1

J03
3 With the aid of diagrams, describe the nature of fringing reefs, barrier
reefs and atolls. (10)













Coral reefs
Fringing reef Barrier reef Atoll
1. It consists of a platform
of coral which is
connected to and which is
built out from a coast.

2. The surface of the
platform is usually flat or
slightly concave and its
outer edge drops away
steeply to the surrounding
sea floor.

3. A shallow lagoon
usually occurs between
the coast and the outer
edge of the reef, e.g.
fringing reef off the coast
of the Eilat, Israel.

1. A ring shaped coral atoll
with a central lagoon is all
that remains after
seamount is submerged.
(volcanic island)

2. Atolls are particularly
common in pacific and
indian oceans.

3.Some Atolls are very
large, eg. Suvadiva in the
Maldives.

3. The lagoon of this atoll
1.This is similar to
fringing reef except
that it is situated
several miles off the
coast and is separated
from it by deep water.

2. The coral of a
barrier reef is joined to
the coast although the
water above is too
deep for coral to grow
on the bed, .e.g Great
Barrier Reef Australia

Diagrams
2
b) Describe the processes of marine erosion. Using examples,
explain how marine erosion can affect cliffed coastlines. (15)
















Marine erosion
Hydraulic action
Attrition
Abrasion Solution
Formation
(a) Wave cut
platforms
Cliff, stack, stump

Is the force of water
and air on rocks
(30 000kg/m
2
)
Is the wearing
away of base-rich
rocks, especially
limestone, by an
acidic water &
organic acids aid
the process.
Is the wearing
away of
shoreline by
material carried
by the waves
which is hurled
against the cliff.

Wave
attrition
affects the
debris within
the wave.
The particles
reduce in
size and
angularity as
they collide
with each
other within
the wave.
Most of this
3
Cliff profile:
Cliff profiles owe their form to the geology (Lithology and
structure), sub-aerial processes and wave energy along a given
stretch of coastline. It takes thousands of years for the cliffs profile
to form from complex processes, there are many complicated
processes taking place on coasts that affect the profile of a cliff.
Wave action causes three erosional processes, abrasion, hydraulic
action and corrosion. These processes are most effective when
high energy waves, associated with storm conditions strike coast
profiles made of less resistant rocks. Concentrated wave action on
cliff leads to undercutting. The three types of wave erosion
processes play an important part in forming cliff profile. A wave
also trims the front of a cliff. These erosional processes take a long
time and are very complex.

4 Fig. 2 shows a spit and salt marshes.














4
(a) Describe the main features of the spit and salt marshes and
explain their formation. (10)






SPIT SALT MARSHES
An accumulation of sand
and shingle that is attached
to a coastline.
Behind the spit are accumulations
of silt and mud that are anchored
by vegetation to produce marsh and
creek areas.
FORMATION
1. As the fetch and prevailing winds are from the south-west,
material will be moved eastwards along the coast by longshore
drift.
2. After headland X the direction of the original coastline changes
and larger material (shingle) is deposited in water sheltered by
the headland (B).
3. Further deposition of finer material (sand) enables the feature
to build up slowly to sea-level (C) and to extend its length (D).
4. Occasionally the wind changes its direction (e.g. comes from the
east). This in turn causes the waves to alter their direction (e.g.
approach from the south east. During this time some material at
the end of the spit may be pushed inland to form a curved end
(E). When the wind returns to its usual direction the spit
resumes its growth eastwards (F).
5. Spits become permanent when sand is blown up the beach, by the
prevailing wind, to form sand-dunes. 6 Salt marsh is likely to
develop in the sheltered water behind the spit. 7 The spit is
unable to grow across the estuary as the river current carries
material out to sea. Should there be no river, the spit may grow
across the bay to form a bar.


5

(b) Explain why spits and saltmarshes are subject to change and are
considered fragile environments. Suggest ways in which they can be
protected. (15)










Spits & saltmarshes
Growth/lateral Erosion
changes
Why subjected to changes
Storms or removal of sediment supplies can have
severe impacts such that these features can be
considered fragile. Salt marshes are equally
responsive if the shelter of the spit is removed or
pollution affects the estuarine or river silts and mud.
Development or changes of sea level can also have
severe consequences.
How to protect?
Protection can be afforded by trapping
sediment (groynes) or guaranteeing
continuous sediment supplies
6
J04
3. (a) How can changes in sea level affect the formation and
continued existence of coral reefs and atolls? (10)
Coral is sensitive to heat and light it is also sensitive to changes in
sea level as reefs cannot survive long periods of subaerial exposure.
Falls in sea level can lead to the death of coral and to the emergence
of the reef above high water forming low lying land such as keys.
The islands become colonized by vegetation. To a certain extent
reefs can contend with sea level rise leading to the growth of thick
reefs (Darwins model). However rapid rise consequent upon global
warming may result in inundation and destruction.
(b) With reference to coastal environments, explain the term
sustainable management. To what extent has sustainable
management been achieved in a coastal area you have studied? (15)














Sustainable management
encouraging improvement of coasts but
within the capacity of the supporting
physical systems i.e. minimising
environmental degeneration.
In coastal terms this can mean
the preservation both of the
coastal environment and its
exploitation.
Do nothing
Similarly a do nothing approach may also
have repercussions for the long term coastal
environment ( loss of fishing, tourism
landforms etc).
7


4. (a) Fig.2 shows some stores and transfers of sediment in a coastal
zone. Show how the stores and transfers of sediment have
contributed to the formation 'of beaches. (10)








Case study
Barton on Sea
Stores
Source of sediments for
beaches
Cliff erosion
provide material
Materials form rivers
& estuaries
Sea bed
How transported to
beaches
Longshore drift & tidal currents
Form of beaches
Depend on
Three types of
material
Location of area
deposited
8





Using examples, explain how wave action and geology can influence
the rate of coastal erosion. (15)



















Loss of material from
beaches
wind
Dunes
Wave
erosion &
offshore
currents
Sea bed
Rate of coastal
erosion
Wave action Geology
Wave erosion occur
in high energy
wave, e.g. hydraulic
action, abrasion,
solution & attrition

Cliff profile, wave cut
platform, stumps,
stack & caves.
formation
Remove
materials
from beaches
Unconsolidated rocks &
granite
Rate at which it occur
depend balance between
wave erosion processes and
geology

Examples
9
J05
3 (a) How do waves influence the shape of beaches? [10]










Wave
influence

Beaches
constructive Destructive

-Constructive wave often forms where the fetch
distance is long.

- They are small wave, flat in form with long
wave length (100m) & a low frequency wave
(wave period 6 to 8 per minutes)

-On approaching the beach, the wave front
steepens relatively slowly until the wave gently
spills over.

-As the resultant swash moves up the beach, it
rapidly losses volume and energy due to water
percolating through the beach material.

-The result-backwash is weak & has insufficient
energy to transport sediment back down the
beach or to impede the swash from the
following wave.

-Consequently sand and shingle is slowly, but
constantly moved up the beach, this gradually
increases the beach gradient and leads to
formation of BERMs at its crest and especially
on sandy beaches, ridges and runnels.
-Destructive wave are more common
where the fetch distance is shorter.

- they are often large/ high waves, steep in
form and with short wave length (20m)
and high frequency (10 to 14 per min)

-on approaching the beach, steepen
rapidly until they plunge over.

- The near vertical breaking of the wave
creates a powerful back wash which can
move considerable amounts of sediments
down the beach.

-At the same time reduce the effect of
swash form the following waves.
-Although some shingle may be thrown up
above the high water mark by very large
waves forming a storm beach, most
material is move downwards to form
longshore (break point)
10














(b)(i) Explain the operation of the marine processes of hydraulic
action, wave quarrying and abrasion (corrasion).
Hydraulic action is the pressure of water hitting a cliff base and the
sudden release of energy which breaks down incoherent rocks.
Wave quarrying is the entrapment of air in cracks, joints etc. and
decompression as water retreats.
Abrasion is the result of materials carried by waves striking cliff
base giving rise to undercutting and notches.



Different types of beaches
Barrier beach
A long and narrow beach of sand and/or
gravel that runs parallel to the coastline
and is not submerged by the tide.

Pocket beach Bay head
11
(ii)Briefly describe the factors, other than marine erosion, that can
affect the shape of rocky coastlines. [15]







4 (a)
Fig. 2 shows a theory of the development of a coral atoll. Describe
the coral reefs shown and give an explanation of the theory shown.
[10]










Factors affecting shape of
coastline
Rock lithology &
structure
Sub aerial
processes
relief Human
activities
Climate
change
Darwinian Theory of
Formation
Condition for coral
development
12
Using examples, describe the threats that may affect coastlines and
evaluate the actions that are being taken to protect coasts from them.
[15]










June 2006

3 (a) Describe the processes of wave erosion and demonstrate how
they can produce a wave cut platform. [10]
Same as above.
(b) Describe how sediment is transported along coasts and explain,
with the help of diagrams, how the deposition of sediment can
produce simple and compound spits. [15]




Threats
Erosion

Rising sea
levels
Human activities
Interfere
sediment supply,
e.g. sand dredging
Protective measures
Evaluate method use
Examples;
Threats on depositional landforms;
dune, salt marshes, spits
Sediment transported
along coastline
Longshore drift
by
13
The transport of sand and pebbles along the coast is called
longshore drift.
The prevailing wind (the direction the wind ususally blows from)
causes waves to approach the coast at an angle. The swash carries
the sand and pebbles up the beach at the same angle (usually 45).
The backwash, however carries the material back down the beach at
right angles (90) as this is the steepest gradient.
if a pebble was placed in the water it would be carried along the
coastline in a zig-zag motion and would eventually be deposited
when the waves lose energy.
The general direction of longshore drift is decided by the prevailing
wind. In the diagram below the prevailing wind is approaching from
the south-west. Therefore longshore drift is moving material from the
west to the east.







Landforms :Spits
Coastal spits are formed sediment transported by lst accumulate at
changes in coastal direction or where drift is held up by a river
mouth or estuary. The shingle and sand is then fashioned into a
projecting beach ridge which will extend to the point where
14
sediment is removed as rapidly as it arrives (a simple spit)
compound spits are those experiencing long periods of growth where
the main active beach ridge is met by inactive ridges (laterals) more
or less at right angles. Recurves are modified by secondary waves.


4 Fig 2 shows the refraction of waves as they approach a coast.
(a) Explain the refraction of the wave crests and suggest the effects
of refraction upon the headland cliff and the bayhead beach.
[10]



1. As the waves approach the coast, they travel in a straight line,
parallel to each other, as they travel in the same speed.
2. However as the front of the headland is shallower than the
front of the bay, the waves encounter more friction and it slow
down. (shallower more friction-slow down)
3. As the front of the bay is deeper than the front of the headland,
the wave encounter less friction and its speed remains. (Near
bay, deeper thus less friction, speed remains)
Wave refraction
What?
15
4. This cause the wave to refract, where the waves bend towards
the headlands and bends away at the bay.
5. If the wave were to bend towards the headlands, energy will
become concentrated thus eroding the headland. At the bay
wave energy become less concentrated thus deposition occur
at the bay forming pocket beach or bayhead beach.


(b) Explain the extent to which the natural characteristics of coastal
dunes and salt marshes can be changed by human activities. [15]
Dune environments and salt marshes can be considered as fragile,
as they can be relatively easily destroyed by both natural and human
activities. Dunes represent a fine balance between erosion, transport
and deposition. Thus interruptions to sediment supply or the
destruction of anchoring vegetation will result in blow outs and
decline. Human activities walking, quad biking etc. can be
instrumental as well as storm surges etc. Salt marshes rely on both
natural protection (e.g. spits) and the unpolluted flocculation of silts
as well as salt loving vegetation. Again destructive elements can
stem from natural causes (storms) or from human activities such as
pollution or reclamation. Level 3: Good appreciation of fragility in
terms of the balance of natural processes. Thus there will be some
attempt to see human activities as destructive balanced by natural
phenomena. [12 15]
J07
16
3 (a) Describe the nature of a coastal sediment cell. How do these
cells contribute to the formation of coastal landforms?








(b) To what extent do rock type and structure influence the
development of landforms along cliffed coasts?
Rock type and structure have a major role in shaping cliffed
coastlines. This can be demonstrated by reference to different types
of cliff profile, plan of coastal form as well as the landforms of
stump, stacks, arches etc. Thus the type of rock, its dip, bedding
planes, vulnerability to erosion can all be developed. Of course, rock
type is not the only influence and high energy environments with
active marine and sub-aerial weathering all have a contribution to
make. [15]
Level 3 Good appreciation of the influence of geology with
exemplification from cliff profiles, coastal plans etc. The
contribution of marine processes will be considered and the answer
marked by appropriate exemplification. (1215)
4 (a)
Fig. 2 shows a coastal zone with its tide and wave environments.
Describe the wave activities occurring in the breaker surf and swash
zones. What impact do these activities have upon the shape of
backshore and nearshore zones?
A somewhat different context in which candidates can develop wave
Coastal sediment cell

-It is a system by which sediments are sourced,
transported and deposited within a part of a
coast and offshore area.
-They appear as a coastal system, thus sediments
are derived from estuaries and coastal erosion,
transported by longshore drift and deposited in
the form of beaches, bars, spits etc.
-The nature of the landform thus depends upon
the nature of the cell and also the shape of the
coastline.
17
action that they normally associate with constructive, destructive,
plunging waves. Breaking waves send pulses of water shorewards
until they run out of momentum and gravity draws the water back to
the sea. The surf zone is between the breaking waves and the point
of maximum run up and is thus an area of turbulent activity as the
backwash meets the forward spilling waves (swash). The swash zone
will be associated with the forward movement of constructive
waves, whilst the breaker zone may be associated with plunging
waves. Candidates will see the swash zone as one of accumulation of
beach sediments whilst the other zones may be associated with the
development of a bar at the edge of the breaker zone and the
combing down of materials into the trough area. [10]
(b) What are the principal threats to the continued existence of coral
coasts? To what extent can these threats be overcome?
Coral coasts are predominantly threatened by human activities,
which disturb the required conditions for growth and development.
Hence, pollution can affect the light sources and the requirement for
clear water with no sediment. Also the oxygen content of the water
could be affected. Tourism can produce erosion as well as pollution
and fishing and other activities can be harmful. Quarrying and
souvenir hunting are equally destructive. Global warming and sea
level rise could lead to long term destruction as the growth of coral
would not be fast enough to compensate for the relatively rapid
rise in sea levels. Rising temperatures and carbon emissions may
also affect the chemical balance of the oceans again acting as threat.
Some natural processes such as storms can also erode reefs, as can
long term changes such as uplift. Any coral exposed above sea level
for long periods becomes blanched. Some assessment can be
made of attempts to overcome these threats although these will be
most effectively achieved by use of examples or a case study. [15]
Level 3 A good appreciation of the operation of the threats by
reference to the conditions required for coral growth. Good use of a
case study and/or examples. Evaluation of efforts to overcome
threats will be set within the case study or exemplars. (1215)
J08
3 (a) Outline the contribution of wave refraction and longshore drift
18
to coastal deposition. [10]
Diagrams can be effective in this question. LSD will be seen as a
combination of littoral or beach drift and longshore currents to
produce the familiar zig-zag movement of sediment along coasts.
Where the current slackens then sediment is deposited. Refraction
has a role to play in this, although many will see this as only a means
of reshaping sediment e.g. in recurves.
(b) Explain and assess the theories concerning the formation of coral
atolls. [15]




4 Fig. 2 shows some processes operating on cliffs in a temperate
location.
(a) Explain the processes that are affecting the cliffs shown on Fig.
2. [10] The processes shown are the saturation of the cliff by
groundwater from percolating rainfall leading to large scale
rotational slumping. The cliff slope fails along a glide plane. The
processes of marine erosion and longshore transportation then act
upon the toe of the slump. The other example is produced by direct
undercutting of the cliff face by marine erosion (hydraulic, quarrying
etc) and the removal of the undercut material by transportation. This
then allows the cliff to slump along lines of weakness exploited by
sub-aerial weathering.
(b) Describe and evaluate the success of methods that might be
employed to protect coastlines. [15]



Darwinian Theories
Compare to Daly
theory
Protecting cliff
(Barton on Sea)
Hard
Engineering

Removal of materials Erosion
Gabions sea
walls, etc
Restrict sub-
aerial weathering
19










J09
3 (a) How might changes in sea level affect the formation and types
of coral reefs found today? [10]
Coral is sensitive to sea depth in terms of the light and temperatures
required for its growth and development.
Thus sea level change has been important in the past for the
development of fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls.
Darwins theories regarding sea level change and the development
of coral can be cited and Daly theories should be included.




Use groynes to
protect beaches
Others
Manage retreat
Evaluate
method used
Hard
engineering
disadvantages
Pollution of coral reef
Other examples
Evaluate method to
overcome problems
20



(b) To what extent is the building of sea defences (hard engineering)
a more effective method of sustainable management than allowing
coasts to revert to a natural state (managed retreat)? [15]





Managed retreat involves. It is commonly used in areas of deposition
such as salt marsh and creeks where the defences (hard engineered
sea walls, groynes etc) are removed allowing the drained land to
revert to marsh. Although there is a loss of arable land and indeed
settled areas, the result often leads to lower levels of coastal erosion
as the marsh is very effective at absorbing storm conditions. There is
also a benefit in maintenance costs. It could thus be regarded as
sustainable coastal management. It can be argued that it is not
suitable in all areas, particularly fast eroding coastlines where
expensive infrastructure has been placed. It also could be deemed
inappropriate where large areas have been reclaimed for use such as
in Holland or Singapore. There is ample opportunity for the use of
examples or case studies of sustainable coastal management.
Level 3 A clear indication of managed retreat and its implications
for coastal management. This is then set against the results of hard
engineering and some assessment made of the advantages and
limitations of both strategies. Well exemplified. [1215]
4 (a)
Fig. 2 shows some factors influencing wave formation.
Using Fig. 2, describe how wind and fetch affect wave height and
Manage retreat
the removal of coastal defences and
allowing the area to revert to a
natural balanced state
21
suggest other factors which might affect the form of a wave. [10]
Wave height is seen in the diagram as a function of wind velocity
and fetch Generally the longer the fetch the smaller the velocity
required to generate a wave of the same height. Hence a wave of 1m
in height requires a wind speed of over 17 at 10 km but at a fetch of
100 km only a velocity of c 8. Good candidates will note the
logarithmic scale of fetch. Fetch allows a longer duration for wind to
blow as waves are a product of friction produced by the wind. Good
answers should use the data shown. Other factors affecting wave
form are the depth of water and the shape of the coast. Wave height
will increase as depth decreases. The coast can also refract waves.
(b) How does wave action contribute to both the erosion and
deposition on coasts? [15]
Wave action can be seen as occurring in high energy environments
characterized by high and frequent waves due to long fetch and high
winds. Here marine erosion will be prominent through claptosis and
the other forms of marine erosion. Some might see these as
destructive waves. Conversely in low energy environments where
there is a lower frequency of waves more swash and less backwash
then waves can have constructive functions in building beaches and
when associate with LSD can bring about other sedimentary
landforms such as spits bars etc.
Level 3. A well organized answer that relates marine erosion and
deposition directly to wave action, providing examples of the types
of processes in operation which can be illustrated by landforms
produced. [1215]


Wave refraction. When a wave approaches a headland, it must
refract around the headland. This has several effects. The first of these
is that the wavelength shortens. The wave depth decreases, and height
increases. The energy is focused on to specific points either side of the
headland, and it is in these points that caves often begin to form. The
concentration of energy is accompanied by a rise in wave height. Since
energy is proportional to wave height, then the power of the waves is
greater on the headland. As waves approach the shoreline and enter
22
progressively shallower water, the speed at which they move no longer
depends on the size of the wave, but becomes entirely dependent on
the depth of water. In the shallower water commonly found off
headlands, a wave crest moves more slowly than it would in the deeper
water of adjoining bays. The wave crest in the bay, therefore, moves
ahead of the wave crests approaching the headlands on either side,
and the wave appears to be bent into the bay. This phenomenon is
known as refraction. Because of refraction, waves commonly approach
the coast with their crests closely paralleling the line of the shore,
although the actual plan shape of the wave will depend on the contours
of the seabed close to the shore. Wave refraction also tends to
concentrate wave energy on headlands, at the expense of adjoining
bays; material eroded from the headlands washes into the bays.

Coastal Weathering; (1) Salt Crystallisation is effective where there
is a high evaporation potential, and the growth of chloride slats derived
from the salt in sea-water attacks a wide variety of rocks. It loosens
fragments of rocks for erosion (2) Solution on the coast is notable on
limestones. Sea-water is often saturated with calcium carbonate, and it
is hard to see why it is so effective. This is particularly true if the tropics,
where CaCO
3-
levels decrease with temperature increase. It is possible
that photosynthesis in plants oxygenates the water during daylight, but
releases carbon dioxide in to the water at night, increasing the acidity
and effectiveness of solution. The morphological effect is to produce
sharp fretted pinnacles of limestone called lapies, low down in the inter-
tidal zone. When wave attack is less prevalent, solution may cut
notches at the edge of pools and leave overhanging lips. In tropical
seas with microtidal or mesotidal ranges, these features become very
large and are called visors. (3) Biological activity assists solution.
Other rock types besides limestone are attacked by secretions,
particularly from the blue-green algae which live between the tide lines.
Seaweed firmly attaches itself to rocks, which effectively increases the
exposed surface area.