophistae. All these libraries were Greek; the cultivated Hellenized
diners in Deipnosophistae pass over the libraries of Rome in silence. By the time of Augustus there were public
libraries near the forums of Rome: there were libraries in the Porticus Octaviae near the Theatre of Marcellus, in the
temple of Apollo Palatinus, and in the Bibliotheca Ulpiana in the Forum of Trajan. The state archives were kept in a
structure on the slope between the Roman Forum and the Capitoline Hill.
Private libraries appeared during the late republic: Seneca inveighed against libraries fitted out for show by illiterate
owners who scarcely read their titles in the course of a lifetime, but displayed the scrolls in bookcases (armaria) of
citrus wood inlaid with ivory that ran right to the ceiling: "by now, like bathrooms and hot water, a library is got up
as standard equipment for a fine house (domus).
[10]
Libraries were amenities suited to a villa, such as Cicero's at
Tusculum, Maecenas's several villas, or Pliny the Younger's, all described in surviving letters. At the Villa of the
Papyri at Herculaneum, apparently the villa of Caesar's father-in-law, the Greek library has been partly preserved in
volcanic ash; archaeologists speculate that a Latin library, kept separate from the Greek one, may await discovery at
the site.
Remains of the Library of Celsus at Ephesus
In the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman
Empire as each succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which
outshone that of his predecessor. Romes first public library was
established by Asinius Pollio. Pollio was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar
and one of his most ardent supporters. After his military victory in
Illyria, Pollio felt he had enough fame and fortune to create what Julius
Caesar had sought for a long time: a public library to increase the
prestige of Rome and rival the one in Alexandria.
[11]
Pollioss library,
the Anla Libertatis,
[12]
which was housed in the Atrium Libertatis, was
centrally located near the Forum Romanum. It was the first to employ
an architectural design that separated works into Greek and Latin. All
subsequent Roman public libraries will have this design.
[13]
At the conclusion of Romes civil wars following the
death of Marcus Antonius in 30 BC, the Emperor Augustus sought to reconstruct many of Romes damaged
buildings. During this construction, Augustus created two more public libraries. The first was the library of the
Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, often called the Palatine library, and the second was the library of the Porticus of
Octaviae
[14]
Two more libraries were added by the Emperor Tiberius on Palatine Hill and one by Vespasian after 70 AD.
Vespasians library was constructed in the Forum of Vespasian, also known as the Forum of Peace, and became one
of Romes principal libraries. The Bibliotheca Pacis was built along the traditional model and had two large halls
with rooms for Greek and Latin libraries containing the works of Galen and Lucius Aelius.
[15]
One of the best
preserved was the ancient Ulpian Library built by the Emperor Trajan. Completed in 112/113 AD, the Ulpian
Library was part of Trajans Forum built on the Capitoline Hill. Trajans Column separated the Greek and Latin
rooms which faced each other.
[16]
The structure was approximately fifty feet high with the peak of the roof reaching
almost seventy feet.
[17]
Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on shelves built into the walls of
a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the room itself. The surviving records give only a few
instances of lending features. Most of the large Roman baths were also cultural centres, built from the start with a
library, a two room arrangement with one room for Greek and one for Latin texts.
Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus scrolls as at Alexandria: the
export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce. There were a few institutional or royal libraries
which were open to an educated public (such as the Serapeum collection of the Library of Alexandria, once the
Library
4
largest library in the ancient world), but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it was
possible for a scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access to the stacks. In all recorded
cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where the staff went to get them for the readers, who had to
consult them in an adjoining hall or covered walkway.
Han Chinese scholar Liu Xiang established the first library classification system during the Han Dynasty, and the
first book notation system. At this time the library catalogue was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk
bags.
Late Antiquity
Malatestiana Library of Cesena, the first
European civic library
During the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages periods, there was no
Rome of the kind that ruled the Mediterranean for centuries and
spawned the culture that produced twenty-eight public libraries in the
urbs Roma.
[18]
The empire had been divided then later re-united again
under Constantine the Great who moved the capital of the Roman
Empire in 330 AD to the city of Byzantium which was renamed
Constantinople.
[19]
The Roman intellectual culture that flourished in
ancient times was undergoing a transformation as the academic world
moved from laymen to Christian clergy.
[20]
As the West crumbled,
books and libraries flourished and flowed east toward the Byzantine
Empire.
[21]
There, four different types of libraries were established:
imperial, patriarchal, monastic, and private.
[22]
Each had it own
purpose and, as a result, their survival varied.
Christianity was a new force in Europe and many of the faithful saw
Hellenistic culture as pagan. As such, many classical Greek works,
written on scrolls, were left to decay as only Christian texts were
thought fit for preservation in a codex, the progenitor of the modern
book.
[23]
In the East, however, this was not the case as many of these classical Greek and Roman texts were
copied.
[24]
In Byzantium, much of this work devoted to preserving Hellenistic thought in codex form was performed in
scriptoriums by monks.
[25]
While monastic library scriptoriums flourished throughout the East and West, the rules
governing them were generally the same
[26]
Barren and sun-lit rooms (because candles were a source of fire) were
major features of the scriptorium that was both a model of production and monastic piety.
[27]
Monks scribbled away
for hours a day, interrupted only by meals and prayers.
[28]
With such production, medieval monasteries began to
accumulate large libraries. These libraries were devoted solely to the education of the monks and were seen as
essential to their spiritual development.
[29]
Although most of these texts that were produced were Christian in nature,
many monastic leaders saw common virtues in the Greek classics. As a result, many of these Greek works were
copied, and thus saved, in monastic scriptoriums.
[30]
When Europe passed into the Dark Ages, Byzantine scriptoriums laboriously preserved Greco-Roman classics. As a
result, Byzantium revived Classical models of education and libraries.
[31]
The Imperial Library of Constantinople
was an important depository of ancient knowledge. Constantine himself wanted such a library but his short rule
denied him the ability to see his vision to fruition. His son Constantius II made this dream a reality and created an
imperial library in a portico of the royal palace.
[32]
He ruled for 24 years and accelerated the development of the
library and the intellectual culture that came with such a vast accumulation of books.
[33]
Constantius II appointed Themistius, a pagan philosopher and teacher, as chief architect of this library building
program. Themistius set about a bold program to create an imperial public library that would be the centerpiece of
Library
5
the new intellectual capital of Constantinople.
[34]
Classical authors such as Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes, Isocrates,
Thucydides, Homer, and Zeno were sought. Themeistius hired calligraphers and craftsman to produce the actual
codices. He also appointed educators and created a university-like school centered around the library.
[35]
After the death of Constantius II, Julian the Apostate, a bibliophile intellectual, ruled briefly for less than three years.
Despite this, he had a profound impact on the imperial library and sought both Christian and pagan books for its
collections. Later, the Emperor Valens hired Greek and Latin scribes full-time with from the royal treasury to copy
and repair manuscripts.
[36]
At its height in the 5th century, the Imperial Library of Constantinople had 120,000 volumes and was the largest
library in Europe.
[37]
A fire in 477 consumed the entire library but it was rebuilt only to be burned again in 726,
1204, and in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks.
[38]
Patriarchal libraries fared no better, and sometimes worse, than the Imperial Library. The Library of the
Patriarchate of Constantinople was founded most likely during the reign of Constantine the Great in the 4th
century.
[39]
As a theological library, it was known to have employed a library classification system.
[40]
It also served
as a repository of several ecumenical councils such as the Council of Nicea, Council of Ephesus, and the Council of
Chalcedon. The library, which employed a librarian and assistants, may have been originally located in the
Patriarchs official residence before it was moved to the Thomaites Triclinus in the 7th century. While much is not
known about the actual library itself, it is known that many of its contents were subject to destruction as religious
in-fighting ultimately resulted in book burnings.
[41]
During this period, small private libraries existed. Many of these were owned by church members and the
aristocracy.
[42]
Teachers also were known to have small personal libraries as well as wealthy bibliophiles who could
afford the highly ornate books of the period.
[43]
Thus, in the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained
those of Constantinople and Alexandria. Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, established a monastery at Vivarium in
the toe of Italy (modern Calabria) with a library where he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and
preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus not only
collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses
of reading and methods for copying texts accurately. In the end, however, the library at Vivarium was dispersed and
lost within a century.
Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid collector of books of
Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of
the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others came and
studied there.
Library
6
Islamic lands
Inside a Qur'anic Library in Chinguetti,
Mauritania
By the 8th century first Iranians and then Arabs had imported the craft
of papermaking from China, with a paper mill already at work in
Baghdad in 794. By the 9th century public libraries started to appear in
many Islamic cities. They were called "halls of Science" or dar al-'ilm.
They were each endowed by Islamic sects with the purpose of
representing their tenets as well as promoting the dissemination of
secular knowledge. The 9th-century Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil of
Iraq, ordered the construction of a "zawiyat qurra" an enclosure for
readers which was "lavishly furnished and equipped". In Shiraz Adhud
al-Daula (d. 983) set up a library, described by the medieval historian,
al-Muqaddasi, as "a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with
lakes and waterways. The buildings were topped with domes, and
comprised an upper and a lower story with a total, according to the
chief official, of 360 rooms.... In each department, catalogues were
placed on a shelf... the rooms were furnished with carpets". The
libraries often employed translators and copyists in large numbers, in
order to render into Arabic the bulk of the available Persian, Greek,
Roman and Sanskrit non-fiction and the classics of literature.
This flowering of Islamic learning ceased centuries later when learning began declining in the Islamic world, after
many of these libraries were destroyed by Mongol invasions. Others were victim of wars and religious strife in the
Islamic world. However, a few examples of these medieval libraries, such as the libraries of Chinguetti in West
Africa, remain intact and relatively unchanged. Another ancient library from this period which is still operational and
expanding is the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in the Iranian city of Mashhad, which has been operating for
more than six centuries.
The contents of these Islamic libraries were copied by Christian monks in Muslim/Christian border areas,
particularly Spain and Sicily. From there they eventually made their way into other parts of Christian Europe. These
copies joined works that had been preserved directly by Christian monks from Greek and Roman originals, as well as
copies Western Christian monks made of Byzantine works. The resulting conglomerate libraries are the basis of
every modern library today.
Buddhist scriptures, educational materials, and histories were stored in libraries in pre-modern Southeast Asia. In
Burma, a royal library called the Pitaka Taik was legendarily founded by King Anawrahta;
[44]
in the 18th century,
British envoy Michael Symes, on visiting this library, wrote that "it is not improbable that his Birman majesty may
possess a more numerous library than any potentate, from the banks of the Danube to the borders of China". In
Thailand libraries called ho trai were built throughout the country, usually on stilts above a pond to prevent bugs
from eating at the books.
Library
7
European Middle Ages
Science library of Upper Lusatia in Grlitz,
Germany
In the Early Middle Ages, monastery libraries developed, such as the
important one at the Abbey of Montecassino in Italy. Books were
usually chained to the shelves, reflecting the fact that manuscripts,
which were created via the labour-intensive process of hand copying,
were valuable possessions.
Despite this protectiveness, many libraries loaned books if provided
with security deposits (usually money or a book of equal value).
Lending was a means by which books could be copied and spread. In
1212 the council of Paris condemned those monasteries that still
forbade loaning books, reminding them that lending is "one of the chief
works of mercy." The early libraries located in monastic cloisters and associated with scriptoria were collections of
lecterns with books chained to them. Shelves built above and between back-to-back lecterns were the beginning of
bookpresses. The chain was attached at the fore-edge of a book rather than to its spine. Book presses came to be
arranged in carrels (perpendicular to the walls and therefore to the windows) in order to maximize lighting, with low
bookcases in front of the windows. This "stall system" (i.e. fixed bookcases perpendicular to exterior walls pierced
by closely spaced windows) was characteristic of English institutional libraries. In European libraries, bookcases
were arranged parallel to and against the walls. This "wall system" was first introduced on a large scale in Spain's El
Escorial.
Also, in Eastern Christianity monastery libraries kept important manuscripts. The most important of them were the
ones in the monasteries of Mount Athos for Orthodox Christians, and the library of the Saint Catherine's Monastery
in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt for the Coptic Church.
Renaissance
Reading room of the Laurentian Library
From the 15th century in central and northern Italy, libraries of
humanists and their enlightened patrons provided a nucleus around
which an "academy" of scholars congregated in each Italian city of
consequence. Malatesta Novello, lord of Cesena, founded the
Malatestiana Library. Cosimo de Medici in Florence established his
own collection, which formed the basis of the Laurentian Library.
[45]
In Rome, the papal collections were brought together by Pope Nicholas
V, in separate Greek and Latin libraries, and housed by Pope Sixtus IV,
who consigned the Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana to the care of his
librarian, the humanist Bartolomeo Platina in February 1475.
[46]
In the 16th century Sixtus V bisected Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere with a cross-wing to house the Apostolic
Library in suitable magnificence. The 16th and 17th centuries saw other privately endowed libraries assembled in
Rome: the Vallicelliana, formed from the books of Saint Filippo Neri, with other distinguished libraries such as that
of Cesare Baronio, the Biblioteca Angelica founded by the Augustinian Angelo Rocca, which was the only truly
public library in Counter-Reformation Rome; the Biblioteca Alessandrina with which Pope Alexander VII endowed
the University of Rome; the Biblioteca Casanatense of the Cardinal Girolamo Casanate; and finally the Biblioteca
Corsiniana founded by the bibliophile Clement XII Corsini and his nephew Cardinal Neri Corsini, still housed in
Palazzo Corsini in via della Lungara. The Republic of Venice patronized the foundation of the Biblioteca Marciana,
based on the library of Cardinal Basilios Bessarion. In Milan Cardinal Federico Borromeo founded the Biblioteca
Ambrosiana.
Library
8
This trend soon spread outside of Italy, for example Louis III, Elector Palatine founded the Bibliotheca Palatina of
Heidelberg.
These libraries don't have as many volumes as the modern libraries. However, they keep many valuable manuscripts
of Greek, Latin and Biblical works.
Tianyi Chamber, founded in 1561 by Fan Qin during the Ming Dynasty, is the oldest existing library in China. In its
heyday it boasted a collection of 70,000 volumes of antique books.
Enlightenment era libraries
Thomas Bodley founded the Bodleian Library in 1602
as an early public library.
The 17th and 18th centuries include what is known as a golden age
of libraries; during this some of the more important libraries were
founded in Europe. Francis Trigge Chained Library of St.
Wulfram's Church, Grantham, Lincolnshire was founded in 1598
by the rector of nearby Welbourne. Thomas Bodley founded the
Bodleian Library, which was open to the "whole republic of the
learned", Norwich City library was established in 1608 and the
British Library was established in 1753. Chetham's Library in
Manchester, which claims to be the oldest public library in the
English-speaking world, opened in 1653. Other early town
libraries of the UK include those of Ipswich (1612), Bristol
(founded in 1613 and opened in 1615), and Leicester (1632).
Shrewsbury School also opened its library to townsfolk.
[47]
The
Mazarine Library and the Bibliothque Sainte-Genevive were
founded in Paris, the Austrian National Library in Vienna, the
National Central Library in Florence, the Prussian State Library in
Berlin, the Zauski Library in Warsaw and the M.E.
Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library in St Petersburg.
At the start of the 18th century, libraries were becoming
increasingly public and were more frequently lending libraries.
The 18th century saw the switch from closed parochial libraries to
lending libraries. Before this time, public libraries were parochial in nature and libraries frequently chained their
books to desks.
[48]
Libraries also were not uniformly open to the public.
[49]
Even though the British Museum existed at this time and contained over 50,000 books, the national library was not
open to the public, or even to a majority of the population. Access to the Museum depended on passes, of which
there was sometimes a waiting period of three to four weeks. Moreover, the library was not open to browsing. Once
a pass to the library had been issued, the reader was taken on a tour of the library. Many readers complained that the
tour was much too short.
[50]
Library
9
Subscription libraries
Main article: Subscription library
The British Museum was established in 1751 and
had a library containing over 50,000 books.
At the start of the 19th century, there were virtually no public libraries
in the sense in which we now understand the term i.e. libraries
provided from public funds and freely accessible to all.
[51]
Only one
important library in Britain, namely Chetham's Library in Manchester,
was fully and freely accessible to the public. However, there had come
into being a whole network of library provision on a private or
institutional basis.
The increase in secular literature at this time encouraged the spread of
lending libraries, especially the commercial subscription libraries.
Many small, private book clubs evolved into subscription libraries,
charging high annual fees or requiring subscribing members to
purchase shares in the libraries. The materials available to subscribers tended to focus on particular subject areas,
such as biography, history, philosophy, theology, and travel, rather than works of fiction, particularly the novel.
Unlike a public library, access was often restricted to members. Some of the earliest such institutions were founded
in late 17th century England, such as Chetham's Library in 1653, Innerpeffray Library in 1680 and Thomas Plume's
Library in 1704. In the American colonies, the Library Company of Philadelphia was started in 1731 by Benjamin
Franklin in Philadelphia, PA.
The increasing production and demand for fiction promoted by commercial markets led to the rise of circulating
libraries, which met a need that subscription libraries did not fulfil. William Bathoe claimed that his commercial
venture was the Original Circulating library, opening doors at two locations in London in 1737.
[52]
Circulating
libraries also charged subscription fees to users and offered serious subject matter as well as the popular novels, thus
the difficulty in clearly distinguishing circulating from subscription libraries.
[53]
Biblioteka Zauskich, built in Warsaw in the mid
18th century.
Subscription libraries were democratic in nature; created by and for
communities of local subscribers who aimed to establish permanent
collections of books and reading materials, rather than selling their
collections annually as the circulating libraries tended to do, in order to
raise funds to support their other commercial interests. Even though the
subscription libraries were often founded by reading societies,
committees, elected by the subscribers, chose books for the collection
that were general, rather than aimed at a particular religious, political
or professional group. The books selected for the collection were
chosen because they would be mutually beneficial to the shareholders.
The committee also selected the librarians who would manage the
circulation of materials.
[54]
In Britain there were more than 200 commercial circulating libraries open in 1800, more than twice the number of
subscription and private proprietary libraries that were operating at the same time. Many proprietors pandered to the
most fashionable clientele, making much ado about the sort of shop they offered, the lush interiors, plenty of room
and long hours of service. "These 'libraries' would be called rental collections today."
Library
10
Private libraries
The Linen Hall Library was an 18th sentury
subscription library. Pictured in 1888, shortly
before its demolition.
Private subscription libraries functioned in much the same manner as
commercial subscription libraries, though they varied in many
important ways. One of the most popular versions of the private
subscription library was a gentleman's only library. Membership was
restricted to the proprietors or shareholders, and ranged from a dozen
or two to between four and five hundred.
[55]
The Liverpool Subscription library was a gentlemen only library. In
1798, it was renamed the Athenaeum when it was rebuilt with a
newsroom and coffeehouse. It had an entrance fee of one guinea and
annual subscription of five shillings.
[56]
An analysis of the registers for
the first twelve years provides glimpses of middle-class reading habits
in a mercantile community at this period. The largest and most popular
sections of the library were History, Antiquities, and Geography, with 283 titles and 6,121 borrowings, and Belles
Lettres, with 238 titles and 3,313 borrowings.
[57][58]
Circulating library and stationery shop, Gulgong,
Australia 1870.
Private subscription libraries held a greater amount of control over
both membership and the types of books in the library. There was
almost a complete elimination of cheap fiction in the private
societies.
[59]
Subscription libraries prided themselves on respectability.
The highest percentage of subscribers were often landed proprietors,
gentry, and old professions.
[60]
Towards the end of the 18th century and in the first decades of the
nineteenth the need for books and general education made itself felt
among social classes created by the beginnings of the Industrial
Revolution.
[61]
The late 18th century saw a rise in subscription
libraries intended for the use of tradesmen. In 1797, there was
established at Kendal what was known as the Economical Library, "designed principally for the use and instruction
of the working classes."
[62]
There was also the Artizans' library established at Birmingham in 1799. The entrance fee
was 3 shillings. The subscription was 1 shilling 6 pence per quarter. This was a library of general literature. Novels,
at first excluded, were afterwards admitted on condition that they did not account for more than one-tenth of the
annual income.
Library
11
National libraries
Main article: National library
The Lindisfarne Gospels is but one of
the treasures made available in the
British Museum upon its establishment
in 1753.
The first national libraries had their origins in the royal collections of the
sovereign or some other supreme body of the state.
One of the first plans for a national library was devised by the Welsh
mathematician John Dee, who in 1556 presented Mary I of England with a
visionary plan for the preservation of old books, manuscripts and records and
the founding of a national library, but his proposal was not taken up.
[63]
The first true national library was founded in 1753 as part of the British
Museum. This new institution was the first of a new kind of museum national,
belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public and aiming to
collect everything. The museum's foundations lay in the will of the physician
and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who gathered an enviable collection of
curiosities over his lifetime which he bequeathed to the nation for 20,000.
Sloane's collection included some 40,000 printed books and 7,000 manuscripts,
as well as prints and drawings. The British Museum Act 1753 also incorporated
the Cotton library and the Harleian library. These were joined in 1757 by the
Royal Library, assembled by various British monarchs.
[64]
In France, the first national library was the Bibliothque Mazarine, which evolved from its origin as a royal library
founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. The appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian in the
17th century, initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world.
The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abb Louvois, Minister Louvois's son. Abb
Louvois was succeeded by the Abb Bignon, or Bignon II as he was termed, who instituted a complete reform of the
library's system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 173953 in 11 volumes. The collections increased
steadily by purchase and gift to the outbreak of the French Revolution, at which time it was in grave danger of partial
or total destruction, but owing to the activities of Antoine-Augustin Renouard and Joseph Van Praet it suffered no
injury.
The library's collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when
the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized. After the establishment of the French First Republic in
September 1792, "the Assembly declared the Bibliotheque du Roi to be national property and the institution was
renamed the Bibliothque Nationale. After four centuries of control by the Crown, this great library now became the
property of the French people."
[65]
Library
12
The modern public library
Main article: Public library
James Silk Buckingham led the campaign for
public libraries in the mid 19th century.
Although by the mid-19th century, England could claim 274
subscription libraries and Scotland, 266, the foundation of the modern
public library system in Britain is the Public Libraries Act 1850. The
Act first gave local boroughs the power to establish free public
libraries and was the first legislative step toward the creation of an
enduring national institution that provides universal free access to
information and literature. In the 1830s, at the height of the Chartist
movement, there was a general tendency towards reformism in the
United Kingdom. The Capitalist economic model had created a
significant amount of free time for workers, and the middle classes
were concerned that the workers free time was not being well-spent.
This was prompted more by Victorian middle class paternalism rather
than by demand from the lower social orders.
[66]
Campaigners felt that
encouraging the lower classes to spend their free time on morally
uplifting activities, such as reading, would promote greater social
good.
In 1835, and against government opposition, James Silk Buckingham, MP for Sheffield and a supporter of the
temperance movement, was able to secure the Chair of the Select Committee which would examine "the extent,
causes, and consequences of the prevailing vice of intoxication among the labouring classes of the United Kingdom"
and propose solutions. Francis Place, a campaigner for the working class, agreed that "the establishment of parish
libraries and district reading rooms, and popular lectures on subjects both entertaining and instructive to the
community might draw off a number of those who now frequent public houses for the sole enjoyment they
afford".
[67]
Buckingham introduced to Parliament a Public Institution Bill allowing boroughs to charge a tax to set
up libraries and museums, the first of its kind. Although this did not become law, it had a major influence on
William Ewart MP and Joseph Brotherton MP, who introduced a bill which would [empower] boroughs with a
population of 10,000 or more to raise a d for the establishment of museums.
[68]
This became the Museums Act
1845.
The advocacy of Ewart and Brotherton then succeeded in having a select committee set up to consider public library
provision. The Report argued that the provision of public libraries would steer people towards temperate and
moderate habits. With a view to maximising the potential of current facilities, the Committee made two significant
recommendations. They suggested that the government should issue grants to aid the foundation of libraries and that
the Museums Act 1845 should be amended and extended to allow for a tax to be levied for the establishment of
public libraries.
[69][70][71]
The Bill passed through Parliament as most MPs felt that public libraries would provide
facilities for self-improvement through books and reading for all classes, and that the greater levels of education
attained by providing public libraries would result in lower crime rates.
The earliest example in England of a library to be endowed for the benefit of users who were not members of an
institution such as a cathedral or college was the Francis Trigge Chained Library in Grantham, Lincolnshire,
established in 1598. The library still exists and can justifiably claim to be the forerunner of later public library
systems. The beginning of the modern, free, open access libraries really got its start in the UK in 1847. Parliament
appointed a committee, led by William Ewart, on Public Libraries to consider the necessity of establishing libraries
through the nation: In 1849 their report noted the poor condition of library service, it recommended the
establishment of free public libraries all over the country, and it led to the Public Libraries Act in 1850, which
allowed all cities with populations exceeding 10,000 to levy taxes for the support of public libraries.
Library
13
The turn of the 20th century witnessed a tremendous expansion in the
provision of public libraries in the English-speaking world. Pictured,
the Peter White Public Library built in 1905.
Salford Museum and Art Gallery first opened in
November 1850 as "The Royal Museum & Public
Library", as the first unconditionally free public library
in England.
[72]
The library in Campfield, Manchester
was the first library to operate a free lending library
without subscription in 1852. Norwich lays claims to
being the first municipality to adopt the Public
Libraries Act 1850 (which allowed any municipal
borough with a population of 100,000 or more to
introduce a halfpenny rate to establish public
librariesalthough not to buy books). Norwich was the
eleventh library to open, in 1857, after Winchester,
Manchester, Liverpool, Bolton, Kidderminster,
Cambridge, Birkenhead and Sheffield.
Another important act was the Education Act 1870,
which increased literacy and thereby the demand for
libraries. By 1877, more than 75 cities had established free libraries, and by 1900 the number had reached 300. This
finally marks the start of the public library as we know it. And these acts influenced similar laws in other countries,
such as the US. The first tax-supported public library in the United States was Peterborough, New Hampshire (1833)
first supported by state funds then an "Act Providing for the Establishment of Public Libraries" in 1849.
Expansion
Andrew Carnegie played an important role in
financing public libraries across the
English-speaking world.
The year 1876 is key in the history of librarianship in the United
States. The American Library Association was formed, as well as The
American Library Journal, Melvil Dewey published his decimal-based
system of classification, and the United States Bureau of Education
published its report, "Public libraries in the United States of America;
their history, condition, and management." During the post-Civil War
years, there was a rise in the establishment of public libraries, a
movement led chiefly by newly formed women's clubs. They
contributed their own collections of books, conducted lengthy fund
raising campaigns for buildings, and lobbied within their communities
for financial support for libraries, as well as with legislatures and the
Carnegie Library Endowment founded in the 20th century.
[73]
They led
the establishment of 7580 percent of the libraries in communities
across the country.
[74]
Philanthropists and businessmen, including John Passmore Edwards,
Henry Tate and Andrew Carnegie, helped to increase the number of
public libraries from the late 19th century. Carnegie alone built over
2000 libraries in the US, 660 Carnegie Libraries in Britain, in addition
to many more in the Commonwealth.
Library
14
Types
Many institutions make a distinction between a circulating or lending library, where materials are expected and
intended to be loaned to patrons, institutions, or other libraries, and a reference library where material is not lent out.
Modern libraries are often a mixture of both, containing a general collection for circulation, and a reference
collection which is restricted to the library premises. Also, increasingly, digital collections enable broader access to
material that may not circulate in print, and enables libraries to expand their collections even without building a
larger facility.
Academic libraries
Main article: Academic library
An academic library is generally located on the campuses of colleges and universities and serve primarily the
students and faculty of that and other academic institutions. Some academic libraries, especially those at public
institutions, are accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part.
The University Library in Budapest.
Academic libraries are libraries that are hosted in post-secondary
educational institutions, such as colleges and universities. The main
functions of an academic library are to provide resources and research
support for students and faculty of the educational institution. Specific
course-related resources are usually provided by the library, such as
copies of textbooks and article readings held on 'reserve' (meaning that
they are loaned out only on a short-term basis, usually a matter of
hours).
Academic libraries offer workshops and courses outside of formal,
graded coursework, which are meant to provide students with the tools
necessary to succeed in their programs.
[75]
These workshops may include help with citations, effective search
techniques, journal databases, and electronic citation software. These workshops provide students with skills that can
help them achieve success in their academic careers (and often, in their future occupations), which they may not
learn inside the classroom.
The Robarts Library at the University of Toronto,
Canada.
The academic library provides a quiet study space for students on
campus; it may also provide group study space, such as meeting rooms.
In North America, Europe, and other parts of the world, academic
libraries are becoming increasingly digitally oriented. The library
provides a "gateway" for students and researchers to access various
resources, both print/physical and digital.
[76]
Academic institutions are
subscribing to electronic journals databases, providing research and
scholarly writing software, and usually provide computer workstations
or computer labs for students to access journals, library search
databases and portals, institutional electronic resources, internet access,
and course- or task-related software (i.e. word processing and
spreadsheet software). They are increasingly acting as an electronic repository for institutional scholarly research and
academic knowledge, such as the collection and curation of digital copies of students' theses and dissertations.
[77]
Library
15
Children's libraries
Children's libraries are special collections of books intended for juvenile readers and usually kept in separate rooms
of general public libraries. Some children's libraries have entire floors or wings dedicated to them in bigger libraries
while smaller ones may have a separate room or area for children. They are an educational agency seeking to
acquaint the young with the world's literature and to cultivate a love for reading. Their work supplements that of the
public schools.
Services commonly provided by public libraries may include storytelling sessions for infants, toddlers, preschool
children, or after-school programs, all with an intention of developing early literacy skills and a love of books. One
of the most popular programs offered in public libraries are summer reading programs for children, families, and
adults.
[78]
Another popular reading program for children is PAWS TO READ or similar programs where children can read to
certified therapy dogs. Since animals are a calming influence and there is no judgment children learn confidence and
a love of reading. Many states have these types of programs parents just have to ask their librarian to see if it is
available at their local library.
National libraries
National Library of Wales
Main article: National library
A national or state library serves as a national repository of
information, and has the right of legal deposit, which is a legal
requirement that publishers in the country need to deposit a copy of
each publication with the library. Unlike a public library, a national
library rarely allows citizens to borrow books. Often, their collections
include numerous rare, valuable, or significant works. There are wider
definitions of a national library, putting less emphasis on the repository
character.
[79][80]
The first national libraries had their origins in the
royal collections of the sovereign or some other supreme body of the
state.
Many national libraries cooperate within the National Libraries Section of the International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to discuss their common tasks, define and promote common standards and
carry out projects helping them to fulfil their duties. The national libraries of Europe participate in The European
Library which is a service of the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL).
Library
16
Public lending libraries
The public library of Police, Poland
Main article: Public library
A public library provides services to the general public. If the library is
part of a countywide library system, citizens with an active library card
from around that county can use the library branches associated with
the library system. A library can serve only their city, however, if they
are not a member of the county public library system. Much of the
materials located within a public library are available for borrowing.
The library staff decides upon the number of items patrons are allowed
to borrow, as well as the details of borrowing time allotted. Typically,
libraries issue library cards to community members wishing to borrow
books. Often visitors to a city are able to obtain a public library card.
Many public libraries also serve as community organizations that
provide free services and events to the public, such as reading groups
and toddler story time. For many communities, the library is a source
of connection to a vast world, obtainable knowledge and
understanding, and entertainment. According to a study by the
Pennsylvania Library Association, public library services play a major role in fighting rising illiteracy rates among
youths.
[81]
Public libraries are protected and funded by the public they serve.
As the number of books in libraries have steadily increased since their inception, the need for compact storage and
access with adequate lighting has grown. The stack system involves keeping a library's collection of books in a space
separate from the reading room. This arrangement arose in the 19th century. Book stacks quickly evolved into a
fairly standard form in which the cast iron and steel frameworks supporting the bookshelves also supported the
floors, which often were built of translucent blocks to permit the passage of light (but were not transparent, for
reasons of modesty). The introduction of electrical lighting had a huge impact on how the library operated. The use
of glass floors was largely discontinued, though floors were still often composed of metal grating to allow air to
circulate in multi-story stacks. As more space was needed, a method of moving shelves on tracks (compact shelving)
was introduced to cut down on otherwise wasted aisle space.
A community library in Ethiopia.
Library 2.0, a term coined in 2005, is the library's response to the
challenge of Google and an attempt to meet the changing needs of
users by using web 2.0 technology. Some of the aspects of Library 2.0
include, commenting, tagging, bookmarking, discussions, use of online
social networks by libraries, plug-ins, and widgets. Inspired by web
2.0, it is an attempt to make the library a more user-driven institution.
Despite the importance of public libraries, they are routinely having
their budgets cut by state legislature. Funding has dwindled so badly
that many public libraries have been forced to cut their hours and
release employees.
Library
17
Reference libraries
A reference library does not lend books and other items; instead, they must be read at the library itself. Typically
such libraries are used for research purposes, for example at a university. Some items at reference libraries may be
historical and even unique. Examples of reference libraries include the British Library in London and the Bodleian
Library at Oxford University. Many lending libraries contain a "reference section", which holds books, such as
dictionaries, which are common reference books, and are therefore not lent out. Such reference sections may be
referred to as "reading rooms", which may also include newspapers and periodicals.
Quaid-e-Azam Library in Bagh-e-Jinnah, Lahore,
Pakistan
Research libraries
A research library is a collection of materials on one or more subjects.
A research library supports scholarly or scientific research and will
generally include primary as well as secondary sources; it will
maintain permanent collections and attempt to provide access to all
necessary materials. A research library is most often an academic or
national library, but a large special library may have a research library
within its special field and a very few of the largest public libraries also
serve as research libraries. A large university library may be
considered a research library; and in North America such libraries may
belong to the Association of Research Libraries. In the United
Kingdom they may be members of Research Libraries UK (RLUK).
A research library can be either a reference library, which does not lend its holdings, or a lending library, which does
lend all or some of its holdings. Some extremely large or traditional research libraries are entirely reference in this
sense, lending none of their materials; most academic research libraries, at least in the US and the UK, now lend
books, but not periodicals or other materials. Many research libraries are attached to a parental organization and
serve only members of that organization.
Special libraries
Main article: Special library
All other libraries fall into the "special library" category. Many private businesses and public organizations,
including hospitals, museums, research laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and agencies,
maintain their own libraries for the use of their employees in doing specialized research related to their work.
Depending on the particular institution, special libraries may or may not be accessible to the general public or
elements thereof. In more specialized institutions such as law firms and research laboratories, librarians employed in
special libraries are commonly specialists in the institution's field rather than generally trained librarians, and often
are not required to have advanced degrees in specifically library-related field due to the specialized content and
clientele of the library.
Some special libraries, such as governmental law libraries, hospital libraries, and military base libraries commonly
are open to public visitors to the institution in question. Depending on the particular library and the clientele it
serves, special libraries may offer services similar to research, reference, public, academic, or children's libraries,
often with restrictions such as only lending books to patients at a hospital or restricting the public from parts of a
military collection. Given the highly individual nature of special libraries, visitors to a special library are often
advised to check what services and restrictions apply at that particular library.
Special libraries are distinguished from special collections, which are branches or parts of a library intended for rare
books, manuscripts, and other special materials, though some special libraries have special collections of their own,
typically related to the library's specialized subject area.
Library
18
For more information on specific types of special libraries, see law libraries, medical libraries, music libraries, or
transportation libraries.
Organization
Library shelves in Hong Kong, showing numbers
of the classification scheme to help readers locate
works in that section
Most libraries have materials arranged in a specified order according to
a library classification system, so that items may be located quickly
and collections may be browsed efficiently. Some libraries have
additional galleries beyond the public ones, where reference materials
are stored. These reference stacks may be open to selected members of
the public. Others require patrons to submit a "stack request," which is
a request for an assistant to retrieve the material from the closed stacks:
see List of closed stack libraries (in progress).
Larger libraries are often divided into departments staffed by both
paraprofessionals and professional librarians.
Circulation (or Access Services) Handles user accounts and the
loaning/returning and shelving of materials.
[82]
Collection Development Orders materials and maintains materials budgets.
Reference Staffs a reference desk answering questions from users (using structured reference interviews),
instructing users, and developing library programming. Reference may be further broken down by user groups or
materials; common collections are children's literature, young adult literature, and genealogy materials.
Technical Services Works behind the scenes cataloging and processing new materials and deaccessioning
weeded materials.
Stacks Maintenance Re-shelves materials that have been returned to the library after patron use and shelves
materials that have been processed by Technical Services. Stacks Maintenance also shelf reads the material in the
stacks to ensure that it is in the correct library classification order.
Card used by a user to sign-out a
book
Basic tasks in library management include the planning of acquisitions (which
materials the library should acquire, by purchase or otherwise), library
classification of acquired materials, preservation of materials (especially rare and
fragile archival materials such as manuscripts), the deaccessioning of materials,
patron borrowing of materials, and developing and administering library
computer systems. More long-term issues include the planning of the
construction of new libraries or extensions to existing ones, and the development
and implementation of outreach services and reading-enhancement services (such
as adult literacy and children's programming).
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published several
standards regarding the management of libraries through its Technical
Committee 46 (TC 46), which is focused on "libraries, documentation and
information centers, publishing, archives, records management, museum
documentation, indexing and abstracting services, and information science". The
following is a partial list of some of them:
ISO 2789:2006 Information and documentationInternational library
statistics
ISO 11620:1998 Information and documentationLibrary performance indicators
ISO 11799:2003 Information and documentationDocument storage requirements for archive and library
materials
Library
19
ISO 14416:2003 Information and documentationRequirements for binding of books, periodicals, serials and
other paper documents for archive and library useMethods and materials
ISO/TR 20983:2003 Information and documentationPerformance indicators for electronic library services
Buildings
National Library of India, Kolkata, estb. 1836
Librarians have sometimes complained that some of the library
buildings which have been used to accommodate libraries have been
inadequate for the demands made upon them. In general this condition
may have resulted from one or more of the following causes:
1. an effort to erect a monumental buildingWikipedia:Vagueness;
most of those who commission library buildings are not librarians
and their priorities may be different
2. to conform it to a type of architecture unsuited to library purposes
3. 3. the appointment, often by competition, of an architect unschooled
in the requirements of a library
4. 4. failure to consult with the librarian or with library experts
Much advancement has undoubtedly been made toward cooperation between architect and
librarian,Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items and many good designers have made
library buildings their speciality, nevertheless it seems that the ideal type of library is not yet realizedthe type so
adapted to its purpose that it would be immediately recognized as such, as is the case with school buildings at the
present time.Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items This does not mean that library
constructions should conform rigidly to a fixed standard of appearance and arrangement, but it does mean that the
exterior should express as nearly as possible the purpose and functions of the interior.
Usage
Until the advent of digital catalogues, card
catalogues were the traditional method of
organizing the list of resources and their location
within a large library
Patrons may not know how to fully use the library's resources. This can
be due to some individuals' unease in approaching a staff member.
Ways in which a library's content is displayed or accessed may have
the most impact on use. An antiquated or clumsy search system, or
staff unwilling or untrained to engage their patrons, will limit a
library's usefulness. In the public libraries of the United States,
beginning in the 19th century, these problems drove the emergence of
the library instruction movement, which advocated library user
education. One of the early leaders was John Cotton Dana. The basic
form of library instruction is sometimes known as information literacy.
Libraries should inform their users of what materials are available in
their collections and how to access that information. Before the
computer age, this was accomplished by the card cataloguea cabinet
(or multiple cabinets) containing many drawers filled with index cards
that identified books and other materials. In a large library, the card
catalogue often filled a large room. The emergence of the Internet, however, has led to the adoption of electronic
catalogue databases (often referred to as "webcats" or as online public access catalogues,
Library
20
Dynix was an early, but long-lasting and popular,
digital catalogue.
OPACs), which allow users to search the library's holdings from any
location with Internet access. This style of catalogue maintenance is
compatible with new types of libraries, such as digital libraries and
distributed libraries, as well as older libraries that have been retrofitted.
Electronic catalogue databases are criticized by some who believe that
the old card catalogue system was both easier to navigate and allowed
retention of information, by writing directly on the cards, that is lost in
the electronic systems. This argument is analogous to the debate over
paper books and e-books. While libraries have been accused of
precipitously throwing out valuable information in card catalogues,
most modern ones have nonetheless made the move to electronic catalogue databases. Large libraries may be
scattered within multiple buildings across a town, each having multiple floors, with multiple rooms housing the
resources across a series of shelves. Once a user has located a resource within the catalogue, they must then use
navigational guidance to retrieve the resource physically; a process that may be assisted through signage, maps, GPS
systems or RFID tagging.
Finland has the highest number of registered book borrowers per capita in the world. Over half of Finland's
population are registered borrowers. In the US, public library users have borrowed on average roughly 15 books per
user per year from 1856 to 1978. From 1978 to 2004, book circulation per user declined approximately 50%. The
growth of audiovisuals circulation, estimated at 25% of total circulation in 2004, accounts for about half of this
decline.
[83]
Shift to digital libraries
See also: Digital Library
Interior of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina,
Alexandria, Egypt, showing both stacks and
computer terminals
In the 21st century there has been increasing use of the Internet to
gather and retrieve data. The shift to digital libraries has greatly
impacted the way people use physical libraries. Between 2002 and
2004, the average American academic library saw the overall number
of transactions decline approximately 2.2%.
[84]
Libraries are trying to
keep up with the digital world and the new generation of students that
are used to having information just one click away. For example, the
University of California Library System saw a 54% decline in
circulation between 1991 to 2001 of 8,377,000 books to 3,832,000.
[85]
These facts might be a consequence of the increased availability of
e-resources. In 19992000, 105 ARL university libraries spent almost $100 million on electronic resources, which is
an increase of nearly $23 million from the previous year.
[86]
A 2003 report by the Open E-book Forum found that
close to a million e-books had been sold in 2002, generating nearly $8 million in revenue.
[87]
Another example of the
shift to digital libraries can be seen in Cushing Academys decision to dispense with its library of printed
booksmore than 20,000 volumes in alland switch over entirely to digital media resources.
[88]
Library
21
Stacks of the Jos Vasconcelos Library in Mexico
City
One claim to why there is a decrease in the usage of libraries stems
from the observation of the research habits of undergraduate students
enrolled in colleges and universities. There have been claims that
college undergraduates have become more used to retrieving
information from the Internet than a traditional library. As each
generation becomes more in tune with the Internet, their desire to
retrieve information as quickly and easily as possible has increased.
Finding information by simply searching the Internet could be much
easier and faster than reading an entire book. In a survey conducted by
NetLibrary, 93% of undergraduate students claimed that finding
information online makes more sense to them than going to the library.
Also, 75% of students surveyed claimed that they did not have enough
time to go to the library and that they liked the convenience of the Internet. While the retrieving information from the
Internet may be efficient and time saving than visiting a traditional library, research has shown that undergraduates
are most likely searching only .03% of the entire web.
[89]
The information that they are finding might be easy to
retrieve and more readily available, but may not be as in depth as information from other resources such as the books
available at a physical library.
In the mid-2000s Swedish company Distec invented a library book vending machine known as the GoLibrary, that
offers library books to people where there is no branch, limited hours, or high traffic locations such as El Cerrito del
Norte BART station in California.
The Internet
British Museum Reading Room
A library may make use of the Internet in a
number of ways. A library may make the
contents of its catalogues searchable online.
Some specialised search engines such as
Google Scholar offer a way to facilitate
searching for academic resources such as
journal articles and research papers. The
Online Computer Library Center allows
library records to be searched online through
its WorldCat database.
[90]
Websites such as LibraryThing and Amazon provide abstracts, reviews and
recommendations of books. Libraries provide computers and Internet access to allow people to search for
information online.
[91]
Online information access is particularly attractive to younger library users.
[92][93][94][95]
Digitization of books, particularly those that are out-of-print, in projects such as Google Books provides resources
for library and other online users. Due to their holdings of valuable material, some libraries are important partners
for search engines such as Google in realizing the potential of such projects and have received reciprocal benefits in
cases where they have negotiated effectively.
[96]
As the prominence of and reliance on the Internet has grown,
library services have moved the emphasis from mainly providing print resources to providing more computers and
more Internet access.
[97]
Libraries face a number of challenges in adapting to new ways of information seeking that
may stress convenience over quality,
[98]
reducing the priority of information literacy skills.
[99]
The potential decline
in library usage, particularly reference services,
[100]
puts the necessity for these services in doubt.
Library scholars have acknowledged that libraries need to address the ways that they market their services if they are
to compete with the Internet and mitigate the risk of losing users.
[101]
This includes promoting the information
literacy skills training considered vital across the library profession.
[102]
However, marketing of services has to be
Library
22
adequately supported financially in order to be successful. This can be problematic for library services that are
publicly funded and find it difficult to justify diverting tight funds to apparently peripheral areas such as branding
and marketing.
[103]
Associations
See also: List of library associations
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is the leading international association
of library organisations. It is the global voice of the library and information profession, and its annual conference
provides a venue for librarians to learn from one another.
National associations of the English-speaking world include the American Library Association, the Australian
Library and Information Association, the Canadian Library Association and the Research Libraries UK (a
consortium of 30 university and other research libraries in the United Kingdom). Library bodies such as CILIP
(formerly the Library Association, founded 1877) may advocate the role that libraries and librarians can play in a
modern Internet environment, and in the teaching of information literacy skills.
[][104]
Library associations in Asia include the Indian Library Association (ILA), Indian Association of Special Libraries
and Information Centers (IASLIC), Bengal Library Association (BLA), Kolkata, Pakistan Library Association, the
Pakistan Librarians Welfare Organization, the Bangladesh Association of Librarians, Information Scientists and
Documentalists, the Library Association of Bangladesh and the Sri Lanka Library Association (founded 1960).
Public library advocacy is support given to a public library for its financial and philosophical goals or needs. Most
often this takes the form of monetary or material donations or campaigning to the institutions which oversee the
library, sometimes by advocacy groups such as Friends of Libraries. Originally, library advocacy was centred on the
library itself, but current trends show libraries positioning themselves to demonstrate they provide "economic value
to the community."
[105]
Laws
United States
In the United States, state library agencies have oversight of the public library situation within their boundaries. State
library legislation has concerned itself mainly with the following topics:
1. 1. founding of libraries
2. 2. their administration and supervision by library commissions, etc.
3. 3. development of school libraries
4. 4. development of country and rural libraries
5. development of traveling libraries
Legislative reference bureaus and provision for popular lectures and for educational extension by means of the
library are provided for by some states.
Library
23
Islam
Qur'an manuscript on display at the Bibliotheca
Alexandrina
The centrality of the Qurn as the prototype of the written word in
Islam bears significantly on the role of books within its intellectual
tradition and educational system. An early impulse in Islam was to
manage reports of events, key figures and their sayings and actions.
Thus, "the onus of being the last 'People of the Book' engendered an
ethos of [librarianship]" early on and the establishment of important
book repositories throughout the Muslim world has occurred ever
since.
Upon the spread of Islam, libraries in newly Islamic lands knew a brief
period of expansion in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily and Spain.
Like the Christian libraries, they mostly contained books which were
made of paper, and took a codex or modern form instead of scrolls; they could be found in mosques, private homes,
and universities, from Timbuktu to Afghanistan and modern day Pakistan. In Aleppo, for example, the largest and
probably the oldest mosque library, the Sufiya, located at the city's Grand Umayyad Mosque, contained a large book
collection of which 10,000 volumes were reportedly bequeathed by the city's most famous ruler, Prince Sayf
al-Dawla. Ibn al-Nadim's bibliography Fihrist demonstrates the devotion of medieval Muslim scholars to books and
reliable sources; it contains a description of thousands of books circulating in the Islamic world circa 1000, including
an entire section for books about the doctrines of other religions. Modern Islamic libraries for the most part do not
hold these antique books; many were lost, destroyed by Mongols,
[106]
or removed to European libraries and
museums during the colonial period.
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[106] Chief among the libraries destroyed by the Mongol hordes was that of the Shia Ismaili Muslim community who occupied a network of
mountain fortresses lead from the castle of Alamut beginning from the end of the eleventh century to about 1256. The Fatimids and their
successors at Alamut were great lovers and patrons of books, and their vast libraries attracted scholars of every creed from far and wide. The
Imam al-Hakim even provided ink, pens, paper, and inkstands free of charge for all who sought learning in the House of Knowledge (dr
al-ilm). We can only imagine the horror the Ismailis would have felt when they witnessed the destruction of the literary legacy they had so
painstakingly fostered. Al-Maqrizi (d.845/1442) describes how great hills of ashes were formed when the slaves and maids of the Luwata
Berber tribe burned the Fatimid books. As an act of further desecration, they used the precious bindings of the volumes to make sandals for
their feet. Similarly, Juwayni exults at torching the Ismaili library of Alamut, the fame of which, he adds, had spread throughout the world.
See,
Further reading
Barnard, T. D. F. (ed.) (1967). Library Buildings: design and fulfilment; papers read at the Week-end Conference
of the London and Home Counties Branch of the Library Association, held at Hastings, 21st-23 April 1967.
London: Library Association (London and Home Counties Branch)
Terry Belanger. Lunacy & the Arrangement of Books, New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Books, 1983; 3rd ptg 2003,
ISBN 978-1-58456-099-9
Bieri, Susanne & Fuchs, Walther (2001). Bibliotheken bauen: Tradition und Vision = Building for Books:
traditions and visions. Basel: Birkhuser ISBN 3-7643-6429-7
Ellsworth, Ralph E. (1973). Academic Library Buildings: a guide to architectural issues and solutions. 530 pp.
Boulder: Associated University Press
Fraley, Ruth A. & Anderson, Carol Lee (1985). Library Space Planning: how to assess, allocate, and reorganize
collections, resources, and physical facilities. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers ISBN 0-918212-44-8
Irwin, Raymond (1947). The National Library Service [of the United Kingdom]. London: Grafton & Co. x, 96 p.
Lewanski, Richard C. (1967). Lilbrary Directories [and] Library Science Dictionaries, in Bibliography and
Reference Series, no. 4. 1967 ed. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press. N.B.: Publisher also named as the "American
Bibliographical Center".
Mason, Ellsworth (1980). Mason on Library Buildings. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press ISBN 0-8108-1291-6
Monypenny, Phillip, and Guy Garrison (1966). The Library Functions of the States [i.e. of the U.S.A.]:
Commentary on the Survey of Library Functions of the States, [under the auspices of the] Survey and Standard
Committee [of the] American Association of State Libraries. Chicago, Ill.: American Library Association. xiii,
178 p.
Orr, J. M. (1975). Designing Library Buildings for Activity; 2nd ed. London: Andre Deutsch ISBN 0-233-96622-6
Thompson, Godfrey (1973). Planning and Design of Library Buildings. London: Architectural Press ISBN
0-85139-526-0
Herrera-Viedma, E.; Lopez-Gijon, J. (2013). "Libraries' Social Role in the Information Age". Science 339 (6126):
1382. doi: 10.1126/science.339.6126.1382-a (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 339. 6126. 1382-a).
Library
27
External links
Libraries (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Reference/ Libraries) at DMOZ
LIBweb (http:/ / www. lib-web. org/ )Directory of library servers in 146 countries via WWW
Centre for the History of the Book (http:/ / www. hss. ed. ac. uk/ chb/ ), hss.ed.ac.uk
Wikisource. The Free Library
Texts on Wikisource:
John Cotton Dana (1920). "Libraries, Special, Commercial and Industrial". Encyclopedia Americana.
"Library Data". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Library Publications". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
Frank K. Walter (1920). "Rural Libraries". Encyclopedia Americana.
Henry Richard Tedder; James Duff Brown (1911). "Libraries". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
James Morton Paton; Charles Alexander Nelson; Melvil Dewey; James Hulme Canfield (1905). "Libraries".
New International Encyclopedia.
A Library Primer by John Cotton Dana (1899)
John D. Champlin, Jr. (1879). "Library". The American Cyclopdia.
Libraries: Frequently Asked Questions (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ librariesfaq/ ), ibiblio.org
A Library Primer (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 15327), by John Cotton Dana, 1903, setting out the basics
of organizing and running a library. (from Project Gutenberg)
Article Sources and Contributors
28
Article Sources and Contributors
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AdamRetchless, Ahoerstemeier, AlCreed, Alain Caraco, AlainV, Alanscottwalker, Alanshu, Alansohn, AleXd, AlexA95, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, AlimanRuna, AlotToLearn, Alperen,
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Charles Matthews, Cherubinirules, Chickenboy55, Chimp1cards, Chip123456, Chipbruce, Chocolategumandredraspberry, Chongkian, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Christopher Kraus,
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