Mathematics 17 1

st
Sem AY 2014-2015
Handout 2: Algebraic Expressions LHBMonterde, 2014
I. Algebraic Expressions
A. Denitions
A symbol that can take only one value is called a constant.
If a symbol can take more than one value from a given set of allowable values, it is called a variable.
A combination of constants and variables involving a nite number of indicated operations on them (in our con-
text, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power, extraction of square root) is called an
algebraic expression.
A polynomial is an algebraic expression involving nonnegative integer powers of one or more variables and with no
variables in the denominator.
A polynomial involving only a single variable is called univariate. Otherwise, it is multivariate.
A term of a polynomial is any expression in between the operations.
A numerical coefficient is a constant factor of a term while a literal coefficient is a variable factor.
A polynomial with only one term is called a monomial; two terms, binomial; and three terms, trinomial. It must be
noted that all polynomials are sums of monomials. That is, the terms must be monomials.
The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents of all the variables. In general, the degree of a polynomial is
the degree of the term with the highest degree. Note that the degree of a polynomial is always a natural number.
B. Laws of Exponents
If n N, we dene a
n
= a a, the product of a with itself n times. We call a the base and n as the
exponent. Let a, b R and n, m N. Then the following holds:
1. a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
2. (a
m
)
n
= a
mn
3. (a b)
n
= a
n
b
n
4. a
1
=
1
a
, a = 0
5. (a
1
)
1
= a, a = 0
6. (a
n
)
1
=
1
a
n
, a = 0
7.
a
m
a
n
= a
mn
, a = 0
8. a
0
= 1, a = 0
C. Operations on Algebraic Expressions
In simplifying algebraic expressions, one must rst dene the concept of like terms. Two or more terms are like if they
have the same literal coecient of same power. In adding or subtracting algebraic expressions, one only has to com-
bine the like terms. On the other hand, one has to employ the distributive property of multiplication over addition
and the laws of exponents in multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions.
D. Special Products
In multiplying algebraic expressions, knowledge of special products is important as it makes the process simpler. Let
X, Y and Z be algebraic expressions, a, b, c, d R. Then
1. Dierence of Two Squares: (X + Y )(X Y ) = X
2
Y
2
2. Square of a Binomial: (X + Y )
2
= X
2
+ 2XY + Y
2
3. Product of Two Binomials: (aX + bY )(cX + dY ) = acX
2
+ (ad + bc)XY + bdY
2
4. Cube of a Binomial: (X + Y )
3
= X
3
+ 3X
2
Y + 3XY
2
+ Y
3
5. Square of a Trinomial: (X + Y + Z)
2
= X
2
+ Y
2
+ Z
2
+ 2XY + 2XZ + 2Y Z
6. Sum of Two Cubes: X
3
+ Y
3
= (X + Y )(X
2
XY + Y
2
)
7. Dierence of Two Cubes: X
3
Y
3
= (X Y )(X
2
+ XY + Y
2
)
E. Binomial Expansion
Let x, y be algebraic expressions and n N. Binomial expansion deals with the form of (x + y)
n
when expanded as a
sum. As a prerequisite, we need recall the concept of permutation and combination in statistics.
Def. The number of possible combinations of r objects from a set of n objects is called combination, denoted

n
r

.
The formula is given by

n
r

=
n!
r!(n r)!
where n! denotes the permutation of n objects.
Binomial Theorem. Let x, y be algebraic expressions and n N. Then
Remarks. Let x, y be algebraic expressions and n N. Then the following holds for (x + y)
n
.
1. The expansion always has n + 1 terms.
2. The kth and n kth coecients are equal. In particular, the rst and last coecients are always 1; and
the second and second to the last coecients are always n.
3. The kth term of the expansion is

n
k 1

x
nk+1
y
k1
.
4. The exponents in each term of the expansion is n, i.e, the power in the expansion is preserved.
The combination formula is useful when the power of expansion is large. But if the powers are manageable, one can
utilize Pascal

s Triangle to determine the coecients of expansion of (x + y)

n
.
Figure 2. Pascals Triangle
Remarks. We observe the following about the Pascals Triangle above.
1. Each number is the sum of the two numbers diagonally above it (with the exception of the 1s).
2. Each row of Pascals triangle is symmetric.
3. The sum of each row is a power of 2. In fact, the sum of the entries in the nth row is 2
n
.
4. In any row, the sum of coecients with even ordinal is equal to the sum of coecients with odd ordinal.
Examples. For the rst natural numbers, we have:
Exercise. Expand (2x + 3y)
5
.
F. Factoring
Contrary to combining algebraic expressions, factoring is the decomposition of an algebraic expression into its prime factors.
One helpful set of techniques is the Special Products. Other techniques are the following:
1. Removing Common Factor The very rst step in factoring is determining the greatest common factor or
GCF of all the terms in the expression.
2. Perfect Square Trinomial A PST is a trinomial which is a perfect square of some binomial.
3. Quadratic Trinomial A quadratic trinomial is any of the form aX
2
+bX +c. It is important to note that
a PST is a special case of a Quadratic Trinomial.
4. Completing the Square This method transforms a given binomial or trinomial into a dierence of two
squares.
5. Grouping This is done by grouping some terms and applying removing the common factors on the grouped
terms.
II. Algebraic Fractions
An algebraic fraction is a quotient of algebraic expressions. On the other hand, a quotient of polynomials is called
a rational expression.
A. Operations on Algebraic Fractions
In this section, the knowledge of factoring is essential, as we will be multiplying and dividing expressions to express
them in lowest terms. In multiplication and division of algebraic fractions, the goal is to cancel as much common
factors as possible (the gcf). However in addition and subtraction, one must rst transform the fractions into
similar fractions (fractions with like denominators) for them to be combined. Then we simplify.
B. Complex Fractions
A fraction which contains fractions either in the numerator or denominator is called a complex fraction. The goal
is to transform a given complex fraction into a simple fraction.
III. Radicals and Rational Exponents
In this section, we will extend the concept of integral exponents into rational exponents. Using the equation X = a
n
,
we dene the n
th
root of a as
n

X = a where X is called the radicand, n is the base and 1 < n N,

is the
radical sign and a is the principal n
th
root of X.
A. Laws on Radicals Let x, y R and m, n N. Then the following holds.
Existence of nth Roots
1. If x 0, then
n

x 0 for all n N.
2. If x < 0 and n E
+
, then
n

x is undened.
3. If x < 0 and n O
+
, then
n

x < 0.
Operations on Radicals
1. For any n N,
n

xy =
n

x
n

y whenever
n

x and
n

y exists.
2. For any n N,
n

x
n

y
=
n

x
y
whenever
n

x and
n

y exists, and y = 0.
3. If x 0,
m

x =
mn

x for all m, n N.
4. If x 0,
m

x =
mn

x for all m, n O.
Rational Exponents
1. For any n N, x
1
n
=
n

x.
2. For any n O
+
,
n

x
n
= x.
3. For any n E
+
,
n

x
n
= |x|.
4. For any m, n N, (
n

x)
m
= x
m
n
=
n

x
m
whenever
n

x exists.
5. For any m, n E, (
n

x)
m
= x
m
n
= |x|
m
n
=
n

x
m
whenever
n

x exists.
B. Operations Radicals
Before we discuss operations on radicals, we dene rst the simplest form of a radical. We say that a radical
expression is in its simplest form if:
1. The radicals have the same index.
2. There is no exponent greater than or equal to the index.
3. The index and exponents are relatively prime.
4. There is no radical in the denominator.