Viscous Damping

Review: So far we have examined simple

mass-spring models, that are governed by an
equation of motion of the form
The solutions for their free vibration are given
by
0 ) ( ) ( = + t kx t x m & &
) sin( ) ( + = t A t x
+
2 2 2
x
v x

Unfortunately this solution implies that the

system will oscillate indefinitely.
To more realistically model vibratory systems
we add an element called a damper.
The simplest case is that of a viscous damper.

=
+
=

0
0
1
2
0
2 2
0
tan
v
x
v x
A

m
k
=
42
Viscous Damper
In a viscous damper the damping force is
proportional to the velocity. The damping force
can be approximated by
where
An example of a viscous damper is shown
x c F
c
& =
= c
damping coefficient [Ns/m or kg/s]
An example of a viscous damper is shown
below (also known as a dashpot)
seal
case
piston
holes oil
43
Viscous Damping
Schematically, a SDOF mass-spring-damper
system can be represented as
k
m
) (t x
c
The damper has neither mass nor elasticity
Forces acting on mass m in x direction
Newtons second law gives
c
m
k
F
c
F
c k
F F x m = & &
0 = + + kx x c x m & & &
44
Equations of Motion for
Rectilinear and Rotational
Systems
Similarly, torsional SDOF inertia-spring-
damper systems can be represented by the
equation of motion
0 = + +
T T
k c J
& & &
Rectilinear System Rotational System
Displacement x
Rotation
Spring Force
Damping Force
Inertia Force
Displacement
Equation of Motion
0 = + +
T T
k c J
& & &
x m& &
0 = + + kx x c x m & & &
x c&
kx
x

&
T
c

T
k

& &
J

Spring Torque
Damping Torque
Inertia Torque
Rotation
Equation of Motion
45
Units for Rectilinear and
Rotational Systems
Rectilinear System Rotational System
Stiffness
Damping
Mass
Displacement
m
c
k
x
T
c
T
k
J

Stiffness
Damping
Inertia
Rotation
N.m/rad
N.m.s/rad
kg.m
2
/rad
rad
N/m
N.s/m
kg
m
Mass
m
J Inertia
Force
Torque
F
M
kg.m
2
/rad
N.m
kg
N
46
Viscous Damping
Consider the SDOF mass-spring-damper
system which is represented as
k
m
) (t x
c
Let the natural frequency of the undamped
mass-spring system be
Note: natural frequency has been shown as
up to now.
c
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = + + t kx t x c t x m & & &
0
0
) ( x t x
t
=
=
0
0
) ( v t x
t
=
=
&
m
k
n
=
47
Beware
4difference between Inman and Thomson
for natural frequency symbol
4always check definition of variables
4notation even changes throughout these
subject notes
Define a damping ratio
c
cr
= critical damping coefficient
Then
km
c
m
c
c
c
n cr
2 2
= = =

n
,
Then
can be written as
Assume solution of the form
Recall derivatives of exponential functions
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = + + t kx t x c t x m & & &
0 ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
2
= + + t x t x t x
n n
& & &
t
Ce t x

= ) (
[ ]
t
e C t x
dt
t x d

= = ) (
) (
&
[ ]
t
e C t x
dt
t x d

2
) (
) (
= = & &
&
48
Hence
becomes
Solve
using the quadratic formula
0 2
2 2
= + +
n n

0 ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
2
= + + t x t x t x
n n
& & &
( ) 0 2
2 2
= + +
t
n n
Ce

0 0 2
2 2
= + +
t
n n
Ce

For positive mass, damping and stiffness
coefficients there are three cases
1. Underdamped motion
2. Critically damped motion
3. Overdamped motion
1
2
2 , 1
=
n n
1 0 < <
1 =
1 > 49
Underdamped Motion
use relationship
where
1 0 < <
1
2
2 , 1
=
n n
0 1
2
<
( )( ) j
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 = =
1 = j
complex conjugate pair of roots
The solution becomes
where C
1
and C
2
are constants of integration
determined by the initial conditions
1 = j
j
n n
2
1
1 =
j
n n
2
2
1 + =
t
Ce t x

= ) (

+ =
t j t j t
n n n
e C e C e t x
2 2
1
2
1
1
) (

50
Specifying the damped natural frequency
the solution can be reduced to (Solution 1)
Using the Euler relations
the solution can be expressed as (Solution 2)

sin cos j e
j
+ =

sin cos j e
j
=

2
1 =
n d
( ) t B t B e t x
d d
t
n

sin cos ) (
2 1
+ =

( )
t j t j t
d d n
e C e C e t x

+ =
2 1
) (
Defining the constants
the solution can also be expressed as
(Solution 3)
2
2
2
1
B B A + =

=

2
1
1
tan
B
B

( )

+ =

t Ae t x
d
t
n
sin ) (
( )

+
=
+ +
=

0 0
0
1
2
0 0
2 2
0
tan
x v
x
x v x
A
n
d
d
n d

51
The damping ratio determines the rate of
decay of the systems motion.
The damping ratio also determines the shift
from the undamped natural frequency to the
damped natural frequency
Underdamped motion is the most common
type of motion for mechanical systems

2
1 =
n d
t
n
e

52
Underdamped Motion
1 0 < <
t
n
Ae

) (t x
1 0 < <
( )

+ =

t Ae t x
d
t
n
sin ) (
t
d
T

2
=
( )
t j t j t
d d n
e C e C e t x

+ =
2 1
) (
53
Critically Damped Motion
repeated roots
1 =
1
2
2 , 1
=
n n
0 1
2
=
n n
= = =
2 1
The solution becomes
where C
1
and C
2
are constants of integration
determined by the initial conditions, and
Critical damping separates oscillatory motion
from non-oscillatory motion
is the smallest value of damping that
yields aperiodic motion
( )
t
n
e t C C t x

+ =
2 1
) (
0 0 2 0 1
x v C x C
n
+ = =
1 =
54
Critically Damped Motion
1 =
0.5
0.6
1 =
) (t x
0 , 4 . 0
0 0
> = v x
( )
t
n
e t C C t x

+ =
2 1
) (
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
t
0 , 4 . 0
0 0
> = v x
0 , 4 . 0
0 0
< = v x
0 0 2 0 1
x v C x C
n
+ = =
55
Overdamped Motion
two distinct real roots
1 >
1
2
2 , 1
=
n n
0 1
2
>
1
2
1
=
n n
t
1
2
2
+ =
n n
The solution becomes
which represents a non-oscillatory response
t
Ce t x

= ) (

+ =
+ t t t
n n n
e C e C e t x
1
2
1
1
2 2
) (

( )
1 2
1
2
0
2
0
1

+ +
=


n
n
x v
C
( )
1 2
1
2
0
2
0
2

+ +
=


n
n
x v
C
56
Overdamped Motion
1 >
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
) (t x
t
0 , 4 . 0
0 0
= = v x
1 , 0
0 0
= = v x
1 >

+ =
+ t t t
n n n
e C e C e t x
1
2
1
1
2 2
) (

( )
1 2
1
2
0
2
0
1

+ +
=


n
n
x v
C
( )
1 2
1
2
0
2
0
2

+ +
=


n
n
x v
C
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
t
0 , 4 . 0
0 0
= = v x
57
Example
Recall earlier Example
4A small spring 30 mm long is welded to the
underside of a table so that it is fixed at the
point of contact, with a 12 mm bolt welded
to the free end. The bolt has a mass of 50
grams and the spring stiffness is measured
to be 800 N/m. The initial displacement
from the static equilibrium position is 10
mm.
Solution was given by
4natural frequency
Now the spring damping coefficient is
measured as c = 0.11 kg/s
4Calculate the damping ratio and determine
if the free motion of the spring-bolt system
is overdamped, underdamped, or critically
damped
5 . 126
10 50
800
3
=

= =

m
k
n
rad/s
58
59
Evaluating from
measurements
For underdamped oscillatory motion
4solution given by

1 <
( )

+ =

t Ae t x
d
t
n
sin ) (
) (t x
1 0 < <
1
x
2
x
4let
4Denote . Then
t
2
t
1
t
( )
( ) 1 sin ) (
1 sin ) (
2 2 2
1 1 1
= + =
= + =


t t x x
t t x x
d
d
1 2
t t T
d
=
( ) [ ] + + = + ) ( sin sin
1 1 d d d
T t t
[ ] ( ) 2 ) (
1 1
= + + + t T t
d d d
60
Hence
Now
Define logarithmic decrement as
2
1
2 2

= =
n
d
d
T
) (
2
1
1
1
d n
n
T t
t
Ae x
Ae x
+

=
=

d n
T
e
x
x

=
2
1

+
=
2
1
ln
) (
) (
ln
x
x
T t x
t x

( )
2
2
ln



= = =
n d n
T
T e
d n
4rearranging
Measuring displacement of any two successive
peaks can be used to produce a measured
value of damping ratio
4with known m and k can determine c
( )
2
1
ln

= = =
n
n d n
T e
2
1
2

=
2 2
4

+
=
km c c
cr
2 = =
61
Evaluating from
measurements (revisited)
For underdamped oscillatory motion
4solution given by

1 <
( )

+ =

t Ae t x
d
t
n
sin ) (
) (t x
1
x
2
x
Define logarithmic decrement as
For greater accuracy
4In texts
t
2
t
1
t
0
x

=
2
1
ln
x
x

=
n
x
x
n
0
ln
1

62
For starters
Can express

e
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
n
n
= = = = =
+1 4
3
3
2
2
1
L
( )
n
n
n
n
e
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

=

=
+ + 1 4
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
L
n
n
e
x
x
=
+1
1
n
x
x
n
=

+1
1
ln
In general
Check for n = 1
x
n +1
,... 2 , 1 ln
1
1
1
=

=
+
n
x
x
n
n

=
2
1
ln
x
x

,... 2 , 1 ln
1
=

=
+
n
x
x
n
n i
i

63
Alternative measures of
damping
The loss factor is defined as the ratio of the
average energy dissipated per radian to the
energy in the system
For viscously damped systems
pot
E
E

2
=
E = damping energy per cycle
pot
E
= maximum potential energy
For viscously damped systems
4off resonance
4at resonance (r = 1), and for small
Quality Factor, the Q of a system

2
1
2
2

2
1 1
Q
dr
k
c
=
r
dr

2 2 = =
=

dr
r =
64
Measuring Q
From a plot of displacement ratio for the
system
4determine value at peak of the system
response and its frequency,
4determine the two frequencies to the left
and right of the peak where the level has
dropped to times the peak value
2
1
4 represents the difference between the
two frequencies (called the half power
points)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
2
4
6
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

R
a
t
i
o
Frequency Ratio
st
X
X

dr
2

= Q

A
2
A
65
Energy is proportional to the square of the
amplitude
4hence half power points
If system response is displayed in dB, then half
power points are 3 dB down from the peak
2 2
2
2
A A
E =

dB
A
A
3
2
1
log 20
1
2
log 20
10 10
=

66
Usually measure m by weighing the object
Sometimes it is not possible to measure m and
k directly
4measure natural frequency of the system
and of a modified system
Example
Evaluating m from
measurements
k
k
m
m
0
m
m
k
=
1

0
2
m m
k
+
=
( )
0
2
2
2
1
m m m k + = =

=
1
2
2
2
1
0

m
m
67
Examine static deflection
Evaluating k from
measurements
k
m
m
m
1

0
k
k
F
k
In linear range
m

F
k
linear
non-linear
= k F
k
68
Examples
4longitudinal vibration along a slender bar
Calculating k from geometry
and material properties
l
EA
k =
m
E = Youngs modulus [N/m
2
]
l = length of bar [m]
A = cross-sectional area of bar [m
2
]
4torsional vibration of a slender bar
G = shear modulus [N/m
2
]
l = length of bar [m]
J
p
= polar moment of inertia of rod [m
4
]
J = polar mass moment of inertia of disk [kg/m
2
]
) (t
J
l
GJ
k
p
T
= p
J
For a solid cylinder
32
4
d
J
p

=
d = diameter of bar [m]
) 1 ( 2 +
=
E
G
= Poissons ratio
69
Examples (continued)
4cantilever beam
Calculating k from geometry
and material
3
3
l
EI
k =
m
E = Youngs modulus [N/m
2
]
l = length of beam [m]
I = second moment of area of beam [m
4
]
4helical spring
G = shear modulus [N/m
2
]
d = diameter of spring material [m]
2R = diameter of turns [m]
n = number of turns
3
4
64nR
Gd
k =
I = second moment of area of beam [m ]
R 2
70
Spring Combinations
In parallel
1
k
2
k
m
2 1
k k k
eq
+ =
In series
1
k
2
k
m
2 1
1 1 1
k k k
eq
+ =
71
SAMPLE SPRING CONSTANTS
Table from [1].
72
TABLE OF SPRING STIFFNESS
Table from [2].
73
Harmonic Excitation of
Undamped Systems
So far we have considered the response of
systems to free vibration
4if a system, after an initial disturbance, is
left to vibrate on its own, the ensuing
vibration is known as free vibration. No
repeated external force acts on the system.
Now consider the case of forced vibration
4if a system is subjected to an external force 4if a system is subjected to an external force
the resulting vibration is known as forced
vibration
4the external force is often a repeating force
e.g. IC engines, aircraft propellers
4in fact, many external forcing functions can
be represented as an infinite sum of
harmonic terms
74
Harmonic Excitation of
Undamped Systems
For the mass-spring system, we assume that
the driving force F(t) has the form of a sine or
cosine function of a single frequency
k
m
) (t x
m
) (t x k
) cos( ) (
0
t F t F
dr
=
F
0
= constant amplitude

dr
is also known as the input frequency or the
forcing frequency
rearrange as
4Solution
x
h
= homogeneous solution
x
p
= particular solution
m
) (t x
) (t F
m
) (t F

dr
= driving frequency
) ( ) ( ) ( t kx t F t x m = & &
) ( ) ( ) ( t F t kx t x m = + & &
m
F
f
m
k
t f t x t x
dr
0
0 0
2
, ), cos( ) ( ) ( = = = + & &
p h
x x x + =
75
The homogeneous solution has the harmonic
form used earlier
Assume particular solution has same form as
the driving force
A
0
= amplitude of the forced response
Substituting x
p
into the differential equation
gives
) sin( ) cos( ) (
2 1
t B t B t x
h
+ =
) cos( ) (
0
t A t x
dr p
=

=
dr
dr
f
A ,
2 2
0
0
B
1
and B
2
found from initial conditions
m
k v
B
f
x B
dr
= =

, ,
0
2
2 2
0
0 1
) cos( ) sin( ) cos( ) (
2 2
0
2 1
t
f
t B t B t x
dr
dr

+ + =
2 2
0
1 0
) 0 (
dr
f
B x x

+ = =
2 0
) 0 ( B v v = =
) ( ) ( ) ( t x t x t x
p h
+ =
76
Consider the case where the driving frequency
is very close to the systems natural frequency
For initial conditions x
0
=0 v
0
=0, the solution to
is given by
0
dr

) cos(
) sin( ) cos( ) (
2 2
0
0
2 2
0
0
t
f
t
v
t
f
x t x
dr
dr
dr

+
+

=
[ ] ) cos( ) cos( ) (
2 2
0
t t
f
t x
dr
dr

=
Using trig identities this can be written as
4two periods of oscillation
The resulting motion is a rapid oscillation with
slowly varying amplitude a beat
dr

)
2
sin( )
2
sin(
2
) (
2 2
0
t t
f
t x
dr dr
dr


+

=
dr dr
T T




+
=

=
4
,
4
77
Beats
An example of a beat
dr
T


+
=
4
) (t x
0
dr

This phenomenon can be used to match
frequencies
4e.g. tuning of a piano
t
dr
T

=
4
78
Consider the case where the driving frequency
equals the systems natural frequency
For this case the particular solution of the form
is not valid because it is
also a solution of the homogeneous solution
It can be shown that in this case a particular
solution is of the form
Substituting into the equation of motion yields
0 =
dr

) cos( ) (
0
t A t x
dr p
=
) sin(
2
) (
0
t t
f
t x
dr p

=
) sin( ) (
0
t A t t x
dr p
=
and
Solving for initial conditions
So for a mass-spring system driven at its
natural frequency, x(t) grows without bound
with time, t. This phenomenon is called a
resonance.
) sin(
2
) sin( ) cos( ) (
0
2 1
t t
f
t B t B t x
dr

+ + =
) sin(
2
) sin( ) cos( ) (
0 0
0
t t
f
t
v
t x t x

+ + =
79
Resonance
An example of a resonance
0 =
dr

) (t x
t
t
f
2
0
dr
=
Amplitude of vibration becomes unbounded at
Eventually spring would fail and break
m
k
dr
= =
t
t
f
2
0

80
Harmonic Excitation of
Damped Systems
For the mass-spring-damper system, we
assume that the driving force F(t) has the form
of a sine or cosine function of a single
frequency
) cos( ) (
0
t F t F
dr
=
F
0
= constant amplitude
k
x k
c
x c &
Applying Newtons second law on m
rearrange as

dr
= driving frequency
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t x c t kx t F t x m & & & =
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t F t kx t x c t x m = + + & & &
) cos( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
0
2
t f t x t x t x
dr
= + + & & &
m
) (t x
) (t F
m
) (t F

m
c
m
F
f
m
k
2
, ,
0
0
= = =
81
The general solution follows the method of
undetermined coefficients, and is again
Assume particular solution has same form as
the driving force, but a phase shift is also
expected because of the damping force
The homogeneous solution for an
underdamped mass-spring-damper system
was found previously to be
) cos( ) (
0
= t A t x
dr p
p h
x x x + =
1 0 ) sin( ) ( < < + =

t Ae t x
d
t
h
Often only the steady state response is
considered, because for relatively large
damping the transient response dies out
relatively quickly
4transient response follows
) ( ) ( ) ( t x t x t x
p h
+ =
1 0 ) sin( ) ( < < + = t Ae t x
d h
) cos( ) sin( ) (
0

+ + =

t A t Ae t x
dr d
t
Transient Response
Steady-state Response
t
Ae

82
For light damping the transient response may
last a significant amount of time and should not
be ignored
Transient response also important in
applications where the amplitude is large
e.g. earthquakes
or where the positioning accuracy is important
e.g. satellite analysis, Hubble space
telescope
Devices are usually designed and analysed
based on the steady-state response
4always check that it is reasonable to ignore 4always check that it is reasonable to ignore
the transient response
) cos( ) sin( ) (
0

+ + =

t A t Ae t x
dr d
t
Transient Response
Steady-state Response
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
0
0
2
dr dr
f
A
+
=

=

2 2
1
2
tan
dr
dr

83
After some manipulation the expressions for
the magnitude and phase of the response can
be written as
( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
2
0
0
0
2 1
1
r r
f
A
F
k A

+
= =

=

2
1
1
2
tan
r
r

r = frequency ratio =
dr
/
0
k A
is known as the amplitude ratio, the
amplification factor, or the magnification factor
4represents the ratio of the dynamic
amplitude of motion to the static amplitude
of motion
Static deflection of a mass by a force F
o
is
0
0
F
k
F
0
=
84
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Frequency Ratio
0
2
0
f
A

dr
05 . 0 =
1 . 0 =
5 . 0 =
1 =

05 . 0 =
1 . 0 =
1 =
5 . 0 =
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
P
h
a
s
e
Frequency Ratio
2

dr

85
Points to note from graphs
As the driving frequency approaches the
undamped natural frequency (r1)
4the magnitude approaches a maximum
value for light damping
4the phase shift crosses through 90
this defines resonance for the damped
case
As the driving frequency approaches zero
(r0)
4the amplitude

k
F f
A
0
2
0
0
=

As the driving frequency becomes large (r)

4the amplitude approaches zero
As the damping ratio is increased
4the peak in the magnitude curve decreases
and eventually disappears
As the damping ratio is decreased
4the peak value increases and becomes
narrower
4as (0) the peak value
86
Example
Consider the mass-spring system consisting of
a spring and a bolt from previous examples
Calculate the amplitude of the steady state
response if f
o
= 10 N/kg and the driving
frequency is 126.5 rad/s, and the amplitude if
the driving frequency is 120 rad/s
4Calculated previously
0087 . 0 =
87
To find r at the maximum value of
Set
4
4
Define the peak frequency
This differs from the damped natural frequency
0
0
F
k A
0
0
0
=

dr
F
k A
d
2
1
0
2
1
2 1
2
> =
< =

for r
for r
peak
peak
2
1
0 2 1
2
< = for
peak
This differs from the damped natural frequency
and the undamped natural frequency
In practice, the damping ratio is generally small
and the value of the frequency at the peak is
taken to be the natural frequency
Maximum value of amplitude ratio is
2
1 =
d
m
k
=
2
1
0
1 2
1
2
max
0
0
<

=

for
F
k A
88
Rotating Unbalance
Many machines and devices have rotating
components and small irregularities in the
distribution of the rotating masses can cause
substantial vibration
4called a rotating unbalance, e.g.
uneven load in a washing machine
small imperfections in machining
operations for fans, rotors, turbine operations for fans, rotors, turbine
blades etc.
Machine mount
2
k
c
2
k
t
r

e
0
m
Friction free guide
Machine of mass m
Mass of the unbalance
89
Model equivalent system
k
c
t
r

e
0
m
Machine of mass m
) (t x

r
= frequency of rotation (constant)
m
o
= mass of the unbalance
x component of motion of m
0
Reaction force x component
Reaction force y component cancelled by the
guides
m
o
= mass of the unbalance
m = total mass of the machine including m
o
F
r
= reaction force generated by the unbalance
x = displacement of the non-rotating mass (m-m
0
)
t e x
r r
sin =
( ) t
dt
d
em x m F
r r r
sin
2
2
0 0
= = & &
t em
r r
sin
2
0
=
90
Displacement of m
0
from the static equilibrium
position is
Summing forces in the x direction yields
This form of the equation of motion has been
analysed before (Forced Vibration of Damped
Systems)
The steady state solution is given by
t e x
r
sin +
( ) x c kx t e x
dt
d
m x m m
r
& & & = + + sin ) (
2
2
0 0
t e m kx x c x m
r r
sin
2
0
= + + & & &
where
Rearranging gives the dimensionless
displacement magnitude
( ) = t X t x
r p
sin ) (
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
0
r r
r
c m k
e m
X


+
=

=

2
1
tan
r
r
m k
c

( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
0
2 1 r r
r
e m
Xm
+
=

=

2
1
1
2
tan
r
r

r = frequency ratio =
r
/
91
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Frequency Ratio
e m
Xm
0

r
1 . 0 =
25 . 0 =
5 . 0 =
1 =
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
P
h
a
s
e
Frequency Ratio
1 . 0 =
25 . 0 =
1 =
5 . 0 =
2

92
Points to note from graphs
For (>1) the maximum deflection is less than
or equal to 1
4indicates that the increase in amplification
of the displacement caused by the
unbalance can be eliminated by increasing
the system damping
4large damping not always practical $$
As the rotational frequency becomes large
(r)
4the amplitude ratio 1
if rotational frequency is such that r>>1
the effect of the unbalance is limited
4all of the curves for different values of 4all of the curves for different values of
approach 1
choice of damping coefficient not
important for large r
As the rotational frequency approaches the
undamped natural frequency (r1)
4the magnitude approaches a maximum
value for light damping
4the phase shift crosses through 90
As the rotational frequency approaches zero
(r0)
4the amplitude 0
93