Nano Green Building55ex

Nanotechnology
for
Green Building

Green Technology Forum 2007

Nanotechnology for Green
Building
2007 Dr. George Elvin
Green Technology Forum

Table of Contents

Executive Summary

Part 1: Nanotechnology and Green Building
1. Introduction
1.1 Green Building
1.2 Nanotechnology
1.3 Convergence

Part 2: Materials
2. Insulation
2.1 Aerogel
2.2 Thin-film insulation
2.3 Insulating coatings
2.4 Emerging insulation technologies
2.5 Future market for nano-insulation
3. Coatings
3.1 Self-cleaning coatings
3.2 Anti-stain coatings
3.3 Depolluting surfaces
3.4 Scratch-resistant coatings
3.5 Anti-fogging and anti-icing coatings
3.6 Antimicrobial coatings
3.7 UV protection
3.8 Anti-corrosion coatings
3.9 Moisture resistance
4. Adhesives
5. Lighting
5.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
5.2 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
5.3 Quantum dot lighting
5.4 Future market for lighting

6. Solar energy
6.1 Silicon solar enhancement
6.2 Thin-film solar nanotechnologies
6.3 Emerging solar nanotechnologies
7. Energy storage
8. Air purification
9. Water purification
10. Structural materials
10.1 Concrete
10.2 Steel
10.3 Wood
10.4 New structural materials
11. Non-structural materials
11.1 Glass
11.2 Plastics and polymers
11.3 Drywall
11.4 Roofing

Part 3: Conclusions
12. Additional benefits
12.1 Nanosensors and smart environments
12.2 Multifunctional properties
12.3 Reduced processing energy
12.4 Adaptability to existing buildings
13. Market forces
13.1 Forces accelerating adoption
13.2 Obstacles to adoption
14. Future trends and needs
14.1 Independent testing
14.2 Life cycle analysis
14.3 Societal concerns
14.4 Environmental and human health concerns
14.5 Regulation

References and links

cover: flexible solar panel from konarka
acknowledgements: an initial study of energy-efficient nanomaterials was made possible by a
fellowship at the center for energy research, education and service
Nanotechnology for Green Building 2007 Dr. George Elvin
1

Executive summary

This report offers a comprehensive research review of current and near future
applications of nanotechnology for green building. Its results suggest that the potential
for energy conservation and reduced waste, toxicity, non-renewable resource
consumption, and carbon emissions through the architectural applications of
nanotechnology is significant. These environmental performance improvements will
be led by current improvements in insulation, coatings, air and water purification,
followed by forthcoming advances in solar and lighting technology, and more distant
(>10 years) potential in structural components and adhesives. U.S. demand for nano-
enhanced building materials totaled less than $20 million in 2006, but the market is
expected to reach almost $400 million by 2016. Green building, meanwhile, accounts
for $12 billion of the $142 billion U.S. construction market.
1
The convergence of
green building and nanotechnology will result in economic opportunities for both
industries and, most importantly, significant improvements in human and
environmental health.

Based on our research, we divide the timeline for nano-enhanced building materials
into three phases. First, current architectural market applications of nanotechnology
are led by nanocoatings for insulating, self-cleaning, UV protection, corrosion
resistance, and waterproofing. Many of these coatings incorporate titanium dioxide
nanoparticles to make surfaces not only self-cleaning but also depolluting, able to
remove pollutants from the surrounding atmosphere. Insulating nanocoatings promise
significant energy savings, particularly for existing buildings which can be difficult to
insulate with conventional materials. Already gaining market share rapidly in
industrial applications, insulating nanocoatings will soon have a major impact in
architecture.

Coming soon are nanotechnologies for solar energy, lighting, and water and air
filtration. Nano-enhanced solar cell technologies such as organic thin-film and roll-to-
roll processing are also well under development and will gain an increasing share of
the solar cell market in coming years. Not far behind is nano-enhanced lighting such
as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and quantum dot lighting. Market
applications of these technologies have already begun with small consumer devices
like cellphone screens, are beginning to enter the architectural lighting market, and
will gain an increasing percentage of that market in the future due to their energy-
saving capabilities. Nanotechnologies for water and air filtration, already widely
available as consumer products, will gain an increasing percentage of the market for
built-in filtration systems.

In the future, advances in fire protection through nanotechnology suggest great
opportunity as extensive research in this area moves from the universities and research
centers into commercial production. Extensive research underway on nano-
enhancement of structural materials including steel, concrete and wood suggests that
2
dramatic improvements are possible in this area, although their marketplace
applications are, in most cases, many years off.

Public and building industry reaction to nanotechnology has been largely positive so
far. Nanomaterials have already been used in hundreds of buildings, including high-
end projects like the Jubilee Church in Rome by Richard Meier and Partners and New
Yorks Bond Street Apartment Building by Herzog & de Meuron. We have even
incorporated several nanocoatings into our office construction at Green Technology
Forum with positive results.

However, a number of factors stand in the way of widespread adoption. Current
obstacles to the adoption of nanotechnology for green building include the high cost of
many nanotech products and processes, risk aversion and the traditional hesitancy of
the building industry to embrace new technologies, as well as uncertainty about the
health and environmental effects of nanoparticles and public acceptance of
nanotechnology. Lack of independent testing and the current reliance on manufacturer
claims in determining the architectural and environmental performance of most nano-
products could also hinder adoption.

But as this report reveals, many nano-enhanced products are available today which
offer substantial architectural and environmental performance improvements over
conventional products. Many coatings, for example, can protect building surfaces and
reduce the need for harsh chemical cleansers while producing no volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and even removing pollutants from their surroundings. If
consumers embrace nanotechnology as a green technology, if building owners,
architects, contractors and engineers accept uncertainty and risk and embrace
innovation, and if the high cost of nano-products continues to fall, the tremendous
promise of nanotechnology for green building will be realized.

As prices for nano-enhanced building products continue to fall, as buyers weigh their
life cycle and environmental cost advantages, and building industry leaders become
more familiar with nanotechnology, its widespread adoption seems inevitable.
Nanotechnology for green building will reduce waste and toxicity, as well as energy
and raw material consumption in the building industry, resulting in cleaner, healthier
buildings. In addition to the human health and environmental benefits nanotechnology
for green building is poised to make, economic benefits for both the building industry
and nanomaterials industry appear considerable. The demand for green building is at a
an all-time high, and building owners, architects, contractors and engineers adopting
nanotechnology for green building are likely to emerge as leaders and be rewarded
accordingly for their services. For nanotechnology companies, green building
represents one of the largest markets possible for new products and processes.

The Green Technology Forum report on nanotechnology for green building identifies
130 startups and established companies offering or developing nanomaterials for green
building, 54 projects underway at universities and research centers, 43 recent patents
available for licensing, and over 250 citations and links to these resources.
3

Part 1. Nanotechnology and Green Building

1. Introduction

The design, construction and operation of buildings is a $1 trillion per year market as
yet largely untouched by nanotechnology. Demand for nanomaterials in the U.S.
construction industry in 2006 totaled less than $20 million.
2
However, as this report
shows, the migration of the entire building industry toward more sustainable green
practices is a multi-billion dollar opportunity for the makers and suppliers of
nanotech-based materials and products. For architects, engineers, developers,
contractors and building owners, new nanomaterials and nano-products offer
extraordinary environmental benefits to help meet the rapidly growing demand for
greener, more sustainable buildings.

Nanotechnology, the manipulation of matter at the molecular scale, is bringing new
materials and new possibilities to industries as diverse as electronics, medicine, energy
and aeronautics. Our ability to design new materials from the bottom up is impacting
the building industry as well. New materials and products based on nanotechnology
can be found in building insulation, coatings, and solar technologies. Work now
underway in nanotech labs will soon result in new products for lighting, structures,
and energy.

In the building industry, nanotechnology has already brought to market self-cleaning
windows, smog-eating concrete, and many other advances. But these advances and
currently available products are minor compared to those incubating in the worlds
nanotech labs today. There, work is underway on illuminating walls that change color
with the flip of a switch, nanocomposites as thin as glass yet capable of supporting
entire buildings, and photosynthetic surfaces making any building faade a source of
free energy. By 2016, the market for nanomaterials in U.S. construction is expected to
reach almost $400 million, twenty times its current volume.
3

1.1 Green building
The advent of the nano era in building could not have come at a better time, as the
building industry moves aggressively toward sustainability. Green building is one of
the most urgent environmental issues of our time. The energy services required by
residential, commercial, and industrial buildings are responsible for approximately 43
percent of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions. Worldwide, buildings consume between 30
and 40 percent of the worlds electricity.
4
Waste from building construction accounts
for 40 percent of all landfill material in the U.S., and sick building syndrome costs an
4
estimated $60 billion in healthcare costs annually. Deforestation, soil erosion,
environmental pollution, acidification, ozone depletion, fossil fuel depletion, global
climate change, and human health risks are all attributable in some measure to
building construction and operation. Clearly, buildings play a leading role in our
current environmental predicament.

Environmental impact of buildings
Buildings figure prominently in world energy consumption, carbon
emissions, and waste. (Source: Levin, Systematic Evaluation and
Assessment of Building Environmental Performance (SEABEP),
Buildings and Environment, Paris, June 9-12, 1997)

But they also offer a vast opportunity to improve environmental quality and human
health. Green building is a catch-all phrase encompassing efforts to reduce waste,
toxicity, and energy and resource consumption in buildings. The green building
movement has grown to the point that major cities like Chicago and Seattle now
require new buildings to comply with strict environmental standards. More and more
public and private owners are requiring that new construction meet stringent
sustainability benchmarks like the U.S. Green Building Councils Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) criteria. The Council of American
Building Officials' Model Energy Code (residential) and ASHRAE Standard 90.1
(commercial) propose tougher energy saving requirements, and the proposed EU
Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings also sets minimum energy
performance standards for new buildings.
atmospheric emissions 40%
energy use 42%
raw materials use 30%
solid waste 25%
water use 25%
water effluents 20%
100% 50% 0%
percentage of annual impact (us)
5

In 2007, the green building sector of the $142 billion U.S. construction market is
expected to exceed $12 billion.
5
And as owners, architects and builders worldwide
become increasingly committed to green building, a true paradigm shift is emerging,
from buildings as one of the primary causes of environmental damage and global
climate change to the industry with the greatest potential to reduce carbon emissions,
waste, and energy consumption.

Analyses of global climate change and global-scale plans to alleviate it affirm the
importance of building as our primary opportunity to heal the planet. Tackling
Climate Change in the U.S., by the American Solar Energy Society, for example,
suggests that 40 percent of the energy savings required to achieve necessary carbon
reductions could come from the building sector, with transportation and industry
providing about 30 percent each.
6
Better building envelope design, daylighting, more
efficient artificial lighting, and better efficiency standards for building components
and appliances are all opportunities to make the building industry the leader in fighting
global climate change and advancing sustainable development and energy
conservation.

Green building practitioners seek to implement sustainable development,
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs, in the design, construction and operation
of buildings.
7
They strive to minimize the use of non-renewable resources like coal,
petroleum, natural gas and minerals, and minimize waste and pollutants. Energy
conservation is critical to green building because it both conserves resources and
reduces waste and pollutants.

But a number of obstacles stand between green builders and these goals. Education
and economics are certainly factors, and efforts are well underway to inform clients
that initial design and construction costs for green buildings are typically less than 5
percent more than the waste- and energy-intensive buildings of the past, and that life
cycle costs for green buildings are actually lower. Policies, regulations and standards
also play a role, and these are changing quickly in some areas to allow for greener
alternatives like recycled materials and graywater systems.

But for the building industry to achieve its potential as the leader in sustainable
development, new materials are urgently needed. A trip to the lumber yard just a few
years ago to buy materials for a new deck, for example, would turn up the unpleasant
options of arsenic-laden pressure-treated lumber, non-renewable old-growth redwood,
or environmentally toxic vinyl decking. An effort to conserve energy by installing attic
insulation would meet with the alternatives of fiberglass, polystyrene, or cellulose
laced with fire-retardant chemicals, all considered dangerous. Current windows are
extremely poor insulators, leading to increased energy consumption. And alternatives
to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe for plumbing are healthier than this known
carcinogen but scarce and costly. Now, however, a new frontier is opening in building
materials as nanotechnology introduces new products and new possibilities.
6

1.2 Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology, the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly
one to one hundred billionths of a meter, is bringing dramatic changes to the materials
and processes of science and industry worldwide. $13 billion worth of products
incorporating nanotechnology were sold last year, with sales expected to top $1 trillion
by 2015.
8
In 2004, over $8 billion was spent in the U.S. alone on nanotech research
and development.

Dimensions at the nanoscale
The diameter of a nanoparticle is to the diameter of a soccer ball as the
soccer balls diameter is to the Earths. (Source: Green Technology
Forum)

By working at the molecular level, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities in
material design. In the nanoscale world where quantum physics rules, objects can
change color, shape, and phase much more easily than at the macroscale. Fundamental
properties like strength, surface-to-mass ratio, conductivity, and elasticity can be
designed in to create dramatically different materials.

Nanoparticles have unique mechanical, electrical, optical and reactive properties
distinct from larger particles. Their study (nanoscience) and manipulation
(nanotechnology) also open up the convergence of synthetic and biological materials
7
as we explore biological systems which are configured to the nanoscale. Crossing the
traditional boundaries between living and non-living systems allows for the design of
new materials with the advantages of both, and it raises ethical concerns. Advances in
biomaterials and biocomposites converge with advances in nanotechnology, and an
increase in their application to construction seems certain to emerge in the future.

Carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes can be up to 250 times stronger than steel and 10
times lighter, as well as electrically and thermally conductive. (Source:
Nanomix)

But with new materials and technologies come new concerns. Uncertainty surrounding
the interaction of nanoscale particles with the environment and the human body has
led to caution and concern about toxicology, worker health and safety, and regulation.
Regulations specific to nanomaterials and products have been slow to emerge, partly
due to the inherent difficulty in regulating materials based on particle size, as well as
lack of public outcry in favor of stiffer regulation and the success so far of self-
regulation by industry and the avoidance of any nano-disasters.

8
1.3 Convergence
It is not as though nanotechnology will be an option; it is going to be essential for
coming up with sustainable technologies. advises Paul Anastas, director of the
American Chemical Society Green Chemistry Institute.
9
The nanotech community
appears ready to meet Anatsas challenge, and the market for nano-based products and
processes for sustainability is expected to grow from $12 billion in 2006 to $37 billion
by 2015.
10
New materials and processes brought about by nanotechnology, for
example, offer tremendous potential for fighting global climate change. According to
the report, Nanotechnologies for Sustainable Energy, by Research and Markets,
Current applications of nanotechnologies will result in a global annual saving of
8,000 tons of carbon dioxide in 2007, rising to over 1 million tons by 2014.
11

Globally, nanotechnologies are expected to reduce carbon emissions in three main
areas: 1) transportation, 2) improved insulation in residential and commercial
buildings, and 3) generation of renewable photovoltaic energy.
12
It is worth noting that
the last two of these three areas are centered in the building industry, suggesting that
building could in fact lead the green nano revolution.

Many nano-enhanced products and processes now on the market can help create more
sustainable, energy-conserving buildings, providing materials that reduce waste and
toxic outputs as well as dependence on non-renewable resources. Other products still
in development offer even more promise for dramatically improving the
environmental and energy performance of buildings. Nano-enabled advances for
energy conservation in architecture include new materials like carbon nanotubes and
insulating nanocoatings, as well as new processes including photocatalysis.
Nanomaterials can improve the strength, durability, and versatility of structural and
non-structural materials, reduce material toxicity, and improve building insulation.

Nanotechnology markets 2007
Building construction is not yet a significant market for nanotechnology.
(Source: Cientifica, Nanotechnologies and energy whitepaper, 2007)
chemical 53%
semiconductor 34%
electronics 7%
aero/defense 3%
pharma/health 2%
automotive 1%
food <1%
9

Rank Technology
1 Electricity Storage
1 Engine Efficiency
2 Hydrogen Economy
3 Photovoltaics
3 Insulation
4 Thermovoltaics
4 Fuel Cells
4 Lighting
6 Lightweighting
6
Agriculture
Pollution Reduction
7
Drinking Water
Purification
8
Environmental
Sensors
8 Remediation

Ranking of environmentally friendly
nanotechnologies
Most environmentally friendly nanotechnologies are well-suited to use
in buildings (Source: Oakdene Hollins, Environmentally Beneficial
Nanotechnologies, 2007)

The chart and table above reveal that building construction is not yet a significant
market for nanotechnology. But that is not necessarily bad news for either the
construction industry or the marketers of nano-products. The construction industry has
long been slow to adopt new technologies, and the nanotech era is proving to be no
10
exception. The demands of public and private building owners for greener materials,
demands increasingly being enforced as regulations in many instances, will soon force
architects and engineers to specify greener materials in buildings. This demand,
combined with the environmentally friendly character of most nano-products for
architecture, will create a synergy that we expect will result in a boom in demand for
nanotechnology for green building.

11

Part 2. Materials

2. Insulation

The market for green building materials and technologies will of course be determined
more by market pull--the needs of architects, owners and contractors--than by the
technological push of new nanomaterials discovered and developed in the laboratory.
But the convergence of green building demands and green nanotechnology capabilities
over the next 5-10 years appears very strong. It suggests eight categories of
nanotechnology for green building that are the focus of this report.

Insulation
Coatings
Adhesives
Solar energy
Lighting
Air and water filtration
Structural materials
Non-structural materials

The demand from both public and private enterprise for more energy efficient
buildings will lead to significant growth in the insulation sector in the next few years.
Valued at $7.2 billion value in 2005, it is expected to reach $9.5 billion by 2010.
13

Current building insulation is estimated to save about 12 quadrillion Btu annually or
42 percent of the energy that would be consumed without it.
14
Building insulation
reduces the amount of energy required to maintain a comfortable environment.
Reduced energy consumption, in turn, means reduced carbon emissions from energy
production. Insulation is, in fact, the most cost-effective means of reducing carbon
emissions available today.
Improving on current building insulation could save even more energy and carbon
emissions. EU households, for instance, are responsible for one quarter of EU carbon
emissions, roughly 70 percent of which comes from meeting space heating needs.
Space heating savings through better insulation in Germany, The Netherlands, Italy,
UK, Spain and Ireland, would reduce EU carbon emissions by 100 million metric tons
per year.
15
As the table below indicates, improved thermal insulation could meet over
25 percent of EU carbon reduction goals by 2010. In the U.S., improved insulation
could save 2.2 quadrillion Btu of energy (3 percent of total energy use) and reduce
carbon emissions by 294 billion pounds annually.
16

12

Improvement
CO2 Reduction (tons/yr) by
2010
Thermal
Insulation
174-196
Glazing
Standards
50
Lighting
Efficiency
50
Controls 26

Potential sources of EU CO2 emission reductions
Buildings have the potential to become leading sources of CO2
reductions. (Source: CALEB Management Services, "Assessment of the
potential savings of CO2 emissions in European building stock", May
1998)

Todays building insulation industry is in many ways a model of large-scale industrial
recycling. Fiberglass insulation manufacturers are the second largest user of post-
consumer recycled glass in the U.S., slag wool insulation typically contains 75 percent
recycled content, and most cellulose insulation is approximately 80 percent post-
consumer recycled newspaper by weight.
17

Health effects of several insulating materials are a concern, however, and improved
health and environmental performance could lead to greater use and therefore energy
conservation. Some sources argue that the fibers released from fiberglass insulation
may be carcinogenic, and fiberglass insulation now requires cancer warning labels.
There are also claims that the fire retardant chemicals or respirable particles in
cellulose insulation may be hazardous. And the styrene used in polystyrene insulation
(often known by the brand name Styrofoam) is identified by the EPA as a possible
carcinogen, mutagen, chronic toxin, and environmental toxin.
18, 19
Polystyrene also
poses a resource concern because it is produced from ethylene, a natural gas
component, and benzene, which is derived from petroleum. Two other insulating
materials, polyisocyanurate and polyurethane, are also derived from petroleum.

Nanotechnology promises to make insulation more efficient, less reliant on non-
renewable resources, and less toxic, and it is delivering on many of those promises
today. Manufacturers estimate that insulating materials derived from nanotechnology
are roughly 30 percent more efficient than conventional materials.
20

13

Nanoscale materials hold great promise as insulators because of their extremely high
surface-to-volume ratio. This gives them the ability to trap still air within a material
layer of minimal thickness (conventional insulating materials like fiberglass and
polystyrene get their high insulating value less from the conductive properties of the
materials themselves than from their ability to trap still air.) Insulating nanomaterials
may be sandwiched between rigid panels, applied as thin films, or painted on as
coatings.

Making nanofibers from cotton waste
While cellulose insulation is made from 80 percent post-consumer
recycled newspaper, the equivalent of 25 million 480-pound cotton
bales are discarded as scrap every year in the garment industry.

"Producing a high-performance material from reclaimed cellulose
material will increase motivation to recycle these materials at all
phases of textile production and remove them from the waste
stream," said Margaret Frey, an assistant professor of textiles and
apparel at Cornell.

Frey and her collaborators are using electrospinning techniques to
produce usable nanofibers from waste cellulose. These nanofibers
could form the basis of new insulating materials from cellulose
which, as the basic building block of all plant life, represents the
most abundant renewable resource on the planet.
21

2.1 Aerogel
Aerogel is an ultra-low density solid, a gel in which the liquid component has been
replaced with gas. Nicknamed frozen smoke, aerogel has a content of just 5 percent
solid and 95 percent air, and is said to be the lightest weight solid in the world. Despite
its lightness, however, aerogel can support over 2,000 times its own weight.

Because nanoporous aerogels can be sensitive to moisture, they are often marketed
sandwiched between wall panels that repel moisture. Aerogel panels are available with
up to 75 percent translucency, and their high air content means that a 9cm (3.5) thick
aerogel panel can offer an R-value of R-28, a value previously unheard of in a
translucent panel.
22
Architectural applications of aerogel include windows, skylights,
and translucent wall panels.

14
Currently, major companies in the aerogel arena include the Cabot Corporation
(makers of Nanogel,) Aspen Aerogels, Kalwall (using Cabots Nanogel,) and TAASI
(makers of Prstina aerogels.)

Brown University currently has several aerogel technologies available for licensing,
including one that can be used as a coating to permit printing on materials that
normally cannot be printed on. These aerogels can bind various gases for use as
detectors, and can be colored or ground into very small particles and applied like ink
using a printer. They are also transparent and have a low refractive index, making
them useful as light-weight optical materials.
23

Aerogel: the worlds lightest solid
A 9cm (3.5) thick aerogel panel can offer an R-value of R-28. (Source:
Sandia National Laboratory)

15

Aerogels offer superior insulation
Aerogels offer 2-3 times the insulating value of other common insulating
materials. (Source: Aspen Aerogels)

Nanogel panels provide translucency and
insulation
High-insulating Nanogel panels are available with up to 75 percent
translucency. (Source: Kalwall)

aspen aerogels spaceloft
polyisocyanurate foam
polystyrene foam
mineral wool
fiberglass batts
r-value per inch

0 4 8 12 16 20 24
16
2.2 Thin-film insulation
Insulating nanocoatings can also be applied as thin films to glass and fabrics. Masa
Shade Curtains, for example, are fiber sheets coated with a nanoscale stainless steel
film. Thanks to stainless steel's ability to absorb infrared rays, these curtains are able
to block out sunlight, lower room temperatures in summer by 2-3 C more than
conventional products, and reduce electrical expenses for air conditioning, according
to manufacturer claims.
24

Heat absorbing films can be applied to windows as well. Windows manufactured by
Vanceva incorporate a nanofilm interlayer which, according to the company, offers
cost effective control of heat and energy loads in building and solar performance
superior to that of previously available laminating systems. By selectively reducing
the transmittance of solar energy relative to visible light, they say, these solar
performance interlayers result in savings in the capital cost of energy control
equipment as well as operating costs of climate control equipment. Benefits include
the ability to block solar heat and up to 99 percent of UV rays while allowing visible
light to pass through.
25

Stainless steel nanofilm improves UV light
blockage
Masa Shade Curtains reduce room temperatures and air conditioning by
improving blockage of ultraviolet (UV) rays. (Source: Suzutora
Corporation)

3M has developed a range of nanotech-based window films that reduce heat and
ultraviolet light penetration. Their films reject up to 97 percent of the sun's infrared
light and up to 99.9 percent of UV rays. Unlike many reflective films, theirs are metal-
free and therefore less susceptible to corrosion in coastal environments and less likely
to interfere with mobile phone reception. These films also have less interior
reflectivity than the glass they cover.
26

masa shade curtain 84%
untreated curtain 58%
uv blockage
0% 100%
17
Exterior reflectivity can also be controlled by nanofilms. Technology from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute and Crystal IS, Inc. has led to highly anti-reflective coatings
utilizing silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanorods for a variety of surfaces. Their
coating has a refelctivity index of just 1.05, the lowest ever reported.
27

Infrared (IR) rays can also be blocked using transparent IR-absorbing coatings for
heat-absorbing films for windows. VP AdNano ITO IR5, used in transparent film
coatings, improves solar absorption properties while maintaining optical transparency,
according to its manufacturer, Degussa. The use of AdNano ITO on windows, they
claim, improves heat management, greatly reducing the energy consumption of air
conditioners, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Production of AdNano ITO,
they add, does not pollute the environment with heavy metals, and consumes very
little energy because drying and calcination take place at moderate temperatures.
28

2.3 Insulating coatings
Insulation can also be painted or sprayed on in the form of a coating. This is a
tremendous advantage nanocoatings offer over more conventional bulk insulators like
fiberglass, cellulose, and polystyrene boards, which often require the removal of
building envelope components for installation.

Because they trap air at the molecular level, insulating nanocoatings even a few
thousands of an inch thick can have a dramatic effect. Nanoseal is one company
already making insulating paints for buildings. Their insulating coating is also being
used on beer tanks by Corona in Mexico, resulting in a temperature differential of 36
degrees Fahrenheit after application of a coating just seven one thousands of an inch
thick.
29

Industrial Nanotechnology, the makers of Nansulate HomeProtect Interior paint,
advertise that the average surface temperature difference when applied correctly is
approximately 30 degrees Fahrenheit for three coats. For Nansulate HomeProtect
ClearCoat, they claim an average surface temperature difference of approximately 60
degrees Fahrenheit. Nansulate PT is being applied to aluminum ceiling panels in the
new Suvanabhumi International Airport in Bangkok, the worlds largest airport.
30

HPC HiPerCoat and HiPerCaot Extreme are currently used as thermal barrier coatings
by NASA and NASCAR. Their ceramic-aluminum coating process, they report,
reduces radiant heat and ambient underhood temperature in autos by more than 40
percent. It also offers a corrosion-resistant alternative to environmentally harmful
chrome-plating.
31

Industrial Nanotech is even developing thermal insulation that will generate
electricity. The thin sheets of insulation use the temperature differential that insulation
creates as a source for generating electricity. The fact that there is almost always, day
or night and anywhere in the world, a difference between the temperature inside a
building and outside a building gives us an almost constant source of energy
18
generation to tap into, said CEO Stuart Burchill. The company is now designing the
first prototype material and filing patents.
32

NanoPore Thermal Insulation uses silica, titania and carbon in a 3D, highly branched
network of particles 2-20 nanometers in diameter to create a unique pore structure.
According to its maker, NanoPore Thermal Insulation can provide thermal
performance unequalled by conventional insulation materials. In the form of a vacuum
insulation panel, It can have thermal resistance values as high as R-40/inch--7 to 8
times greater than conventional foam insulation materials.

NanoPores makers claim that its conductivity can actually be lower than air at the
same pressure. Its superior insulation characteristics, they say, are due to the unique
shape and small size of its large number of pores. Solid phase conduction is low due to
the materials low density and high surface area, and NanoPores proprietary blend of
infra-red opacifiers greatly reduces radiant heat transfer.
33

Nanoparticles with extreme insulating value can also be incorporated into
conventional paints, as in the case of INSULADD paints. As its manufacturer
describes it, the complex blend of microscopic hollow ceramic spheres that makes up
INSULADD have a vacuum inside like mini-thermos bottles. The ceramic materials
have unique energy savings properties that reflect heat while dissipating it. The hollow
ceramic microspheres in INSULADD create a thermal barrier by refracting, reflecting,
and dissipating heat.
34

Superior insulation with reduced thickness

330 cm
3
of Nanopore insulating nanocoating (right) provides the same R-
value as 7000 cm
3
of polystyrene (left). (Source: Nanopore Incorporated)

expanded polystyrene nanopore
19

Inside an insulating nanocoating
Nansulate Shield is an insulation material designed specifically for
the construction industry. It is an ultra-thin insulation that,
according to its manufacturer, has an R-Value many times higher
than the current best building insulation available. It is a
nanocomposite insulation composed of 70 percent Hydro-NM-
Oxide and 30 percent acrylic resin and performance additive. A
liquid applied coating, the material dries to a thin layer and
provides insulation as well as corrosion and rust protection. The
manufacturers describe their products performance this way:

Thermal conduction through the solid portion is hindered by the
tiny size of the connections between the particles making up the
conduction path, and the solids that are present consist of very
small particles linked in a three-dimensional network (with many
"dead-ends"). Therefore, thermal transfer through the solid portion
occurs through a very complicated maze and is not very effective.

Air and gas in the material can inherently also transport thermal
energy, but the gas molecules within the matrix experience what is
known as the Knudsen effect and the exchange of energy is
virtually eliminated. Conduction is limited because the "tunnels"
are only the size of the mean-free path for molecular collisions,
smaller than a wave of light, and molecules collide with the solid
network as frequently as they collide with each other. The unique
structure... nanometer-sized cells, pores, and particles, means poor
thermal conduction. Radiative conduction is low due to small mass
fractions and large surface areas.
35

Hydro-NM-Oxide ----------- 10 to 13
Polyurethane Foam -------- 6.64
Fiberglass (batts) ----------- 3.2
Cellulose ---------------------- 3.2 to 3.7

R-value comparison of insulation
Similar to aerogel, insulating nanocoatings like
the active ingredient in Nansulate Shield provide
2-3 times the R-value of ordinary insulators
(Source: Industrial Nanotech)

20
2.4 Emerging insulation technologies
Work is underway at many universities and research centers to develop new insulating
materials based on nanotechnology. University of California scientists working at Los
Alamos National Laboratory, for instance, have developed a process for modifying
silica aerogels to create a silicon multilayer that enhances the current physical
properties of aerogels. With the addition of a silicon monolayer, they say, an aerogel's
strength can be increased four-fold. This could expand the range of applications for
aerogels, which must currently be protected by surrounding panels.
36

At EMPA Research Institute in Switzerland, work is underway to create vacuum
insulated products using plastic films such as PET, polyethylene and polyurethane
treated with an ultra-thin coating of aluminum. Only about 30 nanometers thick, the
aluminum layer significantly reduces the gas permeability of the film while at the
same time barely raising its thermal conductivity. The resulting cladding layer is thin,
homogeneous and gas-tight. The higher cost (still about double that of conventional
materials) is offset by the space-saving potential the new materials offer.
37

Many products of current research on nano-insulation are available for licensing. For
example, eight licensable patents for aerospace insulation materials are available
through the Engineering Technology Transfer Center at the USC Viterbi School of
Engineering, including Composite Flexible Blanket Insulation, Durable Advanced
Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation, and Flexible Ceramic-Metal Insulation
Composite.
38

Also available for licensing are NASAs Ames Research Centers novel
nanoengineered heat sink materials enabling multi-zone, reconfigurable thermal
control systems in spacesuits, habitats, and mobile systems. This platform technology
can be adapted to a wide range of form factors thanks to a flexible metallic substrate.

2.5 Future market for nano-insulation
If the field performance of nano-insulation products lives up to manufacturer claims,
these products could foster dramatic improvements in energy savings and carbon
reduction. However, independent testing of insulating nanomaterials and products in
use will be necessary to verify manufacturer claims and convince potential buyers of
their effectiveness. Some manufacturers are already making the results of such testing
public, with encouraging results.

One of the greatest potential energy-saving characteristics of nanocoatings and thin
films is their applicability to existing surfaces for improved insulation. They can be
applied directly to the surfaces of existing buildings, whereas the post-construction
addition of conventional insulating materials like cellulose fiber, fiberglass batts, and
rigid polystyrene boards typically require expensive and invasive access to wall
cavities and remodeling. Nanocoatings could also make it much easier to insulate
solid-walled buildings, which make up approximately one third of the UKs housing
21
stock. And unlike cellulose fiber, fiberglass batts, and rigid polystyrene boards,
nanocoatings can be made transparent. Their application to existing structures could
lead to tremendous energy savings, and they do not appear to raise the environmental
and health concerns attributed to fiberglass and polystyrene.

3. Coatings

Insulating nanoparticles can be applied to substrates using chemical vapor deposition,
dip, meniscus, spray, and plasma coating to create a layer bound to the base material.
Other types of nanoparticle coatings can also be applied by these methods to achieve a
wide variety of other performance characteristics, including:

Self-cleaning
Depolluting
Scratch-resistant
Anti-icing and anti-fogging
Antimicrobial
UV protection
Corrosion-resistant
Waterproofing

Thanks to the versatility of many nanoparticles, surfaces treated with them often
exhibit more than one of these properties. On this versatility and the environmental
improvements possible through the use of nanocoatings, the European Parliament's
Scientific Technology Options Assessment concluded:

"At present, nanotechnologies and nanotechnological concepts deliver a variety of
mostly incremental improvements of existing bulk materials, coatings or products.
These improvements point in several directions and often are aimed at improving
several properties at the same time. With respect to substitution this means that
nanotechnological approaches often cannot lead to direct substitution of a hazardous
substance, but may lead in general to a more environmentally friendly product or
process."
39

3.1 Self-cleaning coatings
Self-cleaning surfaces have become a reality thanks to photocatalytic coatings
containing titanium dioxide (TiO
2
) nanoparticles. These nanoparticles initiate
photocatalysis, a process by which dirt is broken down by exposure to the suns
ultraviolet rays and washed away by rain. Volatile organic compounds are oxidized
into carbon dioxide and water. Todays self-cleaning surfaces are made by applying a
thin nanocoating film, painting a nanocoating on, or integrating nanoparticles into the
surface layer of a substrate material.

22
Self-cleaning facade systems utilizing the latter technology can be found in the Jubilee
Church in Rome by Richard Meier and Partners, the Marunouchi Building in
downtown Tokyo, the General Hospital in Carmarthen, UK, and Herzog & de
Meurons Bond Street Apartment Building in New York. Self-cleaning windows are
now available from most major window manufacturers including Pilkington, PPG,
Saint-Gobain, and Andersen. While the Marunouchi Building and General Hospital
have self-cleaning windows, in the Jubilee Church titanium dioxide nanoparticles are
actually integrated into the precast concrete facade panels. The panel systems
manufacturer, Italcementi Group, has even tested TiO
2
on road surfaces and found it
reduced nitrogen oxide levels by up to 60 percent. At present, their self-cleaning
facade system costs 30 to 40 percent more than regular concrete, but they believe that
self-cleaning materials will save money in the long run.
40

The fiber cement company, Nichiha, employs nanotechnology in three precast panel
lines for exterior cladding; Canyon Brick, Field Stone and Quarry Stone. Working
together with paint manufacturers, Nichiha created a self-cleaning finish on its fiber
cement panels that allows a microscopic layer of water to protect the finish from dirt
or soot. A simple rain, they say, will wash away stains leaving the exterior looking
new.
41

Ai-Nano is, according to its manufacturer, a non-toxic, environmentally friendly,
hygienic photocatalytic coating. It creates a semi-permanent invisible coating on most
surfaces to provide anti-bacteria, anti-mold, anti-fungus, UV protection, deodorizing,
air purification, self-cleaning and self sanitizing functionality.
42

Self-cleaning nanocoatings can also be applied as paint, and a variety of commercially
available paints take advantage of TiO
2
s properties. Herbol by Akzo Nobel, based on
BASFs nanobinder COL.9, displays much lower dirt pick-up and excellent color
retention, according to its manufacturer. They say that during the production of COL.9
binders, inorganic nanoparticles are incorporated homogeneously into organic polymer
particles of water-based dispersions. These then form a three-dimensional network in
the facade coating which ensures an extremely hard and hydrophilic surface(causing
water to sheet) and a good balance between moisture protection and water vapor
transmission. With Herbol-Symbiotec, falling water droplets wet the substrate evenly,
meaning the facade dries faster and picks up less dirt. Similar paints containing TiO
2

are manufactured by Behr, Valspar, and a number of others.

Nanotec offers a range of nanocoatings with varying functionalities. Their
Nanoprotect product creates a self-cleaning effect on glass and ceramic surfaces. They
report that nanoparticles in Nanoprotect adhere directly to the material molecule and
allow the surface to deflect dirt and water.

Self-cleaning windows were one of the first architectural applications of
nanotechnology. The special hydrophilic coating on Pilkington Activ self-cleaning
glass, for example, causes water to sheet off the surface, leaving a clean exterior with
minimal spotting or streaking. Using daylight UV energy, the photocatalytic surface of
23
Pilkington Activ gradually breaks down and loosens dirt, allowing it to be washed
away by rain or hosing.
43

Nanocomposite polymer makes paint last longer
Facades coated with Herbol-Symbiotec paint based on BASFs
nanobinder COL.9 display reduced dirt pick-up and improved color
retention. (Source: BASF)

According to one report, nanotech surface treatments for stainless steel can reduce
cleaning time by 80 to 90 percent and protect against pitting corrosion and metal oxide
staining. Permanent coatings with corrosion protective properties are available but are
not offered as an aftermarket product, the report says, and the average lifetime of such
treatments is between 1 and 3 years. Certain application and curing processes require
special devices and machinery which can only be offered during manufacturing. It is
certain, the report concludes, that the products under development will replace the
powder coating processes now widely used for corrosion protection.
44

3.2 Anti-stain coatings
In 2002, Eddie Bauer apparel became the first brand to employ Nano-Tex stain
resistance technology in its designs. Protests by Topless Humans Organized for
24
Natural Genetics (THONG) at the Eddie Bauer flagship store in Chicago soon
followed, but today the clothier continues to expand its nano-enhaced line, and Nano-
Tex has expanded to bring stain resistance to fabrics and other interior finishes. HON
Company, KnollTextiles, Mayer Fabrics, Arc-Com, Architex, Carnegie, Designtex,
and Kravet all employ Nano-tex in their textiles. Unlike conventional methods that
coat the fabric, claims Nano-Tex, they use a process that bonds to each fiber, making
textiles last longer, retain their natural hand, and breathe normally. This means that
solid colors, lighter fabrics and delicate weaves can be used in places where spills and
stains are likely.

Nanoprotex by Nanotec is a water-based impregnator with very high penetration depth
for textile. The product is repellent to water, and the adherence of foreign matter to the
surface is decreased. The nanoparticles adhere directly to the substrate molecules,
deflecting any foreign matter.
45

P2i produces Ion Mask enhancement for many applications, including aircraft cabin
trim, seats, carpets and uniforms. Originally developed as a military technology to
protect soldiers from chemical attack, Ion Mask applies a protective layer, just
nanometers thick, over the surface of a material by means of an ionized gas or plasma.
Without changing the look, feel or breathability of the fabric, the treated material
becomes hydrophobic (water-resistant), making coffee and red wine spills roll off the
surface like beads of mercury.
46

Anti-stain technology is also available from CG
2
. They incorporate ceramic
nanoparticles that bond with the underlying material to create strong chemical forces
which they say are around one million times more powerful than the purely physical
interaction that is present in coatings made using standard mixing or deposition
techniques. The particles can be designed for different capabilities such as anti-
adherence, scratch resistance, reduced friction, and corrosion resistance. The addition
of only 3 percent silica nanoparticles, they report, can increase abrasion resistance by
approximately 400 percent, while using 10 percent silica resulted in an increase of
approximately 945 percent.
47

G3i has introduced GreenShield, a soil- and stain-repellent textile finish produced
using the principles of green nanotechnology. According to the company, the
manufacturing process eliminates waste and uses ambient temperature and pressure as
well as water-based solvents, minimizing the use of environmentally detrimental
chemistries and reducing the amount of product needed to deliver desired properties.
The company reports the new finish reduces the use of liquid- and stain-repelling
fluorochemicals by a factor of 10 by using what it calls the principle of micro- and
nano-roughness, which creates a pocket of air between the liquid or stain and the
fabric, thereby preventing penetration into the fabric. GreenShield, they say, also
safely provides antimicrobial properties and antistatic properties.
48

LuxShield coating for Luxrae Decking protects by controlling moisture, heat and
water content, UV radiation, and stains. LuxShield coating, says it manufacturer, will
25
not diminish when exposed to the harsh elements. LuxShield coating is not a sealer,
they say. Instead, its nanoparticles adhere directly to the substrates molecules and
assemble into an invisible, ultra-thin nanoscopic mesh that provides an extremely long
lasting hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobic effect creates an easy to clean protected
surface with self-cleaning properties. All foreign particles are washed off by rain or
when rinsed with water. LuxShield coating is non-toxic, environmentally-friendly, and
UV-stable. It is, they say, resistant to friction and cannot be removed by water, normal
cleaning agents, or high pressure equipment.
49

Zirconia nanoparticles are graffitis demise
Graffiti is an expensive social phenomenon, costing about $1.50 to
$2.50 per square foot to clean. Last year alone the London tube
spent over $15 million and the City of Los Angeles $150 million for
graffiti cleanup. Those costs could go way down, along with the
harmful effects of solvents used in the cleanup, thanks to new
nanocoatings developed by Professor Victor Castao, Senior
Research Consultant at CG
2
.

Dr. Castao and his associates developed a novel approach using
nanotechnology to chemically attach zirconia, a hard ceramic, to a
typical polymer (PolyMethylMethAcrylate). In their process,
ceramic nanoparticles are chemically grown on top of the
polymeric surface, creating a ceramic surface to the exterior, with
a much higher wear resistance. A coating of just 130 nm, which is
99.9 percent transparent, passed through an ASTM 500 series wear
test, demonstrated an improvement of over 55 percent compared
to uncoated surfaces.
50

Nanoprotect AntiG is a water-based anti-graffiti nano-treatment suitable for concrete,
brickwork, sandstone, travertine, granite, natural cast stones, and mineral plaster. The
treatment consists of a permanent impregnating undercoat and a semi-permanent
topcoat. Graffiti, says the manufacturer, can be easily removed by low-pressure hot
water, without the need for harsh detergents and chemicals.
51

3.3 Depolluting surfaces
Self-cleaning surfaces enabled by nanotechnology offer energy savings by reducing
the energy consumed in cleaning building facades. They also reduce the runoff of
environmentally hazardous cleansers. As surfaces self-clean, they are depolluting,
removing organic and inorganic air pollutants like nitrogen oxide from the air and
breaking them down into relatively benign elements.

26
Depolluting nanocoatings show considerable promise in cleansing indoor air and
reducing instances of sick building syndrome (SBS). The World Health Organization
estimates that up to 30 percent of new or renovated energy-efficient buildings may
suffer from SBS.
52
The EPA estimates that SBS costs the U.S. economy $60 billion
per year in medical expenses, absenteeism, lost revenue, reduced productivity and
property damage.
53

Self-cleaning nanocoatings shed dirt through
photocatalysis
Nanocoatings containing titanium dioxide (left) can be self-cleaning as
compared to untreated surfaces (right). (Source: AVM Industries, Inc.)

MCH Nano Solutions, for example, recently introduced Gens Nano, which the
company describes as a new easy to apply, green, environmentally friendly,
transparent coating for exterior applications. Gens Nano uses titanium dioxide
nanoparticles to keep the building exterior clean and at the same time purify the air
near and on the surface by breaking down nitrous oxides, formaldehyde, benzene, and
VOCs.
54

27
A current drawback to self-cleaning photocatalytic coatings utilizing titanium dioxide,
however, is that they require sunlight for activation, reducing their effectiveness
indoors. As an alternative for indoor applications, coatings using layered double metal
hydroxides (LDH), air-cleaning nanocrystals, can be applied to indoor surfaces to
improve the indoor climate and reduce ventilation requirements, thereby improving
the buildings energy efficiency.
55
To help overcome the current outdoor-only
limitation of titanium oxide, researchers at the Institute for Nanoscale Technology in
Sydney, Australia, are developing a variation that is activated by a standard
lightbulb.
56

Outdoors, photocatalytic coatings like the ones used in the Jubilee Church in Rome
suggest the possibility of smog-eating roads and bridges for reducing outdoor air
pollution. The Swedish construction giant Skanska is now involved in a $1.7 million
Swedish-Finnish project to develop catalytic cement and concrete products coated
with depolluting titanium dioxide.
57

3.4 Scratch-resistant coatings
Buildings are subjected to a great deal of wear and tear. Surface scratches can reduce
the lifespan of many materials and add to the cost and energy required for
maintenance and replacement. The susceptibility of many metals, wood, plastics,
polymers and glazings to scratching can limit their potential applications in many
areas. Nanocoatings can significantly reduce wear and surface scratches.

Scratch-resistant nanocoatings are already common in the automotive industry. The
2007 Mercedes-Benz SL series, for example, sports a protective coating of
nanoparticles that provides a three-fold improvement in the scratch resistance of the
paintwork. DuPont is also working on nanoparticle paint for autos. The paint, licensed
from Ecology Coatings, is cured using UV light at room temperature, rather than in
the 204 C (400 F) ovens required for conventional auto paint.

"After the UV hits it, it becomes a thin sheet of plastic," explained Ecology Coatings
co-founder and chief chemist Sally Ramsey in a recent interview. "Abrasion-resistance
and scratch-resistance is very much enhanced."

"We are in the early stages of a profound industry change," added Bob Matheson,
technical manager for strategic technology production at DuPont. He estimates the
technology will reduce the amount of energy used in the coating-application process
by 25 percent and reduce materials costs by 75 percent.
58

Ecology Coatings makes coatings for metals, polycarbonates, and composites, and has
also devised a method for waterproofing paper with nanoparticles. In 2005, the
company granted a license to Red Spot Paint & Varnish to manufacture and sell its
product in North America.
59

28
Diamon-Fusion International (DFI) offers a patented scratch-resistant nanocoating
tested and approved by a U.S. Army prime contractor, PAS Armored, Inc., for glass
and other silica-based surfaces in military vehicles. The coating, they say, will
improve vehicle safety under a wide range of adverse weather conditions. DFIs
nanocoating also integrates an antimicrobial property by inhibiting the growth of mold
and bacteria on the treated surface. Like many of the nanocaotings described here, the
DFI coating is multi-functional, incorporating water and oil repellency, impact and
scratch resistance, protection against graffiti, dirt and stains, finger print protection,
UV stability, additional electrical insulation, protection against calcium and sodium
deposits, and increased brilliance and lubricity. DFIs hydrophobic nanotechnology
can also be found in Moens Vivid Collection, a new line of luxury faucets and
accessories for kitchens and baths, where it will help guard against watermarks and
deposits.
60

Triton Systems manufactures NanoTuf coating, a clear protective coating for
polycarbonate surfaces. NanoTuf coatings are created from a solution of nanometer-
sized particles suspended in an epoxy-containing matrix. They are specifically
designed to coat and protect polycarbonate surfaces such as eyewear, making them up
to four times stronger than existing polycarbonate coatings.
61

Move over diamond: carbon nanorods are worlds
hardest substance
Diamond is no longer the worlds hardest material. Researchers at
the University of Bayreuth in Germany have created an even harder
material they call aggregated carbon nanorods. They made the new
material by compressing super-strong carbon molecules called
buckyballs to 200 times normal atmospheric pressure while
simultaneously heating them to 2226 C (4719 F). The new material
is so tough it even scratches normal diamonds.
62

3.5 Anti-fogging and anti-icing coatings
Titanium dioxide becomes hydrophilic (attractive to water) when exposed to UV light,
making it useful for anti-fogging coatings on windows and mirrors. G-40 Nano 2000
by AVM Industries is an example of a product using this technology. Polymer
coatings made of silica nanoparticles can also create surfaces that never fog, without
the need for UV light. This coating also reduces reflectivity in glazed surfaces.

The fogging of glazed surfaces is due to condensation. Condensation occurs when
warm, humid air contacts a cold surface; the moisture in the air condenses and forms a
layer on the colder surface. Condensation can be prevented by heating the cold
surface. A team of researchers at the Fraunhofer Technology Development Group
29
TEG in Stuttgart, Germany have developed a nanotechnology that warms the surface
with a transparent coat of carbon nanotubes. When electrically charged, the coating
acts as a continuous heater uniformly covering the cold surface without wires of other
visible heating elements.
63

Nanocoatings can also help reduce the buildup of ice. CG
2
makes an anti-icing coating
that could offer improved environmental performance compared to heating, salts or
chemicals often used to remove ice. According to the company, their product is an
economical anti-ice coating that in independent tests demonstrated a reduction in ice
adhesion by a factor of approximately four in comparison to bare aluminum. Potential
uses include any application where even a relatively small reduction in ice adhesion is
valuable and where a large surface area has to be coated.
64

3.6 Antimicrobial coatings
Many of the multifunctional coatings already mentioned incorporate antimicrobial
properties. Others are marketed specifically for their antimicrobial properties.
Antimicrobial products are marketed in sprays, liquids, concentrated powders, and
gases. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency says that approximately $1 billion
each year is spent on antimicrobial products. Conventional antimicrobial products can
contain any of about 275 different active ingredients, including biocides, which may
release into the environment. Some biocidal ingredients in antimicrobial products pose
both environmental hazards and indoor air quality concerns.

Antimicrobial nanocoatings reportedly offer the benefits of conventional antimicrobial
products without these environmental and health concerns. Bioni, for example, offers
nanocoatings with a combination of antimicrobial and heat deflective properties. Their
low thermal conductivity and the ability to reflect up to 90 percent of the suns rays
reduce heat absorption in coated walls, thereby reducing air conditioning and energy
consumption.
65

Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Applied
Materials Research IFAM in Bremen and at Bioni CS have developed a process for
binding antibacterial silver nanoparticles permanently to paint. According to Bioni, the
coating is certified as emission-free, and can destroy antibiotic-resistant bacteria. They
report that their coating has been used in more than 20 hospital projects in Europe and
the Gulf region, including the 40,000 square meter Discovery Gardens project in
Dubai. As with nanocoatings from other manufacturers, Bioni can cross-link a
variety of nanoparticles to add additional functionality such as UV protection and
improved wear resistance to their antimicrobial coating. Mirage Hardwood Floors of
Canada currently uses these cross-linked nanocoatings.

30

End of the line for subway-riding germs
"Public transportation is a very common way, we know, of how
diseases ... spread," said Ben Mascall, spokesman with MTR Corp.,
which operates the railway in Hong Kong and has bid for two new
rail franchises in the U.K.

In response, his company has coated its cars' interiors with titanium
and silver dioxide nanocoatings that kill most of the airborne
bacteria and viruses that come into contact with them. The London
tube will soon do the same.

Many surfaces that people touch every day in a subway carry
thousands of bacteria and germs. With news of powerful flu strains
like avian flu and hand-transmissible diseases like colds, public
transportation operators like these pioneers are considering using
new nano-enhanced disinfectants in their subways. Hong Kong is
among the first cities to apply silver-titianium dioxide nanocoating
to subway car interiors. Preliminary tests show the disinfectant
reduced the presence of bacteria by 60 percent.
66

BioQuest Technologies is marketing its BioShield 75, a nanotech- and water-based
antimicrobial with no poisons, as a preventative product for use in homes and
businesses in hurricane paths. Proactive application, they suggest, will reduce bacteria
and provide an effective solution to microbial problems that continue to exist in homes
and businesses after hurricane damage.
67

Antimicrobial nanocoatings can also be incorporated into ceramic surfaces. The
German plumbing-fixture manufacturer, Duravit, for example, has teamed with
Nanogate Technologies to develop a product called Wondergliss. Wondergliss
coating is fired over traditional ceramic glazing to create a surface so smooth that
dirt, germs, and fungus cannot stick to it. In addition, water beads up and runs off the
hydrophobic surface without lime and soaps being able to build up.
68

Many paints contain nanoparticles (commonly titanium dioxide) to prevent mildew,
including Zinssers Perma-White Interior Paint, Behr Premium Plus Kitchen & Bath
Paint, and Lowes Valspar.

31

Plumbing aint what it used to be
Microban International offers Microban, which they call the first
antimicrobial polymeric, a plastic resistant to germs, molds, yeast,
and mildew. Microban is used in more than 450 products ranging
from cleaning supplies, paints and caulking to medical products,
plumbing fixtures, and other kitchen and bath products. Their
product, they say, does not wash or wear off of its material substrate.
As one reviewer of the technology put it:

It is easy to imagine this technology producing piping so smooth
that it would have little or no friction loss, which would lead to
smaller piping able to carry many more gallons of water at the same
working pressure as todays piping. Or drain pipe so smooth and
slippery that it cannot plug up. Or pipes that never wear out.
Someday, entire plumbing systems may follow natures design of a
living system. Imagine a water piping system that could change its
dimensions based on the flow demand and available pressure like
our own circulatory systems. Septic tanks could generate electricity
as they digest waste. Plumbers in the future will no doubt look back
and wonder how we got by with such primitive materials and tools.
Truly, plumbing aint what it used to be and it never will be again.
69

Nansulate LDX from Industrial Nanotech is designed to encapsulate lead-painted
surfaces, making them inaccessible by providing an overcoat barrier. At the same
time, it provides mold resistance, thermal insulation, and protection against corrosion.
Three out of four homes built prior to 1978 contain lead-based paint, and according to
the EPA, residential lead abatement has cost $570 billion and commercial $500
billion. In the past fifteen years, encapsulation as an abatement technique has become
a cost-effective alternative solution, typically costing 50 to 80 percent less than lead
paint removal and replacement.
70

Researchers at Yale University have found that carbon nanotubes can kill E. coli
bacteria. In their experiments, roughly 80 percent of these bacteria were killed after
one hour of exposure. The researchers said nanotubes could be incorporated during the
manufacturing process or applied to existing surfaces to keep them microbe-free. The
researchers also recognized that since nanotubes can kill bacteria, they could have a
major impact on ecosystems. "Microbial function is critical in ecosystem sustainability
and we rely on microbes to detoxify wastes in environmental systems," said Joseph
Hughes of Georgia Tech. "If they are impaired by nanotubes, or other materials, he
concluded, it is the cause for significant concern."
71
The EPA now regulates nano-
products sold as germ-killing, believing they may pose unanticipated environmental
risks.
32

3.7 UV protection
Ultraviolet (UV) light can break down many building materials. Wood, for example, is
a desirable, renewable building material; it can be recycled and regenerated, and as a
structural material, it can reduce heating and cooling loads because it is 400 times less
conductive than steel, and up to 20 times less than concrete. It is also the only building
material that takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen as it grows, working to
counter the effects of carbon emissions. And it contributes far fewer of these
emissions than its non-renewable counterparts, steel and concrete. But wood must be
protected from environmental forces including water, pests, mold and UV radiation.

When the use of wood-preserving chromium copper arsenate was discontinued for
residential uses (in pressure-treated lumber) in 2003 due to environmental concerns,
the wood industry began searching for cost-effective, long-lasting, antimicrobial
products that would allow wood to perform well in outdoor applications. Today,
nanocoatings are proving to fill that gap.

Nanoscale UV absorbers added to protective coatings can help keep substrates from
being degraded by UV radiation. The result is wood that lasts longer with less graying
than unprotected wood. And the small size of the particles makes it possible to offer
high protection without affecting the transparency of the coating. Nanovations Teak
Guard Marine is one example of UV protection for wood. Nanovations provides
sustainable wood protection solutions for Teak and other hardwoods.
72

Many other materials can be protected by nanoparticles as well. SportCoatings makes
a colorless, odorless Sports Antimicrobial System (SAS) based on AEGIS Microbe
Shield, recently tested on synthetic turf fields, sports medicine training rooms, locker
rooms, whirlpools, and wrestling rooms at Virginia Tech. You could tell it worked
quickly, said Denie Marie, Facilities Manager of Virginia Techs Rector Field House.
Within 24 hours of the application it erased the typical locker room scent. It brought
a noticeable freshness to our facilities. SAS provides an invisible layer of
antimicrobial protection they say will not leach any chemicals or heavy metals into the
environment and will not rub off onto a players skin.
73

Suncoat makes multifunctional adhesive films and nano-adhesive transparent
varnish for UV protection of awnings and window glass. They say their product
allows protected surfaces to maintain color quality over a longer period of time, shed
dirt, resist scratches, and self-clean.
74
Centrosolar Glas makes Solarglas Clear and
Solarglas PRISM glasses that can be supplied with nano-coated anti-reflective
properties.
75

Advanced Nanotechnology Limited's NanoZ product is a zinc oxide nanopowder
coating that the company claims provides superior UV protection and anti-fungal
properties to wood and plastic surfaces. At the nanoscale, zinc-oxide particles are
invisible, enabling the creation of transparent varnishes with the same enhanced
33
functionality of colored coatings. NanoZ is used, among other things, to provide UV
protection in Bondall Paints.
76

Tekon makes chemical-free treatments for keeping kitchens, baths, stone, glass, and
countertops clean. Their sealing products protect surfaces from viruses, germs,
bacteria, mold, and other harmful toxins. Tekons Bath, Stone, Countertop, and
Stainless Steel Kits clean, protect and maintain surfaces in kitchens and bathrooms.
77

Seal America sells a variety of nano-based sealants for wood, stone, tile, fabric,
masonry, metal and concrete which they say are non-toxic and have no negative
effects on human health or the environment.
78
Finally, AVM Industries offers nine
multifunctional nanocoatings for metal, wood, concrete and glass.
79

Research currently underway in universities will add even more functionality to the
range of UV-protectant products already available. Researchers at the School of Forest
Resources and Environmental Science at Michigan Technological University, for
example, have discovered a way to embed organic insecticides and fungicides in
plastic beads only about 100 nanometers across. Suspended in water, the beads are
small enough to travel through wood when it is placed under pressure. Their
technology has been licensed to the New Jersey-based company Phibro-Tech.
80
Recent
patents for protective nanocoatings include Interior protectant/cleaner composition,
by Hida Hasinovic and Tara Weinmann.
81

3.8 Anti-corrosion coatings
The cost of corrosion in the U.S. is estimated at $276 billion per year. In the Federal
Republic of Germany, 4 percent of the gross national product is lost every year as a
result of corrosion damage. Corrosion takes a toll not only on steel structures, but on
concrete ones, which require steel reinforcing. In fact, 15 percent of all concrete
bridges are structurally deficient because of corroded steel reinforcement.
82

For protecting metal surfaces from corrosion, chrome plating is becoming an
increasing concern because of the negative health and environmental effects of
chromium.
83
But corrosion can be reduced by coating materials with chemically
resistant nanofilms of oxides. CG
2
is one of several manufacturers marketing
corrosion-resistant nanocoatings. Their technology consists of homogeneous thin films
using alkoxides with chemically attached ceramic nanoparticles.
84

Another system, Corrpassiv Primer epoxy by Ormecon, displayed the best filiform
corrosion results in the history of the institute, in a study by the FPL Research
Institute for Pigments and Paints in Stuttgart. Corrosion protection with Ormecon also
offers environmental benefits by incorporating organic metals that are free from heavy
metals. This makes it possible to replace not only lead compounds, chromate
treatments and chromate, but also the zinc-rich coatings that will in the future be
classified as containing heavy metals.
85

34
Bonderite NT is said to be suitable for surface pretreatment for all conventional
powder and wet paint coatings. It can be applied by dipping or spraying and creates a
cohesive, inorganic, high-density layer incorporating nanoparticles. Measurements
have shown that the nanoceramic coating delivers markedly better corrosion
protection and paint adhesion than iron phosphating. Bonderite NT coatings do not
require bath heating, and can be applied at room temperature, thus saving energy.
They also offer significant environmental benefits. In addition to its low energy needs,
Bonderite NT is distinguished by its lack of organic ingredients. Neither phosphates
nor toxic heavy metals have to be disposed of, which means that far less sludge is
generated in production. Outlay on wastewater treatment, waste disposal and plant
cleaning and maintenance is significantly reduced.
86

Ormecon has also released Organic Metal Nanofinish, a solderable surface finish for
printed circuit boards, a technology that could be applied to architectural metals in the
future. This new process consumes less than 10 percent of the energy compared to
other metallic finishes, and promises to save more than 90 percent of raw materials.
87

Integran makes nanoPLATE Coatings, nanostructured metal coatings with properties
that meet or exceed those of hard chrome, including wear resistance, corrosion
resistance, coefficient of friction, and also allow for the complete elimination of
chromium.
88

Nanocoatings offer superior corrosion resistance
NanoPlate coatings (yellow) provide significantly greater corrosion
resistance than HVOF (green) and hard chrome (blue) finishes, at half
the thickness. (Source: Integran)

NH 2015, available from Nanovations, is an oil-free, nanotechnology-enhanced
surface treatment. Its makers report that it easily removes all staining and soiling and
leaves behind a clean surface that is water and dirt repellent. It protects stainless steel
against contamination for up to two years, even if fully exposed to weathering or harsh
0 500 1000 1500 2000
exposure time (hrs)
astm
b537
ranking
10
0
35
environments. During the lifetime of the coating, they say, maintenance is reduced to
wiping the surface with a wet cloth. It is also VOC- and acid-free.
89

On the research front, scientists in India have devised a method to protect copper from
corrosion by coating it with conducting polymers. Their poly(o-anisidine) coatings
reduce copper corrosion by a factor of 100.
90

3.9 Moisture resistance
Resistance to moisture penetration is critical to the durability of construction
materials. Moisture causes rot in susceptible materials and feeds harmful mold and
bacteria. Unfortunately, many conventional waterproofing materials, such as
polyurethane, give off harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they cure.
Nanocoatings, in contrast, provide moisture resistance without these harmful side
effects.

IAQM's Nano-Encap is a breathable antimicrobial sealant that protects wood, sheet
rock and other porous materials from moisture. According to its manufacturer, Nano-
Encap encapsulates any mold spores that might have settled on building materials and
prevents future mold growth. Made up of cross-linking polymers, Nano-Encap bonds
itself to the cellulose in wood and paper, eliminating mold's nutrient sources. This
clear semi-gloss waterproofing protectant also keeps the treated surface cleaner than
its original state and dissipates any moisture present in the material at the time of
application.
91

Water is a principal source of damage to concrete as well, and even dense, high-
quality concrete does not eliminate absorption of water and soluble contaminates
through capillary action and surface permeability. This can cause efflorescence and
corrosion of the reinforcement. Nanovations offers a water-based micro emulsion,
called 3001, for reducing water absorption in concrete. It can be applied to the surface
or blended into the concrete mix. The result, says the manufacturer, is a low water
absorptive concrete that is salt and frost resistant and cannot be affected by
efflorescence, moss or algae. Its penetration properties, they add, are similar to or
better than solvent-based solutions. 3001 is VOC- and odor-free, and can be applied in
any situation without dangerous fumes. Users can avoid the impact of solvent-based
formulas on the environment, including contributing to photochemical smog and
occupational health and safety concerns.
92

Hycrete is an integral waterproofing system that eliminates the need for external
membranes, coatings and sheeting treatments for concrete construction. With the
Hycrete Waterproofing System, concrete is batched with Hycrete liquid admixture to
achieve hydrophobic performance. Concrete treated with Hycrete shows less than 1
percent absorption. Hycrete CEO David Rosenberg said in a Green Technology Forum
interview that Hycrete transforms concrete from an open network of capillaries and
cracks into an ultra-low absorptivity, waterproof, protective building material.
36
Hycrete also coats reinforcing steel surface with a monomolecular film while
providing waterproofing properties to the concrete. It reacts with metals in the water,
concrete, and reinforcement to form a precipitate that fills the capillaries of the
concrete, repelling water and shutting down capillary absorption. The product is so
environmentally safe it is the first material certified by Cradle-to-Cradle, a new
program that evaluates and certifies the quality of products by measuring their positive
effects on the environment, human health, and social equity.

Reduced moisture absorption in concrete
Hycrete, a Cradle-to-Cradle certified green nanomaterial for integral
waterproofing, greatly reduces moisture absorption in concrete. (Source:
Hycrete)

Nanoprotect CS is a water-based solution with a very high penetration depth for
concrete materials. The hydrophobic treatment, says its maker, is long lasting and can
only be removed by damaging the surface.
93
Another exterior coating, Lotusan,
possesses a highly water-repellent surface similar to that of the lotus leaf. Its
microstructure has been modeled on the lotus plant to minimize the contact area for
water and dirt.
94

Self-cleaning awning fabrics from Markilux are made of Swela Sunsilk Nano Clean,
which its manufacturer says is extremely dirt, grease, oil and water repellent. The
highly dirt repellent finish of the fabric, they add, offers UV protection and ensures
long lasting radiant colors.
95

Because of their vast market applications, water-repellent nanocoatings are a popular
subject of university research as well, and many of these projects are available for
license. Ohio State University engineers, for example, are designing super-slick,
water-repellent surfaces that mimic the texture of lotus leaves for application in self-
cleaning glass.
96
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology has available,
Novel TiO
2
Material and the Coating Methods Thereof.
97
Other licensable patents
for waterproofing nanomaterials are available through the Engineering Technology
control
hycrete
percent absorption
0 1 2
37
Transfer Center at the University of Southern Californias Viterbi School of
Engineering.
98

Interior Protectant/Cleaner Composition is an example of a recent patent in this area,
combining natural camauba wax nanoparticles and zinc oxide nanoparticles with a
quaternary siloxane compound. Its protectant composition cleans, protects, preserves
and enhances the appearances of leather or vinyl surfaces used for covering items in
the home or in vehicles. It dries quickly and leaves no oily residue behind.
99

4. Adhesives

While not the most glamorous technology, adhesives have revolutionized the
construction industry. Construction adhesives were, in fact, voted the most significant
technological advance of the last half of the 20
th
century in one survey of industry
professionals. But many contain environmentally harmful substances like
formaldehyde. Just as we saw with moisture-resistant coatings, however,
nanotechnology promises a more environmentally friendly alternative. But consumers
eager to adopt these eco-friendly super-adhesives will have to wait for their
commercialization in construction. The Nano Adhesive Co. of Taiwan, for example,
makes nanoadhesives, but only for the cosmetics and medical industries.
100

Much of the inspiration for nano-enabled adhesives comes from nature. Adopting
natures tricks is sometimes referred to as biomimicry. Examples of how
nanoscientists mimic nature can be found in the water-repellent properties of
nanocoatings, which take their lessons from the hydrophobic lotus leaf, and in a new
generation of nano-adhesives now under investigation, which are based on the
remarkable feet of the gecko, which enable it to climb walls and even ceilings.

Several years ago researchers created nanotube surfaces that matched the geckos
tenacious toes for stickiness, but how to unstick, and thereby create a useful product,
has eluded scientistsuntil now. Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and
the University of Akron have created synthetic gecko nanotube tape with four times
the geckos sticking power that can stick and unstick repeatedly. The material could
have applications in feet for wall-climbing robots, reversible adhesives for electronic
devices, and even aerospace, where most adhesives dont work because of the
vacuum.
101
The Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society
has also devised gecko-inspired adhesive nanostructures that will increase the
capability of small robots to scamper up rocks, walls, and smooth surfaces.
102

Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have devised a new adhesive for
bonding materials that dont normally stick to each other. Their adhesive, based on
self-assembling nanoscale chains, could impact everything from next-generation
computer chip manufacturing to energy production. The molecular glue is
inexpensive--100 grams cost about $35--and already commercially available, said
project leader Ganapathiraman Ramanath.
103

38

Self-assembling nanoscale chains form nano-super-
glue
Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have developed a new
method using self-assembling nanomaterials to bond materials that
dont normally stick together. (Source: Rensselaer/G. Ramanath)

Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, meanwhile, have developed
biomimetically inspired nanostructures that can stick to wet, dry, rough or smooth
surfaces, and can be peeled off and reused. These materials are also self-cleaning,
leave no residue, and are bio-compatible. Their technology is available for
licensing.
104

39

Biomimicry: learning from the lotus leaf
Through nanoscience and molecular biology we are learning more
about how natural systems, organisms, and materials behave, and
nanotechnology and biotechnology give us the tools not only to
intervene in those systems, but to create new ones based on their
capabilities.
The lotus leaf is a good example. By studying its molecular makeup,
scientists have unlocked its hydrophobic (water-repellent)
properties and incorporated them into a new breed of materials
capable of shedding water completely. The NanoNuno umbrella, for
instance, dries itself completely after a downpour with just one
shake. Developers are applying the hydrophobic properties of the
lotus leaf in a wide range of products and materials from self-
cleaning windows to car wax.
Nature offers endless lessons that could be applied to future
products, processes and materials. By examining the nanoscale
structure of gecko feet, for instance, scientists have created gloves
so adhesive a person wearing them can hang from the ceiling. All of
these lessons will enable us to learn from nature to create systems,
materials and devices that are less wasteful and more efficient than
those available today. Nature does not waste, and through
biomimicry we will learn to model our own systems with the
efficiency, beauty and economy of natural systems.

Scientists are even developing materials that adhere without the use of adhesives.
Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart, Germany, have
developed materials whose surface structure allows them to stick to smooth walls
without any adhesives. The extremely strong adhesive force of these materials is the
result of very small, specially shaped hairs based on the soles of beetles' feet. Their
artificial adhesive system lasts for hundreds of applications, does not leave any visible
marks, and can be thoroughly cleaned with soap and water. Potential applications
include protective foil for delicate glasses and reusable adhesive fixtures. The new
material will soon be used in the manufacture of glass components.
105

40

Adhesion without adhesives
Scientists have developed materials whose surface structure allows them
to stick to smooth walls without any adhesives. (Source: Max Planck
Institute for Metals Research)

5. Lighting

Lighting and appliances consume approximately one third of the energy used in
building operation. Not only do lighting fixtures consume electricity, but most produce
heat that can add to building cooling costs. Incandescent lights, for example, waste as
much as 95 percent of their energy as heat. Fluorescent lights use less energy and
produces less heat, but contain trace amounts of mercury.

Because of the heat generated by lighting, most office buildings run air conditioning
when the outside air temperature is above 12C (55F). In fact, the cores of most
buildings over 20,000 square feet require cooling even during the winter heating
season.
106
Because of this effect, every three watts of lighting energy conserved saves
about one additional watt of air cooling energy.
107
The energy-saving potential in more
efficient lighting is therefore tremendous.

41

heating/cooling 44%
lighting + other
appliances 33%
water heating 14%
refrigerator 9%

Residential energy consumption
Lighting and other appliances (purple) consume one third of all energy
in buildings (Source: US Department of Energy)

5.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
One of the most promising technologies for energy conservation in lighting is light-
emitting diodes (LEDs). In a global lighting market of $21 billion, the current market
for high brightness LEDs exceeds $4 billion. Current uses of LEDs include civil works
like traffic lights and signs, as well as some building applications like the facade of the
Galleria Shopping Mall in Seoul by UN studio.

Some LEDs are projected to have a service life of about 100,000 hours and offer the
lowest long term cost of operation available. Potential energy savings from LEDs are
estimated at 82 to 93 percent over conventional incandescent and fluorescent lighting.
LEDs could save 3.5 quadrillion BTUs of electricity and reduce global carbon
emissions by 300 million tons per year, potentially cutting global lighting energy
demand in half by 2025. The principal obstacle to greater adoption of LEDs, however,
is cost; they currently cost at least 10 times more than fluorescent ceiling lights.
108

Heat dissipation can be a problem with bright long-lasting LEDs, and the nanotech
company, Celsia, is working with leading LED companies to develop LED cooling
solutions. These include laminating their NanoSpreader technology with PCB film, so
that LED circuitry can be attached to form an integrated cooler.
109

42

Light-emitting diodes: always low prices!
WalMart expects to save $2.6 million in energy costs and reduce
carbon emissions by 35 million pounds per year by using light-
emitting diode (LED) refrigerated display lighting by GE. The retailer
is outfitting refrigerated display cases in over 500 U.S. stores with the
technology, and expects to net up to 66 percent energy savings,
compared with fluorescent technology. Occupancy sensors and LED
dimming capabilities will reduce the time the LED refrigerated
display cases are at 100 percent light levels from 24 to
approximately 15 hours per day.
110

LED lighting uses one-third the energy
WalMart expects to save $2.6 million in energy costs
and reduce carbon emissions by 35 million pounds per
year with LED refrigerated display lighting. (Source: GE)

43
BridgeLux InGaN (indium gallium nitride) power-LED chips replace traditional bulb
technologies with solid state products that provide a powerful and energy-efficient
source of blue, green, or white light. BridgeLux chips are currently found in mobile
appliances, signage, automotive, and various general lighting applications.
111

Let there be light, but hold the heat
PlexiLight, a startup out of Wake Forest University, plans to
develop a new lighting source that is lightweight, ultra-thin, and
energy efficient because it uses nanotechnology to produce visible
light directly rather than as a byproduct of heating a filament or
gas. Its unique properties suggest a wide range of residential and
commercial applications.

Light without heat
It looks like a sheet of plexiglass that lights up,
professor David Carroll says of PlexiLight, a new
lighting source that may lead to heat-free lighting.
(Source: Wake Forest University)

Many other companies occupy the LED field, and opportunities for licensing abound.
Two available nanotech-specific LED technologies are Nanowires-Based Large-Area
Light Emitters and Collectors, from Harvard University, and Luminescent Gold (III)
Compounds, Their Preparation and Light-Emitting Devices, from the Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology.
112,113
Recent patents in nano-enhanced LED
44
lighting include Method for fabricating substrate with nano structures, light emitting
device and manufacturing method thereof, by Jong Wook Kim and Hyun Kyong
Cho.
114

PlexiLight has received startup funding from Wake Forest University and
Connecticut-based NanoHoldings, which specializes in building early-stage
nanotechnology companies around exclusive licenses from leading research
universities. PlexiLight could target development of a substitute for the fluorescent
ceiling light fixtures used in nearly all commercial buildings. The new technology may
lead to higher-efficiency panels that would have no bulbs or ballasts to wear out and
would not give off heat that requires additional energy to cool buildings.
115

LEDs lead in lighting efficiency
LEDs provide extremely efficient lightingmore than ten times that of
todays incandescent bulbs. (Source: Dowd, Low Cost Hybrid Substrates
for Solid State Lighting Applications, Cleantech 2007, May 24, 2007,
Santa Clara, CA)

5.2 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
Among the most promising nanotechnologies for energy conservation in lighting are
organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). When electricity is run through the strata of
organic materials that make up an OLED, atoms within them become excited and emit
white led 150
hp sodium 132
metal halide 90
fluorescent 90
halogen 20
efficacy (lm/w)

0 50 100 150 200
incandescent 13
45
photons. OLEDs are highly efficient, long-lived natural light sources that can be
integrated into extremely thin, flexible panels. Their introduction in the marketplace
has so far been limited to small electronic components like cellphone displays, but
their applications continue to grow in scale. OLEDs offer unique features like extreme
flexibility, transparency when turned off, and tunability to produce variable colored
light.

OLED structure
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are highly efficient, long-lived
natural light sources that can be integrated into extremely thin, flexible
panels. (Source: HowStuffWorks.com)

OLEDs could be used to create windows and skylights that mimic the look and feel of
natural light after dark and could be applied to any surface, flat or curved, to make it a
source of light. With this technology, walls, floors, ceilings, curtains, cabinets and
tables could become light sources. Carbon nanotube-organic composites could even
lead to structural panels capable of integrating lighting. This multifunctional ability of
surfaces integrating OLEDs could lead to energy savings not only because OLEDs are
more efficient than todays lighting technologies, but by more efficiently integrating
lighting into other building components. Scientists in Germany, for example, recently
developed OLEDs that are transparent. Transparent OLEDs could be embedded into
laminated glass, enabling windows to switch between transparent glazing and
informational display panels, or act as both simultaneously.

Universal Display Corporation is an OLED technology developer providing OLED
manufacturers and product developers with phosphorescent, flexible, transparent and
46
top emission OLEDs. Their flexible organic light-emitting diode (FOLED)
technologies apply to thin, lightweight displays that use little power and provide easy-
to-read, vibrant color, transparency, and flexibility.
116

FOLEDs make lighting flexible and efficient
Flexible light-emitting diodes (FOLEDs) could free lighting and displays
to bend with architectural surfaces. (Source: Universal Display
Corporation)

5.3 Quantum dot lighting
Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor particles that can be tuned to brightly
fluoresce at virtually any wavelength in the visible and infrared portions of the
spectrum. They can be used to convert the wavelength, and therefore the color, of light
emitted by LEDs.

Evident Technologies has developed technologies for dispersing quantum dots into a
number of polymeric materials including standard LED thermal curing encapsulant
materials (silicones and epoxies), injection moldable polymers, printable matrix
materials, and semiconductor conjugated polymers. Their quantum dot composites can
47
be applied to LEDs, molded into fluorescent components and light guides, or printed
onto any substrate.
117

Quantum dot LEDs
Quantum dot composites can be applied to LEDs, molded into
fluorescent components and light guides, or printed onto any substrate.
(Source: Evident Technologies)

Displays from E Ink and LG Phillips are less than 300 microns thick, as thin and
flexible as construction paper. Their prototype 10" screen achieves SVGA (600x800)
resolution at 100 pixels per inch and has a 10:1 contrast ratio with four levels of
grayscale. E Ink Imaging Film is a novel display material that looks like printed ink on
paper and has been designed for use in paper-like electronic displays. Like paper, the
material can be flexed and rolled. As an additional benefit, the E Ink Imaging Film
uses 100 times less energy than a liquid crystal display because it can hold an image
without power and without a backlight. They are 80 percent thinner and lighter than
glass displays, and they do not break like glass displays.
118

48

"This will completely change the way we use
lighting"
Carbon nanotube-organic composites may significantly reduce
energy running costs, thus reducing carbon dioxide emissions at
power generating stations. The Advanced Technology Institute (ATI)
at the University of Surrey, for example, was recently awarded a
200,000 grant by the Carbon Trust to produce prototype solid state
lighting devices using nano-composite materials. Their Ultra Low
Energy High Brightness (ULEHB) technology may offer a cost-
efficient and clean replacement for mercury based fluorescent lamps
and many other low efficiency, heat producing light sources.

Carbon nanotube lighting
The Advanced Technology Institute is producing
prototype solid state lighting devices like this Ultra Low
Energy High Brightness (ULEHB) device using nano-
composite materials. (Source: Advanced Technology
Institute, University of Surrey)

49
New quantum dot technologies available for licensing from several universities and
research centers include Process to Grow a Highly-Ordered Quantum DOT Array,
and a Quantum Dot Array Grown in Accordance with the Process, from Brown
University, Biomolecular Synthesis of Quantum Dot Composites, University of
Massachusetts, Lowell, Self-Organized Formation of Quantum Dots of a Material
On a Substrate, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Fabrication of Quantum Dots
Embedded in Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Lattice, from the University of
Delaware.
119,120,121,122

The Advanced Technology Institute is experimenting with Ultra Low Energy High
Brightness (ULEHB) devices made of nano-composite materials. Potential uses such
as variable mood lighting over a whole wall or ceiling opens up a range of exciting
applications. ULEHBs are also expected to have wide uses in signage, displays, street
lighting, commercial lighting, public buildings, offices and image projectors. The
patented technology can also be used for low cost solar cell production and has the
versatility to be tuned to produce colored light.123"

This will completely change the way we use lighting," predicted project leader
Professor Ravi Silva. ULEHB lighting will produce the same quality light as the best
100 watt light bulb, but using only a fraction of the energy and last many times
longer."

5.4 Future market for lighting
As costs decline, experts anticipate that LEDs will take an increasing share of the task
lighting market (for reading and other activities requiring bright, focused light) while
OLEDs will be increasingly popular for ambient lighting (low-light conditions like
hotel lobbies and high-end restaurants.) As the transition from conventional lighting to
solid-state LEDs and OLEDs evolves, solid-state lamps will be made to fit existing
incandescent and fluorescent fixtures. These advanced light fixtures will offer users
the ability to change room color with the turn of a conventional dimmer switch, as is
already possible with LED lighting in some high-end hotels and night clubs. Mass
commercialization of LEDs and OLEDs, however, will depend on improvements in
their efficiency. Most current LEDs and OLEDs provide efficiency of roughly 30-160
lumens, whereas 1000 lumens will be required for their widespread adoption.
124

6. Solar energy
The sun offers a free, renewable source of energy capable of meeting all our energy
needs . . . if an efficient, economical means of converting solar to electrical energy can
be found. Current silicon-based solar cell technologies, however, have only achieved
modest conversion efficiencies at relatively high costs. But conversion technologies
are improving, and the market for solar energy is expected to grow from $15.6 billion
in 2006 to $69.3 billion by 2016. And while solar represents less than .5 percent of
todays total energy market, it is growing rapidly at 30 percent annually.
50

Some experts believe that the pace of solar development will be slowed due to the
rising cost of its primary raw material, silicon. Today, at least 90 percent of
photovoltaic sales are made from silicon-based solar cells, and at least half of their
cost is in the initial silicon wafer. Most of the silicon used by the solar industry comes
from reject silicon wafers found unsuitable for use by computer chip manufacturers,
and high-grade processed silicon is in such high demand among chip makers and solar
panel manufacturers that competition for silicon from the computer chip industry has
driven the price of silicon up dramatically.

Due to increased demand, the price of silicon has skyrocketed from about $25 per
kilogram in 2004 to roughly $200 per kilogram in 2006. The result has been a
significant shortage of solar-quality silicon. The high price and short supply of silicon
is expected to pose a serious obstacle to solar power growth, leading some analysts to
suggest that solar growth may decline to 20 percent in coming years.
125

Breaking silicons hold on solar
Nanotechnology will eventually outshine silicon technology in
solar cell manufacturing, said Bo Varga, Managing Director of
Silicon Valley Nano Ventures, in an interview with Green
Technology Forum.

I dont think the current paradigm of using silicon and
semiconductor processes [for solar cells] is viable for a very simple
economic reason, said Varga. When Im making a memory or a
computer chip, Im fundamentally taking a raw material and
marking it up by one hundred times, or even one thousand times
for a quad processor, so the cost of the pure silicon versus what
Intel or AMD sells a CPU for is a thousand percent markup.

In silicon solar cells today, forty percent of the cost is materials, and
the best studies Ive seen say that in five years that will be reduced
to thirty percent. When youre looking at thin-film solar using
nanotechnology, the cost of goods might be one percent or one-
half of one percent.

So I think that by creating nanostructures which are the most
efficient at harvesting the light at different wavelengths, reducing
the amount of materials we use from two hundred microns thick in
the case of silicon to ultimately just a few nanometers with
nanomaterials, and converting from the batch process used today
to roll-to-roll, solar will be able to compete with coal, natural gas,
and other current energy sources.
126

51
6.1 Silicon solar enhancement
Nanotechnology is not only an alternative to silicon-based solar. It is also contributing
significantly to todays silicon-based solar market. Innovalight, for example, has
developed a technology they say has the potential to greatly reduce the cost of silicon-
based solar cells. They have developed a silicon nanocrystalline ink that could make
flexible solar panels as much as ten times cheaper than current solutions. Their silicon
process lends itself to low cost, high throughput manufacturing.
127

Meanwhile, Solaicx has designed and built a proprietary single crystal silicon wafer
production system for the silicon-based photovoltaic manufacturing industry. Their
system, they report, allows the manufacture of low cost, high quality single crystal
silicon ingots at high volume for conversion into solar wafers. Solaicx expects their
process to be up to 5 times more productive than traditional methods. They also
anticipate that silicon utilization will be greatly improved because they will be able to
slice thinner silicon wafers of between 300 to 150 microns, allowing excess silicon to
be recycled back into the manufacturing process.
128

Transparent and semitransparent solar panels
Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) awnings can provide shade
from the suns heat, saving energy while also producing electricity.
(Source: Spire Solar)

52
Spire Solar produces nanostructured materials, fabricating solar cells with greater
efficiency than conventional devices while providing color options for improved
aesthetics when integrated into building designs. Their Building Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV) solutions include curtain wall systems in which panels can be
mounted vertically on an exterior wall. These transparent and semitransparent panels
can also be mounted on a roof, acting as a power-generating skylight. This allows the
panel to be visible from indoors, providing partial shade. Their BIPV awnings can
provide shade from the suns heat, saving energy while also producing electricity.
These can be mounted over windows, integrated into louvers and shutters, and built
into carports and patios. Their rooftop installation helps power the Chicago Center for
Green Technology, a LEED platinum certified building.
129

Octillion is developing what they call a first-of-its-kind transparent glass window
capable of generating electricity using silicon nanoparticles. While conventional
photovoltaic solar cells lose about 50 percent of incident energy as heat, silicon
nanocrystals can produce more than one electron from a single photon of sunlight,
providing a way to convert some of the energy lost as heat into additional
electricity.
130

6.2 Thin-film solar nanotechnologies
While nanotechnology is leading to advances in silicon-based photovoltaics, it appears
likely to supplant silicon wafer technology as the primary technology behind solar
cells with new nanocrystalline materials, thin-film materials, and conducting
polymeric films. Revolutionary thin-film and organic solar cells are now entering the
market and are expected to be significantly less expensive than current silicon-based
solar cells by 2010.
131

Organic thin-film, or plastic solar cells, use low-cost materials primarily based on
nanoparticles and polymers. They are formed on inexpensive polymer substrates
which can take advantage of the relatively inexpensive roll-to-roll production
methods used in newspaper presses.

The other dramatic advantage of organic thin films is their flexibility, which will
enable their integration into far more building applications than conventional flat glass
panels. This will open new architectural possibilities and overcome the aesthetic
concerns some architects hold against rigid flat panels, which can hardly be integrated
into building facades. Thanks to their flexibility and thinness, thin films could be
integrated into windows, roofs, and facades, potentially making almost the entire
building envelope a solar collector.

Cost savings could also be dramatic, with the price of plastic solar cells projected at as
little as one fiftieth the cost of silicon based solar cells.
132
Predictions for thin-film
efficiency go as high as 30 percent, and they also appear to pose fewer environmental
concerns than silicon. Thin-film development will continue to be spurred by the large
amount of funding going into both nanotechnologies and renewable energy. Obstacles
53
to its adoption currently include cost, limited efficiency, energy storage and
conversion.
133

Thin-film solar nanotechnology is entering the marketplace already. Nanosolar
employs semiconductor quantum dots and other nanoparticles in their SolarPly BIPV
panels to create large-area, solar-electric carpet for integration with commercial
roofing membranes. SolarPly can be utilized in a variety of building products because
the cells are both non-fragile and bendable. Nanosolar will soon open the world's
largest solar cell factory in Californias Silicon Valley. The plant will triple U.S. solar
cell production and produce enough cells to power 325,000 homes.
134

Konarka makes light-activated power plastic that can be coated or printed onto a
surface. Their photovoltaic fibers and durable plastics bring power-generating
capabilities to structures including tents, awnings, roofs, windows and window
coverings.
135

Flexible solar panels
Flexible, lightweight power plastic from Konarka brings power-
generating capabilities to awnings, roofs, and windows. (Source: Konarka
Technologies, Inc.)

A technology pioneered by startup Solexant captures infrared (IR) radiation (forty-five
percent of total solar radiation,) which is typically not captured by traditional silicon-
based solar cells. The company uses IR photon absorbing nanostructures and
broadband thin-film solar cells that can be combined with traditional solar cells to
create hybrid cells. The technology could be used to create window films that generate
energy and reduce heat gain.
136

54
Solar startup Stion says its thin-film solar cell technology will have a lower
installation cost than its competitors and will be 25 to 30 percent efficient, much
higher than the efficiency of silicon solar cell technologies produced by existing
public companies. Stion plans to begin production in 2010.
137

Solar cells can also be embedded in glass windows. The Carvist Corporation is one of
the first to do this, turning glass facades and roofs of buildings into solar-energy
receivers able to generate most, or perhaps all, of a building's power needs.
138

Nanoexa is another company moving into production of large-format thin-film solar
cells, their Director of Business Development, Michael Sinkula, said in an interview
with Green Technology Forum. Nanoexa plans to combine its computational modeling
capabilities and design expertise to tailor materials to become much more efficient,
enabling low-cost manufacturing of solar cells.
139

Dramatic improvements are also looming as carbon nanotube technology for solar
energy develops. "Efficiencies reaching 4.4 percent have already been achieved and
hopefully 10-15 percent efficiencies are feasible in the near-future upon further
optimization," says Emmanuel Kymakis, author of "The Impact of Carbon Nanotubes
on Solar Energy Conversion."
140

"Once this obstacle is tackled, says Kymakis, the lifetime issue, which is directly
related to the cell temperatures, can be explored. A working environment combining
the strengths of scientists and business leaders may soon result in rapid
commercialization of this technology."

6.3 Emerging solar nanotechnologies
Quantum dot technology could also play a role in solars future. In silicon, one photon
of light frees one electron from its atomic orbit. But researchers at the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory have now demonstrated that quantum dots of lead
selenide can produce up to seven electrons per photon when exposed to high-energy
ultraviolet light. These dots would be far less costly to incorporate into solar cells than
the large crystalline sheets of silicon used today. A photovoltaic device based on
quantum dots could have an efficiency of 42 percent, far better than silicon's typical
efficiency of 12 percent.
141

Other nanotech advances include spray-on polymer-based solar collecting paint in
development at Wake Forest University. "You just paint it on," said Professor David
Carroll of the new nano-phase material with an efficiency of six percent, double that
of similar cells, but still well shy of silicon cells' 12 percent efficiency. "I strongly
believe we can get there [12 per cent] within the next year," said Carroll.
142

Wake Forest University has also launched FiberCell, a startup company with plans to
develop the next generation of solar cells based on a novel architecture that utilizes
nanotechnology and optical fibers to dramatically boost efficiency. The technology
55
FiberCell is using stems from research Wake Forest scientists conducted in
conjunction with New Mexico State University. Using the new fiber optic structure,
They expect to raise the efficiency rate soon to a level that will make plastic solar cells
competitive with existing silicon and proposed non-silicon systems. While solar
collectors with the new technology might look similar to existing panels, they could be
installed in new ways because their efficiency is not as dependent on the angle of the
sun.
143

Making solar smaller and stronger
Dr. Jiwen Liu of the Wake Forest University Center for Nanotechnology
and Molecular Materials tests a new solar cell. (Source: Wake Forest
University)

Researchers at New Jersey Institute of Technology have also developed an
inexpensive solar cell that can be painted or printed on flexible plastic sheets. The
solar cell combines carbon nanotubes with carbon fullerenes (or Buckyballs), which
are significantly better conductors than copper. The Buckyballs trap electrons, and the
nanotubes make the electrons or current flow.

The process is simple, said lead researcher professor Somenath Mitra. Someday
homeowners will even be able to print sheets of these solar cells with inexpensive
home-based inkjet printers. Consumers can then slap the finished product on a wall,
roof or billboard to create their own power stations.
144

56
Among the many technologies in this area available for licensing are NASAs Novel
Solar Cell Nanotechnology for Improved Efficiency and Radiation Hardness, Oak
Ridge National Laboratorys Textured Substrate for Thin-Film Photovoltaic Cells
and Method for Preparation and High Capacity, Thin-Film, Solid-State
Rechargeable Battery for Portable Power Applications, and Approaches for
Inexpensive, Sheet-to-Sheet Manufacturing of Dye Sensitized Nanoparticle Based
Solar Modules from the University of Massachusetts, Lowell.
145,146147,148

The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory currently has seven nanotech-based solar
technologies available for licensing, including Novel Concentrating Nanoscale Solar
Cells and High Efficiency Fullerene/Polymer Solar Cells.
149

In addition, the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory has two patents in nano-solar technologies
available for licensing.
150

7. Energy storage

Improved energy storage can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, lowering carbon
dioxide emissions from energy production. Currently, energy for homes and offices is
not stored onsite. Instead, it is delivered on an as-needed basis from power lines.
However, the separation of energy source from its point of use, as when the energy in
subterranean coal deposits must be converted and transported to coal-burning power
plants, then transmitted along power lines to homes and offices, wastes most of the
energy latent in the original fuel source. This inefficiency can be overcome by
producing energy at the point of use, as in the case of building integrated
photovoltaics. However, as the table below shows, a significant contribution from
nanotechnology to energy storage is still many years off. Other projections similarly
suggest that nanotechnology for energy savings will play a much greater role in future
markets than nanotech for energy storage.
151

Nanotechnologys possible contributions to the future of energy storage include
improved efficiency for conventional rechargeable batteries, new supercapacitors,
advances in thermovoltaics for turning waste heat into electricity, improved materials
for storing hydrogen, and more efficient efficient hydrocarbon based fuel cells.
152

Altairnano is one of the most established companies using nanotechnology to develop
new batteries, including their NanoSafe product, to be used in the new line of Phoenix
motorcars.
153
AlwaysReady, a wholly owned subsidiary of mPhase Technologies, is
bringing to market its Smart Nanobattery.
154

57

Application Impact
Infrastructural
Change
Benefit
(Mte
CO2/yr)
Implementation
Timeline (yrs)
Fuel
efficiency
Critical Low
<3 <5
Insulation Moderate Low <3 3-8
Photovoltaics High Moderate +6 >5
Electricity
Storage
High High
10-
42
10-40
Hydrogen
Economy
Critical Very High
29-
12
0
20-40

Environmentally beneficial technologies and
infrastructural change
Environmentally beneficial energy storage through nanotechnology will
require significant infrastructural changes and take many years to
implemment. (Source: Oakdene Hollins, Environmentally Beneficial
Nanotechnologies, 2007)

Nanotechnology for the energy market 2014
Energy storage is estimated to play a small role in future nanotech for
energy markets (Source: Cientifica, Nanotechnologies and energy
whitepaper, 2007)

energy saving 77%
energy production 15%
energy storage 8%
58

Flexible display screens have considerable potential in the architectural market, but
flexible devices wont work unless scientists can come up with batteries that bend,
fold and twist. One response to that challenge is a new battery made out of paper
impregnated with carbon nanotubes. Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
used a piece of paper containing carbon nanotubes as a cathode and evaporated a layer
of lithium onto the other side to serve as an anode. They then sandwiched it between
sheets of aluminium foil, which served as current collectors. The team says the next
step will be to develop different formulations of cellulose and electrolyte that will
increase their paper batterys storage capacity.
155

Many universities and research centers have nanotechnologies for energy storage
available for licensing, including hydrogen storage technologies from the University
of Montana and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Lithium-Ion Battery
Incorporating Carbon Nanostructures Materials is available from Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology.
156,157,158

Small yet powerful batteries
The Smart Nanobattery has survived forces up to 50,000 Gs. (Source:
AlwaysReady)

59
8. Air purification

Americans spend up to 90 percent of their time indoors, and in 90 percent of U.S.
offices the number one complaint is lack of outdoor air. The EPA estimates that poor
indoor air quality results in $60 billion per year in medical expenses. But indoor air
quality can be improved by using materials that emit few or no toxins and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), resist moisture thereby inhibiting the growth of
biological like mold, and adding systems, equipment and products that identify indoor
air pollutants or enhance air quality.
159

Nanotechnology is contributing to indoor air quality on all of these fronts. Samsung
Electronics, for example, has launched its new Nano e-HEPA (for electric High
Efficiency Particulate Arrest) filtration system. The system sifts the air to filter
particles, eliminate undesirable odors, and kill airborne health threats. It uses a metal
dust filter that has been coated with 8-nanometer silver particles. The Kitasato
research center of environmental sciences in Japan found the nanofilter killed 99.7
percent of influenza viruses. Up to 98 percent of odors were eliminated, and another
nanofilter eliminated all noxious VOC fumes from paint, varnishes and adhesives.
160

Ultra-Web nanofiber media from Donaldson Filtration Systems uses a layer of
nanofibers that encourage dust particles to rapidly accumulate on the filter surface
building a thin, permeable dust-stopping filter cake. Ultra-Web, says its maker, cleans
the air better by filtering even submicron contaminants. It efficiently filters 0.3 micron
and larger particles by capturing them on the surface of the media, solving premature
filter plugging and making contaminants easier to pulse off compared to depth-loading
80/20 blend or cellulose commodity media. Independent lab tests concluded that 80/20
and cellulose media have lower MERV efficiency ratings and are not suitable for
capturing submicron particulate.
161

ConsERV brand energy recovery ventilator products are said by their manufacturer,
Dais Analytic Corporation, to improve heating, ventilating and air conditioning
systems in buildings. They are promoted as reducing the energy required to heat, cool
and dehumidify, working best when outdoor weather is extreme and energy demand is
highest, and bringing in the freshness of outdoors while controlling uncomfortable
humidity and moisture that can lead to mold. Unlike other energy recovery products,
ConsERV uses patented polymer membranes in a highly efficient and reliable solid
state enthalpy exchange core that has no moving parts.
162

Another product, the NanoBreeze room air purifier, utilizes a patented fluorescent
light tube coated with phosphor to produce UVA radiation and blue light. The outside
of the tube features a fiberglass mesh where each strand is coated with a thin layer of
40-nanometer semiconductor crystals. The air circulating over the light tube is cleaned
by photocatalytic oxidation.
163

60
9. Water purification

Water is the source of all life on Earth, and yet 1.3 billion people do not have access to
safe drinking water. Furthermore, water is implicated in 80 percent of all sickness and
disease according to the World Health Organization. And less than 1 percent of the
worlds drinking water is actually fit for drinking. If the worlds water were
compressed into a single gallon, only 4 ounces would be fresh. Of that, only two drops
would be easily accessible, and only one would be suitable for human use. In part
because of this scarcity, the current global water market for water purification is
estimated at $287 billion, and is expected to rise to $413 billion by 2010.

Water must be purified in order to remove harmful materials and make it suitable for
human uses. Contaminants can include metals like cadmium, copper, lead, mercury,
nickel, zinc, chromium and aluminium; nutrients including phosphate, ammonium,
nitrate, nitrite, phosphorus and nitrogen; and biological elements such as bacteria,
viruses, parasites and biological agents from weapons. UV light is an effective
purifier, but is energy intensive, and application in large-scale systems is sometimes
considered cost prohibitive. Chlorine, also commonly used in water purification, is
undesirable because it is one of the worlds most energy-intensive industrial processes,
consuming about 1 percent of the worlds total electricity output in its production.
164

saltwater 97%
available freshwater 2%
unavailable freshwater 1%

Running dry: global water supply
Less than 1% of the worlds water is readily available freshwater. (Source:
Investopedia.com)

Nanotechnology is opening new doors to water decontamination, purification and
desalinization, and providing improved detection of water-borne harmful substances.
We envision that nanomaterials will become critical components of industrial and
public water purification systems, said Dr. Mamadou Diallo, Director of Molecular
61
Environmental Technology at the California Institute of Technology, recipient of an
EPA grant for nanotechnology research.
165

For example, iron nanoparticles have a high surface area and reactivity, and can be
used to detoxify carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons in groundwater. They can also
render heavy metals like lead and mercury insoluble, reducing their contamination.
Dendrimers, with their sponge-like molecular structure, can clean up heavy metals by
trapping metal ions in their pores. Nanoscale filters have a charged membrane,
enabling them to treat both metallic and organic contaminant ions via both Steric
filtration based on the size of openings and Donnan filtration based on electrical
charge. They can also be self-cleaning.
166

Gold nanoparticles coated with palladium have proven to be 2,200 times better than
palladium alone for removing trichloroethylene from groundwater. In addition,
photocatalytic nanomaterials enable ultraviolet light to destroy pesticides, industrial
solvents and germs. Titanium dioxide, for example, can be used to decontaminate
bacteria-ridden water. When exposed to light, it breaks down bacterial cell
membranes, killing bacteria like E. coli.
167
Purification and filtration of water can also
be achieved through nanoscale membranes or using nanoscale polymer "brushes"
coated with molecules that can capture and remove poisonous metals, proteins and
germs.

Water without the mercury menace
Mercury is one of the most harmful contaminants present in water.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that one in
eight women have mercury concentrations in their bodies that
exceed safety limits. Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous
Supports (SAMMS), which removes mercury and other toxic
substances from industrial waste streams, was created by Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and licensed to Steward
Environmental Solutions through Battelle.

SAMMS can be tailored to selectively remove metal contaminants
without creating hazardous waste or by-products. Steward intends
to initially market SAMMS for treating stack emissions from coal fired
power plants, process industry, and municipal facilities. In tests at
PNNL, SAMMS removed 99.9 percent of mercury in simulated waste
water. It can also be easily adapted to recover many other toxic
substances, including toxic metals such as lead, chromium and
arsenic, as well as radionuclides.
168

62
A new sterilizer, the RVK-NI, mixes ozone nano-bubbles with oxygen micro-bubbles
to produce, according to manufacturer Royal Electric, almost completely bacteria-free
water for food processing. Ozone gas is a naturally occurring type of oxygen that is
formed as sunlight passes through the atmosphere. It can be generated artificially by
passing high voltage electricity through oxygenated air. Because ozone is an unstable,
highly reactive form of oxygen, it is 51 times more powerful than chlorine, the
oxidizer used by most food processors. With it, manufacturers can forego the use of
environmentally harmful chlorine or other chemicals used in conventional water
disinfection processes. The ozone process is also said to kill bacteria and other
microbes 3,000 times faster than chlorine.

Japan's Research Institute for Environmental Management Technology, which worked
with Royal to develop the m process behind the RVK-NI, reported that it uses very
little energy. And they concluded, "When this technology is applied to wastewater
treatment of the organic effluents discharged from a food processing plant, virtually all
organic components can be decomposed efficiently into water and CO
2
."
169

Seldon Laboratories employs nanotechnology they say reliably removes
microorganisms from fluids without the use of heat, ultra-violet radiation, chemicals,
contact time, or significant pressure. "We've invented and produced a new purification
media that is porous so you can pour water through it and when you do pour water
through it we clean the water, we remove the virus and bacteria, and we remove other
harmful chemicals and other contaminants," CEO Alan Cummings said. The company
has delivered prototype portable water purification systems to the Air Force for
testing.
170

Nanocheck from Altairnano is a lanthanum-based compound that binds with
phosphate anions to starve algae by removing its primary food source. Nanochecks
high surface area enables quicker response and higher capacity than other chemicals,
says Altairnano. It can be used in a variety of water treatment applications, from
recreational pools to industrial water management.
171

Desalinization is another critical area of water purification. Dais Analytic Corporation,
for example, is currently preparing its Nanoclear desalinization process for
commercialization.
172

Many other companies have entered the nanotech-for-water-purification field,
including Trisep, Argonide, KX Industries, Nanomagnetics, Generale Des Eaux,
Ondeo, Ambri, Nanochem, Emembrane, Taasi, Rossmark, Inframat, Fluxxion,
NanoSight, Applied Nanotech, AqWise, Crystal Clear Technologies, Aqua Pure,
NanoH2O, Vortex Corporation, Stonybrook Water Purification, Novazone, JMAR
Technologies, Pionetics, Bio-Pure Technology and RainDance Water Systems.

Research on water purification is also proliferating, with experiments underway at
Rice University's Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology, NanoVic,
Monash University, Swinburne University, the University of Aberdeen, the Center of
63
Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Molecular
Environmental Technology at the California Institute of Technology, and the
Department of Energys Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

Researchers at Queensland University of Technology, for example, have developed a
novel form of titanium and a process for fabrication of an environmentally-friendly
product that purifies water. They say their innovative photocatalyst has twice the
efficiency of current state of the art materials and is an ideal platform technology to
complement existing product portfolios. Together with bluebox, the universitys
technology transfer company, they are currently seeking partnerships to develop their
technology further.
173
Other water purification nanotechnologies available for
licensing include Biofunctional Magnetic Nanoparticles for Pathogen Detection,
from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
174

Lead- and arsenic-free water for the developing
world
Keith Blakely, CEO of NanoDynamics, explained his companys Cell-
Pore technology for water filtration and bioremediation in an
interview with Green Technology Forum.

One of the things that has us very excited is that testing against a
number of contaminants in soil, air and water appears to indicate
that the Cell-Pore technology, which has very, very high surface area
but at the same time produces very little back pressure, is capable of
reacting with a large range of fairly common and problematic
impurities in soil, water and gas streams and removes them very
effectively with very little cost.

One of the approaches that were taking right now involves
depositing active materials that will react with, for example, lead and
arsenic in water supplies, complex with those impurities as the water
flows by, and completely eliminate them from the water stream. So
you can imagine that in a number of places where these particular
contaminants are problematic, having a very simple cartridge or
filter that one could pass these contaminated water streams through
and wind up with pure and potable water could be very
advantageous, particularly in developing parts of the world where
clean water is at a premium.
175

64

Water purification at twice the efficiency
Researchers at Queensland University of Technology use titanium
nanoparticles to create an environmentally-friendly water purification
system with twice the efficiency of current materials. (Source:
Queensland University of Technology)

65
10. Structural materials

Material strength is critical in a building, defining its structure, longevity, and
resistance to gravity, wind, earthquake and other loads that act to tear it down.
Strength is equally important in non-structural components like windows and doors for
security and durability. A load-bearing structural materials strength/weight ratio is
particularly important because stronger, lighter materials can carry greater loads per
unit of material. A higher strength/weight ratio means fewer materials, which in turn
means fewer resources and energy consumed in production.

Nanotechnology promises significant improvements in structural materials in two
ways. First, nano-reinforcement of existing materials like concrete and steel will lead
to nanocomposites, materials produced by adding nanoparticles to a bulk material in
order to improve the bulk materials properties. Eventually, when cost and technical
know-how permit, we will see structures made from altogether new materials like
carbon nanotubes.

New structural possibilities with carbon nanotubes
Architecture students at Ball State University experiment with the
potential of nano-enhanced structural materials. (Source: Andy
Naunheimer/George Elvin, nanoSTUDIO.com)

66

Nanotech yacht is stronger, lighter
One of the largest nanocomposite structures built to date is the
350SR racing yacht from Synergy Yachts. Zyvex, the company
producing the nanocomposite, is often referred to as the first
nanotechnology company. They developed nanocomposite
materials for NASA by dispersing carbon nanotubes into an epoxy
matrix to provide stiffer and tougher composite structures.

With a tensile strength 5-10 times higher than carbon fibers, carbon
nanotubes reinforce the epoxy and make the entire structure
significantly stronger. The yachts hull is constructed with high-
modulus carbon fiber that is impregnated with NanoSolve enhanced
epoxy resin, increasing its strength without added weight or work in
the construction process. Even the paint on the yacht is enhanced
through nanotechnology; Zyvex claims it prevents any marine
growth under the waterline of the yacht without the need for
toxins.
176,177

10.1 Concrete
Concrete is the worlds most widely used manufactured material; about one ton of
concrete is produced each year for every human being in the world (some 6 billion
tons per year.) Global annual trade in concrete is estimated at $13-14 trillion. Energy
consumption, carbon emissions and waste are all major environmental concerns
connected with concrete production and use. Portland cement, the dry powder glue
that holds aggregate, water and lime together to make concrete, accounts for about 12
percent of its volume, but 92 percent of its energy demand. For every ton of cement
produced, 1.3 tons of C0
2
is released into the atmosphere. Worldwide, cement
production generates over 1.6 billion tons of carbon, more than 8 percent of total
carbon emissions. Waste is also considerable, as concrete accounts for more than two-
thirds of construction and demolition waste with only 5 percent currently recycled.
178

Nanotechnology is leading to new cements, concretes, admixtures (concrete
performance-enhancing additives,) low energy cements, nanocomposites, and
improved particle packing. The addition of nanoparticles, for example, can improve
concretes durability through physical and chemical interactions such as pore filling.

In part because the bulk synthesis of nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes is still too
expensive for widespread use and concrete is such a high-volume material, few
commercial products incorporate them. One that does is NanoCrete by EMACO, a
concrete repair mortar with improved bond strength, tensile strength, density and
67
impermeability, as well as reduced shrinkage and cracking, according to its
manufacturer.
179

Conventional concrete must be reinforced with steel to resist tension loads, and
placing steel rebar in forms prior to the introduction of wet concrete is a time-
consuming and expensive process. Nanofiber reinforcement, including the
introduction of carbon nanotubes, has been shown to improve the strength of concrete
significantly. Even simply grinding Portland cement into nanoscale particles has been
shown to increase compressive strength four-fold.
180

We mix cement with aggregate to create concrete, which we often reinforce with
steel rebar, said Vanderbilt University professor Florence Sanchez. The rebar
corrodes over time, leading to significant problems in our transportation and building
infrastructure. Sanchez was recently awarded a CAREER Award from the National
Science Foundation to strengthen concrete by adding randomly oriented fibers ranging
from nanometers to micrometers in length and made of carbon, steel or polymers.
According to Sanchez, carbon nanofibers could one day be added to concrete bridges,
heating them during winter or allowing them to self-monitor for cracks because of the
fibers ability to conduct electricity.
181

Nanobinders double concretes compressive
strength
The compressive strength of concrete with (top) and without (bottom)
nanobinders after curing 28 days. (Source: Sobolev K. and Ferrada-
Gutirrez M., How Nanotechnology Can Change the Concrete World:
Part 2, American Ceramic society Bulletin, No. 11, 2005)

Carbon nanotubes also have the potential to effectively hinder crack propagation in
cement composites. Reinforcing concrete with nanofibers will produce tougher
concretes by interrupting crack formation as soon as it is initiated. Development of
low energy cements will also contribute to increased use of supplementary cementing
w/ nanobinders 91.7
w/o nanobinders 45.2
compressive strength (mpa)

0 50 100
68
materials like fly ash and slag while making concrete production more
environmentally sustainable.
182

Development of nano-binders can lead to more than 50 percent reduction of the
cement consumption, report Konstantin Sobolev and Miguel Ferrada-Gutirrez,
capable to offset the demands for future development and, at the same time, combat
global warming, The results of their experiments studying the mechanical properties
of cement-based materials with nano-SiO
2
, TiO
2
and Fe
2
O
2
demonstrated an increase
in compressive and flexural strength of mortars containing nanoparticles.
183

Adding nano-SiO
2
, or nano-silica, to concrete promises many benefits. It can, for
example, improve concretes mechanical properties by creating denser particle
packing of the micro and nanostructure. Nano-silica can also improve durability by
reducing calcium leaching in water and blocking water penetration. It can even allow
for more fly ash to be added to the concrete without sacrificing strength and curing
speed, which can improve concrete durability and strength while reducing the overall
volume of cement required.

TiO2 nanoparticles can also improve the environmental performance of concrete. It
can, for example, be added to cement to enhance sterilization since it breaks down
organic pollutants, volatile organic compounds, and bacterial membranes through
powerful catalytic reactions. It can even reduce airborne pollutants when applied to
outdoor surfaces. Additionally, it is hydrophilic, giving self-cleaning properties to
surfaces to which it is applied.

Carbon nanotubes are also likely to play an important role in the future of concrete.
Adding small amounts of carbon nanotubes can improve compressive and flexural
strength compared to unreinforced concrete. The high defect concentration on the
surface of the oxidized multiwalled carbon nanotubes could also create better linkage
between nanostructures and binders, thereby improving the mechanical properties of
the composite.

Obstacles to the integration of carbon nanotubes into concrete include their propensity
for clumping together and the lack of cohesion between them and the surrounding bulk
material. Cost is the other great obstacle to incorporating carbon nanotubes into any
material, as they can cost as much as $200,000 per pound. But considerable industry,
government and academic resources are being devoted to reducing their cost, which
will continue to drop until carbon nanotube composites become cost effective.

Concrete is attacked by carbon dioxide and choride ions, resulting in corrosion and
separation of reinforcing steel. Chinese researchers have created sensors that monitor
reinforced concrete for acidity and chloride ions, the primary causes of deterioration
and failure. These sensors can be embedded directly in the concrete mix to enable
monitoring in place throughout the life of a structure.
184

69
Nanosensors can also be integrated directly into concrete to collect performance data
on concrete density and viscosity, curing and shrinkage, temperature, moisture,
chlorine concentration, pH, carbon dioxide, stresses, reinforcement, corrosion and
vibration. They could even monitor external conditions such as seismic activity,
building loads, and, in roadways, traffic volume and road conditions. The latter are
examples of smart aggregates, in which micro-electromechanical devices are cast
directly into concrete roadways. Valuable information from these sensors can be
gathered by monitoring vehicles or monitored wirelessly.
185

Experimentation is also underway on self-healing concrete. When self-healing
concrete cracks, embedded microcapsules rupture and release a healing agent into the
damaged region through capillary action. The released healing agent contacts an
embedded catalyst, polymerizing to bond the crack face closed. In fracture tests, self-
healed composites recovered as much as 75 percent of their original strength. They
could increase the life of structural components by as much as two or three times.
186

Self-healing concrete
When cracks form in this self-healing concrete, they rupture
microcapsules, releasing a healing agent which then contacts a catalyst,
triggering polymerization that bonds the crack closed. (Source: Scott
White, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)

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Nanotechnologies available for licensing include Concrete Durability Enhancing
Admixture, and Prestressing of FRP Sheet Technique for Repair and Strengthening
of Concrete Members, both from Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology.
187,188

Fiber reinforced concrete/cement products and method of preparation, is an example
of a recent patent in this area, focusing on concrete and/or cement products and mixes
with reinforcing carbon graphite fibers having a length of about 2 inches to about 3
inches, and/or nano and/or micron sized carbon fibers, and a method of reinforcing
concrete.
189

10.2 Steel
Steel is a major component in reinforced concrete construction as well as a primary
construction material in its own right. Light gauge steel framing for residential-scale
buildings is the fastest growing use of steel. The U.S. consumes about 130 million
tons of steel per year, and more than half of annual spending for steel is on residential
framing.

We have seen how nanotechnology is improving corrosion resistance in steel, but it is
not yet impacting the structural steel market. However, several forms of steel using
nanoscale processes are available today. A brand of steel reinforcing bar for concrete
construction, for example, is now marketed as MMFX steel. MMFX steel is,
according to its manufacturer, five times more corrosion-resistant and up to three
times stronger than conventional steel. MMFX steel products are used in structures
across North America including bridges, highways, parking structures, and residential
and commercial buildings. The added strength of MMFX steel results in a decrease in
the amount of conventional steel necessary to accomplish the same task.
190

Steel produced using MMFXs technology has a unique nanoscale structure--a
laminated lath structure resembling plywood--that limits the formation of
microgalvanic cells, the primary corrosion initiator that drives the corrosion reaction.
MMFXs plywood effect reportedly makes the steel very strong and increases
corrosion resistance, ductility and toughness.

Another steel product employing nanotechnology, though not yet available in
structural dimensions, is Sandvik Nanoflex, which offers a high modulus of elasticity
combined with extreme strength resulting in thinner and lighter components than those
made from aluminium and titanium. Sandvik Nanoflex was first used in medical
equipment like surgical needles and dental tools. It has since been used in larger-scale
applications like ice axes. The strength and surface properties of Sandvik Nanoflex are
also creating opportunities for the automotive industry, replacing hard-chromed low
alloy steels. Thus, the environmentally unfriendly hard-chromizing process can be
eliminated.
191

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Sustaining twice the stress with nano-steel
Nano-laminated MMFX steel (yellow) can sustain twice the stress of
ASTM A615 Grade 60 steel (blue) (Source: MMFX Technologies Corp.)

Nanotubes give ancient sword its cutting edge
Nanotechnology is nothing new for steel. Researchers recently
discovered that Damascus swords, made in the eighth century and
known for their unusual hardness and sharpness, incorporated
naturally occurring nanoparticles including iron carbide nanowires
and carbon nanotubes into their structure.

These nanotube-nanowire bundles may give the swords their
special properties, said Peter Paufler, a crystallographer. The
carbon nanotubes in the sword are the first nanotubes ever found in
steel.
192

ChemNova Technologies, a spin-off from Northern Illinois University started by
Professor Chiu-Tsu Lin, is working to market a chrome-free single-step in-situ
phosphatizing/silicating (ISPC) for coating metal. Their patented coating process uses
a chemical bond to enhance paint adhesion to metal surfaces and inhibit substrate
corrosion. The ISPC process eliminates the need for potentially toxic chromating baths
and other high-waste procedures found in traditional coating methods.
193

PComP nanocomposite coatings from Powdermet are marketed as a low cost,
environmentally friendly substitute for hard chrome plating. MComP metallic
nanocomposites, including nanocomposite aluminum, titanium and magnesium
0 .1 .2
strain (in/in)
stress
(ksi)
200
0
100
72
products, are said to offer revolutionary advances in strength-weight compared to
traditional wrought and cast materials.
194

A research team at the University of Liverpool has also devised a new manufacturing
process for fabricating metals by weaving them into ultra-fine lattice structures
weighing just half as much as conventional steel or titanium. The team plans to begin
commercial production this year.
195

Nanotechnology is also impacting the welding process. Welds and the Heat Affected
Zone (HAZ) adjacent to them can be brittle, failing without warning when subjected to
sudden dynamic loading. The addition of magnesium and calcium nanoparticles,
however, can reduce the size of HAZ grains to about 1/5th their standard size, greatly
increasing weld toughness. This is a sustainability as well as a safety issue, as an
increase in toughness at welded joints would result in a smaller resource requirement
because less material is required in order to keep stresses within allowable limits.
Other research has shown that vanadium and molybdenum nanoparticles can improve
the delayed fracture problems associated with high strength bolts.
196

10.3 Wood
While concrete is the most consumed construction material by weight, on a volume
basis, wood is the most-used construction material in the United States. Over 1.7
million housing units were constructed of wood in the U.S. in 2004 alone. Wood-
frame construction is relatively inexpensive, easy to build with, and flexible in its
structural and stylistic applications. Today, half of the wood products used in housing
are engineered wood such as gluelams and I-joists. Wood is attractive from an
environmental standpoint because it is renewable and can be readily recycled and
reused.

Nanotechnology promises to improve the structural performance and serviceability of
wood by giving scientists control over fiber-to-fiber bonding at a microscopic level
and nanofibrillar bonding at the nanoscale. It could also reduce or eliminate the
formation of the random defects that limit the performance of wood today.
197
Experts
foresee nanotechnology as a cornerstone for advancing the biomass-based renewable,
sustainable economy. Nanocatalysts that induce chemical reactions and make wood
even more multifunctional than it is today, nanosensors to identify mold, decay, and
termites, quantum dot fiber tagging, natural nanoparticle pesticides and repellents,
self-cleaning wood surfaces, and photocatalytic degradation of pollutants are all
envisioned by todays wood engineers.
198

One of the great problems facing wood construction is rot. Pressure-treating wood can
delay the problem, but the metallic salts employed can pose a health and
environmental hazard. Safer organic insecticides and fungicides, however, are often
insoluble, making it difficult for them to permeate the lumber. Scientists at Michigan
Technological Universitys School of Forest Resources and Environmental Science
have discovered a way to embed organic compounds in nanoscale plastic beads. The
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beads can permeate wood fibers because of their tiny size. This technology, which
allows the industry to use more environmentally friendly biocides, has been licensed
to the New Jersey-based company Phibro-Tech.
199

Enertia Building Systems turn structural wood members in houses into thermal
batteries. Zeolitic seed crystals are injected into the wood, altering the molecular
structure at the nanoscale, so it becomes a solar energy storing device. Enertia has
been named among the top 25 Inventions of 2007 in the Modern Marvels Invent Now
Challenge.
200

Nanotechnology and wood: previously
undreamed of growth opportunities
Employing nanotechnology with wood and wood-based materials
could result in previously undreamed of growth opportunities for
bio-based products, says Jerrold E. Winandy, PhD, leader of the U.S.
Department of Agricultures Engineered Composites Science
Project. Nanotechnology will result in a unique next generation of
bio-products that have hyper-performance and superior
serviceability. These products will have strength properties now only
seen with carbon-based composite materials. These new hyper-
performance bioproducts will be capable of longer service lives in
severe moisture environments.

Enhancements to existing uses will include development of resin-
free biocomposites or wood-plastic composites having enhanced
strength and serviceability because of nano-enhanced and nano-
manipulated fiber-to-fiber and fiber-to-plastic bonding.
Nanotechnology represents a major opportunity for wood and
wood-based materials to improve their performance and
functionality, develop new generations of products, and open new
market segments in the coming decades.
201

Wood/plastic composites are another intriguing possibility raised by nanotechnology.
Rakesh Gupta, PhD, a professor of chemical engineering at West Virginia University,
is using carbon nanofibers and nanoclays to improve stiffness and other mechanical
properties in wood/plastic composites. His goal is to produce a less-toxic alternative to
traditional treated lumber as a construction material.
202
A related technology,
Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites, is available for licensing
from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
203

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10.4 New structural materials
While the introduction of nanomaterials into building structural components has begun
with the reinforcement of conventional materials like wood, concrete and steel,
breakthrough materials made primarily from nanomaterials are changing smaller-scale
products like sporting equipment and will eventually scale up to impact the building
industry. Nanotubes, nanofibers and nanosheets of carbon and similar materials may
eventually form the structural skeletons of new buildings.

Building with Buckypaper
Carbon nanotube sheets, Buckypaper, could help shape the structural
materials of the future. (Source: Brookhaven National Laboratory)

A carbon nanotube is a one-atom thick sheet of graphite rolled into a seamless
cylinder with a diameter of approximately one nanometer. Multi-walled carbon
nanotubes have been tested to have a tensile strength of 63 GPa as compared to high-
carbon steel with a tensile strength of approximately 1.2 GPa.
204
While this strength
may not be maintained when nanotubes are combined to form macroscale structural
components, it nonetheless suggests that exponential improvements in strength may be
possible.

Researchers at the University of Texas at Dallas together with an Australian colleague
have produced transparent carbon nanotube sheets that are stronger than the same-
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weight steel sheets. These can be made so thin that a square kilometer nanotube sheet
would weigh only 30 kilograms.
205
The prospect of transparent sheet materials
stronger than steel not only holds tremendous energy-saving potential, it promises to
dramatically transform conventional assumptions about the relationship between
building structure and skin. Could, for example, a super-thin nanotube sheet serve as
both skin and structure, eliminating the need for conventional structural systems
altogether?

Buckypaper: 10 times lighter than steel but 250
times stronger
The Florida Advanced Center for Composite Technologies (FAC2T) is
one of many groups exploring the potential of so-called
buckypaper, a material formed by combining carbon nanotubes into
larger sheets. Buckypaper owes its name to Buckminsterfullerene, or
Carbon 60a type of carbon molecule whose powerful atomic
bonds are said to make it twice as hard as diamond.

"At FAC2T, our objective is to push the envelope to find out just how
strong a composite material we can make using buckypaper," said
FAC2T director Ben Wang. "In addition, we're focused on developing
processes that will allow it to be mass-produced cheaply."

The Army Research Lab recently awarded FAC2T a $2.5 million grant,
while the Air Force Office of Scientific Research awarded them $1.2
million to develop new, high-performance composite materials they
say are 10 times lighter than steel but 250 times stronger and highly
conductive of heat and electricity.
206

The prospect of transparent sheet materials stronger than steel that are highly
conductive of heat and electricity vividly illustrates one of the key energy-saving
attributes of emerging nanomaterials--their versatility. For example, the nanotubes in
buckypaper can be used as electrodes for bright organic light-emitting diodes
(OLEDs). They can be lighter, more energy-efficient, and allow for a more uniform
level of brightness than current cathode ray tube (CRT) and liquid crystal display
(LCD) technology. They could be used to illuminate surfaces in buildings which also
serve to support the structure.

Nanomaterials and nanoreinforcement of existing materials could greatly extend the
durability and lifespan of building materials, resulting in reduced maintenance and
replacement costs as well as energy conservation. Researchers at the University of
Bayreuth, for instance, recently developed aggregated diamond nanorods which have
replaced natural diamonds as the worlds hardest substance. While they may never be
76
used structurally, these materials together with similar ones like carbon nanotubes
suggest that their use as reinforcing and eventually stand-alone materials may
dramatically extend the life span, durability, strength and sustainability of many
building materials.
207

11. Non-structural materials

11.1 Glass
Reducing heat loss and heat gain through windows is critical to reducing energy
consumption in buildings. Energy lost through residential and commercial windows
costs U.S. consumers about $25 billion a year.
208
Nanotechnology is reducing heat loss
and heat gain through glazing thanks to thin-film coatings and thermochromic,
photochromic and electrochromic technologies. Thin film coatings are spectrally
sensitive surface applications for window glass. They filter out unwanted infrared light
to reduce heat gain in buildings. Thermochromic technologies are being studied which
react to changes in temperature and provide thermal insulation to give protection from
heating while maintaining adequate lighting. Photochromic technologies react to
changes in light intensity by increasing their light absorption. Finally, electrochromic
coatings react to changes in applied voltage by using a tungsten oxide layer, becoming
more opaque at the touch of a button. All these applications are intended to reduce
energy use in cooling buildings and could help bring down energy consumption in
buildings.
209

SageGlass electrochromic glass switches from clear to darkly tinted at the push of a
button, reducing undesirable effects such as fading, glare, and excessive heat without
losing views and connection to the outdoors. This grants architects the freedom to
design with more daylighting without the drawbacks typically associated with glass.
SageGlass is designated an environmentally preferable building product and listed in
the GreenSpec directory. It can also earn LEED credits when used in projects.
210

SmartGlass International also makes electronically controlled glass panels that can
change opacity to control lighting, temperature and privacy.
211

Active and Adaptive Photochromic Fibers, Textiles and Membranes, is a
nanotechnology available to license from the University of Delaware. In this
technology, mats, membranes and nonwoven textiles formed from fibers can
reversibly change color depending on the wavelength of light they are exposed to.
Uses range from nonwoven textiles and membranes that change color depending on
the wavelength of light impinging on them to optical switches and sensors.
212
Other
nanotechnologies available for licensing in this area include Fullerene-Containing
Optical Materials with Novel Light Transmission Characteristics, and Light
Emitting Material, both from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, as
well as Ultrahydrophobic Nanopost Glass, from Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
213,214,215

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From transparent to tinted with the flip of a switch
SageGlass switches from clear to darkly tinted with the push of a button,
reducing fading, glare, and excessive heat without losing views and
connection to the outdoors. (Source: SageGlass)

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11.2 Plastics and polymers
Vinyl (polyvinyl chloride or PVC), which is used in a wide range of building
materials, has come under fire recently as detrimental to human health. Phthalates,
used to make PVC flexible, have been cited as bronchial irritants and potential asthma
triggers. In addition, PVC production is the worlds largest consumer of chlorine gas,
using about 16 million tons of chlorine per year worldwide.
216

New alternatives to many conventional plastics will in time result from nanocomposite
research. For example, glass microspheres, or microballoons, created using a spray
pyrolysis process, can be cast in a polymer matrix to create syntactic foam with
extremely high compressive strength and low density. Naturally occurring nanoscale
aggregates can also be used in making nanocomposites. The crystalline structure of
these ceramic materials allows them to be easily separated into flakes or fibers.

Nanoclays making GM vehicles lighter, more
efficient
A nanocomposite of fine-grained nanoclays suspended in a plastic
resin is used by General Motors for auto parts. The huge surface
areas of these nanoclays relative to other additives like talc result in
exceptional improvements in the properties of the plastics. A
composite with as little as 2.5 percent inorganic nanoclay is as stiff as
and much lighter than parts with 10 times the amount of
conventional talc filler. Nanocomposite parts are stiffer, lighter and
less brittle in cold temperatures. They are also more easily recycled.

"The potential market opportunities for our nanoclays involve parts
that help GM meet its goal of lighter weight vehicles, said Vern
Sumner, President of Southern Clay, GMs partner in the project.
217

Most properties of polymers are based on nanostructures, says Franz Brandstetter, a
polymer researcher at BASF. We are creating new polymerization methods to create
micro- and nano-structures. BASF predicts that sheets made using this method will
have half the thermal conductivity of its Basotect foam. In BASFs nanostructuring
process, chemical molecules self-align, allowing engineers to design molecules with
more specific properties. Now, Brandstetter says, instead of asking What will this
material do? we can ask What properties do we want?
218

Fiberline Composites says its nano-reinforced polyester provides excellent thermal
and electrical insulation while remaining strong and lightweight. The material is
corrosion resistant, has a high fatigue limit, good impact strength, and fine surface
79
finish. It can also be used as a load-bearing structural material. It has been used in
bridges, doors, windows, facades, and structural systems.
219

Framing with nano-reinforced polyester
Fiberline Composites makes a polyester reinforced with glass nanofibers
that provides thermal and electrical insulation while remaining strong
and lightweight. (Source: Fiberline Composites)

80
Scientists at the GE Global Research Center Nano Lab have created a polymer that
repels water-based fluids. The team modified GEs Lexan plastic, a commonly
available, inexpensive plastic, to create a superhydrophobic surface.
220

ECORE wall coverings are low-VOC, PVC-free, and recyclable. Their manufacturer
even includes a post-use reclamation program. They are said to be exceptionally
resistant to stains and tears while boasting a Class A fire rating. They are low-
maintenance and can be installed without special tooling or training.
221

ECORE is based on Evolon microfilament technology. Evolon makes a wide range of
products, including sound absorption materials and window treatments. By using
water jets to split microfibers into even smaller strands, they create microfibers that
are soft, light, strong, washable, absorbent, quick-drying and breathable. They are also
chemical-, binder-, and solvent-free, earning them the Oeko-Tex mark (standard 100,
product class 1). ECORE acoustic drapes can reduce sound levels by 6-10 decibels
while also providing UV protection and other attributes.
222

Multifunctional microfibers
ECORE wall coverings are low-VOC, PVC-free, and completely recyclable,
as well as stain- and tear-resistant while providing a Class A fire rating.
(Source: Freudenberg Evolon)

81
The aliphatic polyesters that make biodegradable plastics decompose are seldom used
in engineering plastics because of their poor thermal and mechanical properties.
Researchers from Osaka University in Japan, however, have synthesized a
biodegradable polyester with superior mechanical strength using chemicals found in
plants. Its molecules are found naturally as precursors to lignin and can be broken
down by microbes. And it is so strong that the researchers foresee its use in
environmentally friendly plastics for the automobile, aircraft, and electronics.
223

The plastics common in buildings are typically so flammable they require the addition
of flame-retardant chemicals, many of which come with health and environmental
concerns. The state of Washington has even banned one class of flame-retardants from
use in household items. But now scientists from the University of Massachusetts
Amherst have created a synthetic polymer that requires no flame-retardants because it
simply will not burn. Their polymer uses bishydroxydeoxybenzoin as a building
block, which releases water vapor when it burns instead of hazardous gasses. The
synthetic polymer is clear, flexible, durable and much cheaper to make than high-
temperature, heat-resistant plastics in current use, which tend to be brittle and dark in
color.
224

A team of University of Virginia researchers are using carbon nanotubes to unite the
virtues of plastics and metals in a new ultra-lightweight, conductive material. This
new nanocomposite material is a mixture of plastic, carbon nanotubes and a foaming
agent, making it extremely lightweight, corrosion-proof and cheaper to produce than
metal. Their experiments revealed that while the nanotubes make up only 1 percent to
2 percent of the nanocomposite, they increase its electrical conductivity by 10 orders
of magnitude. The addition of carbon nanotubes also increased the materials thermal
conductivity, improving its capacity to dissipate heat.

Metal is not only heavy; it corrodes easily, said team leader Mool C. Gupta. And
plastic insulators are lightweight, stable and cheaper to produce, but cannot conduct
electricity. So the goal, originally, was to take plastic and make it electrically
conductive.
225

11.3 Drywall
The average new American home contains more than 7 metric tons of gypsum,
making gypsum one of the most prevalent materials in construction today. North
America alone produces 40 billion square feet of gypsum board (drywall) per year.
But drywall raises many environmental issues. Panels must be dried at 260 C (500
F), making their processing energy consumption a concern. Drywall also consumes
100 million metric tons of calcium sulphate, a non-renewable resource, per year.
Synthetic gypsum avoids this problem, but its processing by flue gas desulfurization
releases mercury.
226
Waste is yet another concern, since as much as 17 percent of all
drywall is lost during manufacturing and installation. Finally, drywall can be a
breeding ground for Stachybotrys and other harmful molds.
227

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Nanotechnology shows promise in the manufacture of lighter yet stronger drywall.
ICBM, Innovative Construction and Building Materials, has developed a gypsum-
polymer replacement for gypsum that they say significantly improves strength-to-
weight ratio and mold resistance.
228

Laboratory experiments elsewhere on nanosized gypsum show significant
improvement in mechanical properties, including an up to three times higher hardness
of nano-gypsum as compared to conventional micron-sized gypsum.
229

Other experimenters have added nanoscale silicon dioxide (SiO
2)
to drywall. The
results show that nano SiO
2
is helpful for the improvement of various properties,
including modulus of rupture (improved by 44.44 percent) and modulus of elasticity
(improved by 108.38 percent.)
230

Nano-gypsum could reduce environmental impacts
and improve performance
Calcium sulphate nano-needles entwine in this scanning electron
micrograph of nano-gypsum, while the inset image (lower right) shows a
pressed nano-gypsum pill. (Source: Neil Osterwalder/ ETH Zurich)

83

Nanowire sheets cut, bend and fold like paper
University of Arkansas researchers have created assemblies of nanowire
"paper" that show potential in applications such as flame-retardant fabric,
armor, bacteria filters, and decomposition of pollutants.

This two-dimensional "paper" can be shaped into three-dimensional devices.
It can be folded, bent , cut, or used as a filter, yet is chemically inert, robust,
and can be heated to 700 C (1300 F).

Super-strong nanowire "paper"
Two-dimensional "paper" made from titanium dioxide
nanowires can be folded, bent, cut, and shaped into three-
dimensional materials. (Source: Ryan Tian/University of
Arkansas)

Researchers used a hydrothermal heating process to create long nanowires
out of titanium dioxide and from there created free-standing membranes.
The resulting material is white in color and resembles regular paper. It can
be cast into different three-dimensional shapes like tubes, bowls and cups.
These three-dimensional hollow objects can be manipulated by hand and
trimmed with scissors.
231

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11.4 Roofing
Asphalt shingles make up more than 80 percent of the $30.18 billion U.S. roofing
market. Heating their asphalt binders, however, can pose health hazards and the
release of hazardous air pollutants.
232
In addition, many asphalt shingles are reinforced
with fiberglass, which has its own environmental and health hazards.

Although nanotechnology has yet to reach the asphalt shingle market, research is
underway at a number of universities and research centers on its application to asphalt
in general. The University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, for example, is looking to
improve asphalts durability, stiffness, and resistance to moisture damage in its
project, Potential Applications of Nanotechnology for Improved Performance of
Asphalt Pavements.
233

Outside of asphalt, nanotechnology is beginning to make an impact on roofing. Erlus
Lotus, for example, offers what they refer to as the worlds first self-cleaning clay
roof. The tiles burned-in surface finish destroys dirt particles, grease deposits, soot,
moss and algae with the aid of sunlight.
234
In another application, Palo Altos Nanosys
has a partnership with Matsushita Electric Works to market solar roofing tiles
embedded with nanorods.
235

Cabot Corporation has a supply and marketing agreement with Centerpoint
Translucent Systems for the use of Nanogel translucent aerogel in energy efficient
daylighting roofing systems. The Nanogel daylighting material combines high light
transmission with energy efficiency and sound insulation. It will be incorporated into
polycarbonate panels made specifically for translucent roofing applications. The
combined panel provides more than five times the energy efficiency of glass panels
typically used in residential sloped glazing. Centerpoint's roofing structure is
engineered to allow penetration of natural, filtered daylight into home living areas
without the energy loss and increased heating and cooling costs associated with
traditional glass roof inserts.
236

Bioni Roof, says its manufacturer, is a premium roof coating system with outstanding
long term protection and performance characteristics for restoring roof finishes. Bioni
Roof not only reflects up to 90 percent of sunlight, says its manufacturer, but also
prevents the growth of moss and algae by the use of active nanotechnology
components. Reduced energy costs and improved environmental ratings can be
archived, they suggest, without compromising the aesthetics of the roof. Bioni Roof is
a suitable coating for the renovation of numerous roofing materials such as clay tiles,
concrete roofing tiles, artificial slate tiles, or corrugated iron, and is available in
common roofing colors.
237

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12. Additional benefits

The benefits of nanotechnology for green building transcend categories of specific
materials. Their versatility, adaptability to existing buildings, and ability to conserve
processing energy, together with the introduction of nanosensors for smart materials
and smart environments will contribute to improved environmental performance in
buildings.

12.1 Nanosensors and smart environments
While nanotechnology will bring dramatic performance improvements to building
materials, its most dramatic impact may come in the area of nanosensors. Nanosensors
embedded in building materials will gather data on the environment, building users,
and material performance, even interacting with users and other sensors until buildings
become networks of intelligent, interacting components.

Initially, building components will become smarter, gathering data on temperature,
humidity, vibration, stress, decay, and a host of other factors. This information will be
invaluable in monitoring and improving building maintenance and safety. Dramatic
improvements in energy conservation can be expected as well, as, for instance,
environmental control systems recognize patterns of building occupancy and adjust
heating and cooling accordingly. Similarly, windows will self-adjust to reflect or let
pass solar radiation. Eventually, networks of embedded sensors will interact with those
worn or implanted in building users, resulting in smart environments that self-adjust
to individual needs and preferences. Everything from room temperature to wall color
could be determined based on invisible, passive correspondence between sensors.

Work on smart environments is already underway. Leeds NanoManufacturing Institute
(NMI), for example, is part of a 9.5 million European Union-funded project to
develop a house with special walls that will contain wireless, battery-less sensors and
radio frequency identity tags to collect data on stresses, vibrations, temperature,
humidity and gas levels.
"If there are any problems, the intelligent sensor network will alert residents
straightaway so they have time to escape," said NMI chief executive Professor Terry
Wilkins.
The self-healing house walls will be built from novel load bearing steel frames and
high-strength gypsum board, and will contain nano polymer particles that will turn
into a liquid when squeezed under pressure, flow into the cracks to harden and form a
solid material.
238

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Smart environments integrate nanosensors and
microsensors
Nanosensors and microsensors could enable smart environments that
gather information from their environment and users (Source: Bob
Ching/Queensgate Instruments)

12.2 Multifunctional properties
One of the most important aspects of nanotechnology is that it enables the design of
multifunctional materials with multiple properties. This versatility means that a single
nanomaterial can perform the work of several traditional materials. Titanium dioxide
nanoparticles incorporated into a facade, for instance, can make it both self-cleaning
and depolluting. New nanocompisites could easily be made fireproof, electrically
conductive, and super-strong. The ability to design multifunctional materials from the
bottom up will undoubtedly save energy and costs in tomorrows buildings. As
87
nanoscientists have said, we will no longer have to make due with materials that meet
some performance criteria and fall short of others. In the long run, we will design
materials to meet multiple criteria.

Nanoscale design for versatility is already occurring. Carbon nanotubes, as we have
seen, are amazingly versatilestrong, flexible, and electrically and thermally
conductive. Nanocoatings also take advantage of the diverse properties of titanium
dioxide and other nanoparticles to create self-cleaning, depolluting, antimicrobial
surfaces.

Germanys Nanogate AG is creating multifunctional surfaces for various product lines
manufactured by a leading bathroom fixtures company. Their work includes coating
glass surfaces with an invisible, eco-friendly finish that repels water, limescale and
dirt, protects them from glass corrosion, and is easy to clean.
239

Flexible heat-activated displays
This light-emitting display combines flexibility, conductivity, and heat
dissipation to create devices that reduce energy use. (Source: Weijia
Wen/Hong Kong University of Science and Technology)

Professor Weijia Wen at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology has
developed a paper-like, thermally activated display fabricated from thermochromic
composite and embedded conductive wiring patterns, shaped from a mixture of
metallic nanoparticles in polydimethylsioxane using soft lithography. The
nanomaterials combination of light-emitting characteristics, flexibility, conductivity
and heat dissipation combine to create a display that exhibits good image quality and
ease of control, reduces energy consumption, improves image quality control, and

has
excellent mechanical bending flexibility.
240

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12.3 Reduced processing energy
Because buildings typically use five times as much energy in their operation as in all
other phases of their life cycle, energy saving strategies focus primarily on reducing
operating energy costs. However, nanotechnology is demonstrating considerable
savings during the manufacturing of building-related products as well. DuPont, for
instance, has licensed nanoparticle paint from Ecology Coatings that will reduce the
energy used in coating application by 25 percent and materials costs by 75 percent.
The savings come because the paint is cured using ultraviolet (UV) light at room
temperature, rather than in the 204C (400F) ovens required for conventional auto
paint. The same technology could be applied to factory-coated facade panels and
surfaces for the building industry.
241

12.4 Adaptability to existing buildings
The market for nanomaterials in insulation for all industries is projected to reach $590
million by 2014.
242
We believe that the application of insulating nanocoatings to
existing buildings will be one of the greatest contributions of nanotechnology to the
reduction of carbon emissions worldwide in the 21
st
century.

ECOFYS estimates that adding thermal insulation to existing European buildings
could cut current building energy costs and carbon emissions by 42 percent or 350
million metric tons. But while insulation is the single most cost effective strategy for
reducing carbon emissions, existing buildings can be difficult to insulate with
conventional materials like rigid boards and fiberglass bats because wall cavities
where the insulation needs to go are inaccessible without partial demolition. Insulating
nanocoatings could exceed the insulating values of conventional materials through the
much simpler application of an invisible coating to the building envelope. Aerogels
could also play a major role in insulating existing structures. Further study is needed to
determine the exact insulating value of nanocoating products, but considering that half
of the buildings that will be standing at mid-century have already been built, the
prospect of easily improving their energy conservation capabilities is urgent.

The other great carbon emission reducer will likely be thin-film organic solar
technology enabled by nanotechnology. Thin-film solar cells can be produced on
plastic rolls, bringing dramatic price reductions over traditional glass plate technology.
In addition, flexible plastic solar cells are much more adaptable to building facades
than rigid glass plates, making building integrated photovoltaics both more affordable
and adaptable. Nanosolars construction of a plant that will triple U.S. solar cell
production shows that now is nano-enabled solar energys time to shine.

Energy savings from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes
(OLEDs) will also be substantial, given their dramatically superior efficiency as
compared to conventional lighting. WalMarts projected $2.6 million energy cost
savings and 35 million pound carbon emission reductions by using LED refrigerated
display lighting show that these are also technologies whose time has come.
89

Part 3. Conclusions

13. Market forces

The next five to ten years will see a boom in nanotechnology for green building.
Current nanomaterials and nano-products show demonstrable environmental
improvements including energy savings and reduced reliance on non-renewable
resources, as well as reduced waste, toxicity and carbon emissions. Some can even
absorb and break down airborne pollutants. The benefits of nanotechnology for green
building will accrue first from coatings and insulating materials available today,
followed by advances in solar technology, lighting, air and water purification, and,
eventually, structural materials and fire protection.

13.1 Forces accelerating adoption
While the construction industry is generally slow to adopt new technologies, we
believe five converging forces will accelerate the adoption of nanotechnology for
green building:

Forces accelerating nanotechnology adoption

1. Increasing green building requirements
2. $4 billion per year in nanotechnology research and development
worldwide
3. Proliferation of nanotechnology products and materials
4. Demonstrated environmental benefits of nanotechnology products
and materials
5. Declining costs of nanotechnology products and materials

Increasing demand for more sustainable buildings will necessarily require new, more
environmentally friendly building materials. The green building sector of the $142
billion U.S. construction market is expected to exceed $12 billion in 2007.
243
We
expect it to grow rapidly as government agencies adopt increasingly stringent
environmental standards. Widely accepted benchmarks for measuring sustainability
rely heavily on material specifications. Architects able to demonstrate improved
90
environmental performance in the materials they specify will be rewarded with higher
ratings for their buildings and more work for their firms.

The demand for greener buildings will not only be borne out of the desire to do the
right thing for the environmentincreasingly, it will be required by law and corporate
policy. Because the ability to meet accepted environmental performance criteria like
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) offers a definable measure
of sustainability, an increasing number of municipalities and corporations are
requiring that new buildings meet them. The cities of Vancouver and Portland now
require new city facilities to meet LEED gold standards; Seattle and San Francisco
require silver, and Atlanta requires LEED certification, providing these cities with
tangible evidence they are meeting their green goals.
244

Most importantly, nanotechnology for green building can help us achieve goals for
reducing carbon emissions and the effects of global climate change. Building is a
logical point of focus in those efforts. Buildings consume roughly 40 percent of U.S.
energy, emit 40 percent of carbon, and contribute 40 percent of landfill waste, but
these alarming numbers also suggest that building must become a focal point in the
global fight for a greener, healthier world.

By some conservative estimates, says one United Nations report, the building
sector world-wide could deliver emission reductions of 1.8 billion tonnes of C0
2
. A
more aggressive energy efficiency policy might deliver over two billion tonnes or
close to three times the amount scheduled to be reduced under the Kyoto Protocol."
245

These conclusions combined with our own suggest that nanotechnology for green
building will be in great demand to meet not only municipal and corporate
sustainability requirements, but increasing national and international pressures to
reduce carbon emissions as well. We can already see national carbon emission policies
affecting the building industry as in, for example, the Danish Building Regulations
and Parliamentary decision from 2005 requiring reduction in building energy
consumption of 25 percent by 2015.
246

These green building requirements will create unprecedented demand for green
materials. In a $1 trillion dollar per year market like building, such a shift in criteria
for material selection opens up enormous opportunities for new materials, new
processes, and new business. And as this study has shown, many current and near-
term nanomaterials and nano-products have demonstrable environmental benefits
enabling them to meet the criteria established by LEED and other benchmarking tools
for sustainability. The convergence of growing demand for green building products
with the explosion in available nanomaterials and nano-products makes building
construction and operation a prime market for nanotechnology. Four billion dollars per
year in nanotechnology research and development worldwide will help ensure a steady
flow of new nanomaterials and nano-products into the market indefinitely.

91
13.2 Obstacles to adoption
Markets are full of uncertainty, especially when new technologies are introduced. The
application of nanotechnology to a market as broad as the building industry poses
many challenges for businesses, professionals, and government agencies. There are
three primary forces that could thwart a boom in nanotechnology for green building:

Forces with potential to slow adoption

1. Prolonged high cost of nanomaterials and nano-products
2. Construction industry resistance to innovation
3. Public rejection of nanotechnology

The immediate adoption of nanotechnology into the building industry is being slowed
by the mismatch between a short term cost-conscious industry and the high cost of
most nano-products relative to conventional building materials. Carbon nanotubes, for
example, can cost $200,000 per pound. Even readily available nano-products like
germ-killing paints are sold as premium products at the high end of the price scale.
However, nanotechnology is still a relatively young enterprise, and prices are certain
to drop just as they do with any new technology over time.

That the industrys tendency to move cautiously in adopting new technologies could
slow the pace of nanotechnology adoption was confirmed by a recent Danish study on
nanotechnology for the construction industry. The study found the industry knows
very little about nanotechnology and its implications, and that architects fear
nanomaterial and nano-product costs will be too high.

The overall picture on the demand for, knowledge of, and views on nanotechnology
in the construction sector, the report states, is that knowledge and expertise are
currently too fragmented to allow for a substantial uptake, diffusion and development
of nanotechnological solutions in the construction industry. At present, only very
vague ideas of the possible benefits can be identified among key agents of change
such as architects, consulting engineers and facility managers. Furthermore the
demand side will be reluctant about introducing nanotechnological materials until
convincing documentation about functionalities and long-term effects is produced.
247

A larger concern is the uncertainty surrounding public acceptance of nanotechnology.
So far, the public has been largely positive about nanotechnology. However, a single
instance of harm attributable to nanotechnology could be enough to quickly change
public perception. For example, in 2006 a German cleanser called Magic Nano was
recalled after it caused respiratory problems in some users. An investigation later
proved there were in fact no nanoparticles in Magic Nano (the name was basically a
92
marketing gimmick,) but one sufferer complained memorably, I blame
nanotechnology!

While a wholesale public rejection of nanotechnology is implausible, an event or
report linking nanotechnology to significant human or environmental health hazards
could brand nanotechnology as environmentally unfriendly. If that occurs, even
nanomaterials and nano-products with proven environmental benefits could be
stricken from the green building palette. Recall that the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, for instance, initially planned to allow certified organic produce to
contain genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and only changed its position after
public outcry. Nanotechnology, however, enjoys a more positive reputation than
GMOs among the general public, making its branding as environmentally unfriendly
unlikely.

14. Future trends and needs

The fulfillment of nanotechnologys promise for green building will require effort on
the part of both the nanotech community and the building industry. As it is in so many
aspects of life, communication will be the key. Further research is needed to bridge the
gap between nanotech potential and current construction practice. Research focusing
on the following areas will help overcome construction industry resistance to
innovation and public fears about nanotechnology.

14.1 Independent testing
Consumers need accurate product information in order to make informed buying
decisions. One primary hurdle in assessing the environmental performance of
nanomaterialstheir greennessis the current lack of objective performance data.
Independent testing is needed to determine precisely the thermal resistance, embodied
energy, toxicity, waste stream, and other quantifiable environmental performance data
for nanomaterials. This data would help consumers overcome the skepticism that often
accompanies reliance on manufacturer claims. For example, nanomaterials for green
building appear to reduce the buildup of volatile organic compounds (VOC's) and
persistent bioaccumulative toxics (PBTs), resulting in improved indoor air quality.
Data demonstrating favorable comparisons to existing materials (as well as data that
raises environmental concerns) should be collected, analyzed, and disseminated to
facilitate decision making.

14.2 Life cycle analysis
Independently defined environmental performance data should encompass the entire
life cycle of the products tested. A specific insulation product, for example, could
appear to save energy in its application but consume great amounts of energy in its
93
raw material processing and manufacture, distribution, and disposal or reuse. Life
cycle energy and waste analyses should include data on raw material acquisition, raw
material processing and manufacture, product packaging, product distribution, product
installation, use and maintenance, disposal, reuse and recycling.

Life cycle considerations

1. Where did this material come from?
2. Is it renewable?
3. How much energy was used in mining/harvesting?
4. What effect on habitat?
5. How was it processed or fabricated?
6. How much energy was used in manufacture?
7. What were the environmental impacts of manufacture?
8. How did it arrive on-site?
9. How can it minimize construction waste?

Energy life cycle

1. Embodied energy
Energy used in manufacture of building components
2. Gray energy
Energy used in transportation and distribution of materials
3. Induced energy
Energy used to construct building
4. Operating energy
Energy used to run building, equipment and appliances

94

Life cycle energy consumption in buildings
Building operation consumes five times as much energy as all other
phases of building life combined (Source: United Nations Environmental
Programme, Buildings and Climate Change, 2007)

14.3 Societal concerns
Buildings will be one of the primary points of contact between people and
nanomaterials. People know they will be in constant contact with materials and
products allowed into their homes and offices. The pervasiveness, uncertainty,
complexity, and rapid development of nanotechnologies for building combine to
create a potentially volatile environment. Some environmental groups, for example,
have warned that nanotechnology could prove to be the next asbestos, a reminder of
the grave health consequences wrought by a once-promising building technology.
Because nanotechnology is a new and powerful technology full of uncertainty, care
should be taken to listen to the concerns expressed by consumers, workers and
building users.

Aside from environmental and human health concerns, less direct societal concerns
could also arise. Nanosensors, for example, raise questions of privacy and control.
Who will control the transparency of windows in public places or a childs room, for
instance? How will data gathered about individual building users be used? The rise of
smart environments may even have implications for the design professions as
buildings become more dynamic networks of smart assemblies interacting with their
environment and users.

14.4 Environmental and human health concerns
The uncertainty surrounding the effects of nanoparticles on the environment and the
human body is sure to continue as a concern in the development from experimental
0 30 60
time (years)
demolition/recycling
embodied energy
induced energy
operating energy
gray energy
95
nanoscience to marketplace products. Reports find, for example, that ultrafine particles
behave differently and can be more toxic than equivalent larger-sized particles of a
given material at similar doses per gram of body weight.
248, 249
Regulation of nano-
based products based solely on particle size, however, is proving extremely difficult.
Consumers of nanotechnologys architectural applications will undoubtedly be
concerned about potential environmental and human health hazards, and the fear of
them, whether justified or not, could impede the spread of nanotechnology in the
marketplace.

14.5 Regulation
Like any new technology, nanotechnology raises concerns. By virtue of their size, for
example, nanoparticles are more readily absorbed into the body than larger particles.
In addition, little is known about how they accumulate in the body or the environment.
Silver nanoparticles, for instance, are proven antibacterial agents incorporated into
many nanotech paints and coatings. Samsung even coats some of its appliances with
silver nanoparticles to kill germs.
250
But concerns that nanosilver could accumulate in
the environment, killing beneficial bacteria and aquatic organisms, as well as human
health concerns, have led the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to make
products containing silver nanoparticles the subject of the first EPA regulations
applying to nanotechnology. Now, any company looking to sell products advertised as
germ-killing and containing nanosilver or similar nanoparticles will first have to
provide scientific evidence that the product does not pose an environmental risk. But
the EPA has long regulated silver because it is a heavy metal known to cause health
and environmental problems in sufficient quantities.
251

Because of the large number of people employed in the construction industry,
workplace regulation of nanotech-based materials and processes could also become a
concern. The harmful side effects of carbon nanotube manufacturing, for example,
have been described in a new study. Researchers found cancer-causing compounds, air
pollutants, toxic hydrocarbons, and other substances of concern. They are now
working with four major U.S. nanotube producers to help develop strategies for more
environmentally friendly production.
252
At present, however, the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health only offers guidelines for workplace safety for
workers in contact with nanomaterials.
253

Since buildings are the primary source of contact between people and materials
through both dermal and respiratory absorption, architects and engineers along with
manufacturers will need to stay attuned to regulations affecting nanotechnology. So
far, however, nanotechnology has a clean record. Youve been absorbing titanium
dioxide nanoparticles for years through your sunscreenits used in many cosmetics
and other dermal applications to make white particles disappear into the skin.

And while not every environmental group finds current nanotech regulations
sufficient, many do.
254
In fact the desire to get it right has brought together
96
previously unlikely partners like DuPont and Environmental Defense to iron out
regulatory policies agreeable to all parties.
255

While this report details the wide range of nanomaterials and products available today
that can benefit green building, the best is yet to come. With $4 billion per year going
into nanotechnology research and development worldwide, the pipeline is full of
exciting materials and products that will dramatically change the way future buildings
are made. As the findings of this report demonstrate, nanotechnology for green
building is an enormous market with equally enormous potential for environmental
benefit.

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Dr. George Elvin, director of Green Technology Forum
and author of this study, is a frequent speaker, author
and advisor on emerging technologies. Published by
Wiley and Princeton Architectural Press, Dr. Elvin is an
Associate Professor at Ball State University, and a former
Visiting Research Fellow at Edinburgh Universitys
Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and
Fellow at the Center for Energy Research, Education and
Service. For speaking and consulting services, contact:

elvin@greentechforum.net

Green Technology Forum is a research and advising
firm focused on nanotechnology and biotechnology for
growing green businesses. From green building to solar
energy and water filtration, we provide the experience
and expertise that help businesspeople decide where
they want green technology to take them. We help
develop market strategies, products and services that
benefit our clients, their customers, and the
environment.

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Indianapolis, IN 46256
info@greentechforum.net

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