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ELSEVIER J. Mater. Process. Technol.

43 (1994) 279-291
Journal of
Materi al s
Processi ng
Technol ogy
3-D finite-element simulation of the cold forging
of helical gears
Vo l k e r Sz e n t mi h a l i " , Ku r t L a n g e a, Yve s Tr o n e l b, J e a n - L o u p Ch e n o t *' b,
Ri c h a r d Du c l o u x c
aUniversitiit Stuttgart Institut fiJr Umformtechnik, 7000 Stuttgart, Germany
bEcole nationale sup~rieure des Mines de Paris, Centre de Mise en Forme des Matbriaux, Sophia Antipolis,
06560 Valbonne, France
CTransvalor, Les Espaces Delta, BP 037 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
(Received March 18, 1993; accepted November 24, 1993)
Industrial Summary
This article illustrates the use of the finite-element method to simulate the forging of
3-dimensional complex industrial parts. The FORGE3 code, which can simulate the cold and
hot forging of industrial parts is presented together with a thermo-mechanical formulation and
its numerical resolution. It is known that in an updated lagrangian approach using a convective
mesh, degeneration of the mesh occurs very rapidly. An automatic mesh generation procedure
for 3-D complex geometries has been developed which enables the creation of the initial mesh of
the billet as well as remeshing. This technique allows the simulation of the whole process of
forging complex industrial parts using quadratic tetrahedral elements. In order to show the
effectiveness of the method, the lateral cold extrusion of a helical gear has been computed. The
results show that the computation can be carried out using the described remeshing procedure
and that it can be applied successfully to even more complex geometries.
1. Introduction
Hel i cal gears used by t he aut omobi l e i ndust r y were t he subj ect of a research pr oj ect
of t he Forschungsgesel l schaft Umf or mt e c hni k ( FGU) , St ut t gart , wi t h t he ai m of
subst i t ut i ng t he met al - cut t i ng pr oduct i on whi ch has been used until now by a new
me t hod of col d f or mi ng [1]. I t was possi bl e t o pr ove t he appr opr i at enes s of t he
selected l at eral ext r usi on process and t he devel oped t ool s. However , t he hi gh i nt ernal
pressure of t he process whi ch is necessary for t he filling up of t he t oot h space,
* Corresponding author
0924-0136/94/$07.00 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSDI 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 9 3 ) E0 1 3 5 - 4
280 Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994,) 279- 291
influences t he di mensi onal t ol erance of the t oot hed gear. Compensat i on for the
occur r ence of elastic def or mat i on of the t ool by measuri ng t he di mensi onal devi at i ons
of the t oot h system is onl y par t l y possible, since this devi at i on also depends on the
manuf act ur e of the t ool by EDM and polishing: onl y a t heoret i cal t r eat ment of the
lateral ext rusi on process coul d provi de an absol ut el y faultless t ool profile. A numer-
ical st udy of this ext rusi on process is also necessary because measur ement of the forces
or stresses acting on the t oot h surface is difficult or impossible.
Toda y several efficient and user-friendly codes are available for the numeri cal
t r eat ment of formi ng operat i ons, even t hose of high compl exi t y [ 2- 4] . However,
i ndust ri al appl i cat i ons have been limited up to now to si mul at i on of axi symmet ri cal
or 2-D processes of bul k formi ng [ 5- 8] . Because the lateral ext rusi on process under
consi derat i on coul d not be t reat ed in 2-D due t o its compl ex flow of mat eri al and
because in a 2-D si mul at i on it is not possible t o dr aw concl usi ons about the influence
of t he helix angle of t he gear, onl y a 3-D analysis is useful in this case. Fur t her mor e, an
efficient remeshi ng-modul e is needed because of the large plastic def or mat i on in-
volved: wi t hout this the si mul at i on woul d be possible onl y for small strains or woul d
requi re unfeasible manual remeshing.
For this pur pose a modul ar 3-D remeshi ng code is available which has al ready been
used successfully for t he simulating met al formi ng of spur gears [9]. However, this
met hod is not fully aut omat i c and does not appear very user-friendly for compl ex
i ndust ri al geomet ri es [10].
For 2-D simulations, most l y t ri angul ar or f our - node linear elements are used and
for 3-D cases cubi c ei ght -node linear elements are appl i ed in remeshi ng programs. In
the act ual case, for t he sol ut i on of a difficult 3-D probl em, t en- node t et rahedral
elements are used. In this paper t he pr ogr ams for aut omat i c remeshi ng and mesh
generat i on, t he si mul at i on code FORGE3, as well as the exampl e of the cold formi ng
of a thick-walled hol l ow cyl i nder i nt o a helical gear, are presented.
2. Basic equations
The ai m of this section is to i nt r oduce the equat i ons governi ng t he t her mo-
dependant model of forging. It shoul d be not ed t hat t he comput er code FORGE3 is
specified for hot forging but col d forging coul d be foreseen as a limit case.
2.1. The mechanical equations
Since i nert i a and gravi t y forces are neglected, the equi l i bri um equat i on is written:
div (a) = 0, (1)
where a is t he usual Cauchy stress tensor.
As the mat eri al is assumed t o be i sot ropi c and incompressible, the following
condi t i on on the velocity field can be written:
div (v) = tr(~) = O, (2)
where ~ is the st rai n-rat e tensor.
282 Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279-291
A power law is used for the friction potential:
a K
f ( A v ) = ~ [Imvll p+ 1
p - e l
(11)
so t hat the shear stress may be written:
r = - e K I l a v l l p - l a y , ( 1 2 )
where ct and p are respectively the friction coefficient and the friction-rate sensitivity
paramet er. It is assumed t hat there is no ot her mechanical i nt eract i on on the
boundar y, which implies there is no force on the free surfaces.
The cont act is supposed to be unilateral, i.e. a node of the part can come i nt o
cont act wi t h or leave the die. There is also a condi t i on of non-penet rabi l i t y which does
not allow a poi nt t o penet rat e i nt o the die:
A v . n <~ O, (13)
where n is the external uni t vector normal to the part.
2. 3. Var i at i onal f o r mu l a t i o n
The part is a domai n I2 and t3t2f is the boundar y of I2 which is in cont act wi t h the
die. By application of the vari at i onal principle, the sol ut i on of the present probl em
minimizes the funct i onal J, which is later defined by:
J ( v ) = I ( P ( v ) d ~ + f 4 ~ f ( A v ) d ~ . (14)
This search of the mi ni mum is performed under the incompressibility const rai nt
div (v) = 0 and the condi t i on of non-penet rabi l i t y on the interface 0f2f between the
part and the tools.
According to the expression of and ~f, J ( v ) can be written:
I K / \ m+l f aK
J ( v ) = ~- ~- - ~x/ / 3~) d ~ + p---~qlAvllP+ld6 a,
aOf
(15)
and div ( v) = 0. The const rai nt of incompressibility is enforced approxi mat el y by
a penal t y met hod and finally a modified funct i onal Jp(v) is obtained:
Jp(v) = J ( v) + p~K ( di v( v) ) 2 d r e , ( 1 6 )
Q
where p is a large positive number.
Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279-291 281
El ast i c effects are supposed to have a small cont r i but i on and are t hus neglected. As
a consequence t he mat er i al is assumed t o obey a vi scopl ast i c law deri ved f r om
a vi scopl ast i c pot ent i al ~. Then, t he r el at i onshi p bet ween t he devi at or i c par t of t he
stress t ensor and t he st r ai n- r at e t ensor is given by:
~ ( v )
s - ( 3 )
The classical No r t o n - Ho f f power l aw has been chosen, for whi ch t he associ at ed
pot ent i al is:
K / \m+ 1
~ ( v ) = m + l / x / ~ ) , ( 4 )
where ~ is the equi val ent st rai n rate:
e = 2 i . (5)
Thus, for t he devi at or i c stress tensor:
s = 2K i , (6)
where K is t he st r engt h (or t he consi st ency) of t he mat er i al and m is the st r ai n- r at e
sensitivity, t he val ue of m bei ng equal t o uni t y for a Newt oni an fluid and t o 0 for
von- Mi ses r i gi d- pl ast i c behavi our . I n this model bot h t emper at ur e soft eni ng and
st rai n har deni ng are t aken i nt o account t hr ough the consistency:
K = Ko(~o + ~)n exp(/3/T), (7)
where t he equi val ent st rai n is defined by:
= f ~ d r . ( 8 )
2.2. The boundary conditions
I n forging, fri ct i on bet ween t he t ool s and t he par t is very i mpor t ant , so t hat it is
necessary t o i nt r oduce a friction l aw i nt o t he model , A friction l aw consi st ent wi t h the
mat er i al behavi or is chosen and a friction pot ent i al ~f(Av) dependi ng on t he t angen-
tial vel oci t y difference bet ween the par t and t he t ool is const ruct ed.
Av = v - v di~. (9)
The funct i on shear stress is deri ved from ~f by :
~(~f)
r - (10)
c~Av
Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279-291 283
2. 4. The t he r mal ef f ect
2. 4. 1. The heat t r ans f er equat i on
If an isotropic Fouri er law is used for the heat flux, the heat equat i on may be
written:
dT
pc - ~ = div(k grad T) + I~, (17)
where l/d is the heat pr oduct i on due t o mechani cal viscoplastic deformat i on.
The general expression of l ~ is
I ~ = ra: ~, with 0.9 ~< r ~< 1.0. (18)
In the part i cul ar case of the Nor t on- Hof f law, this leads to:
= r K (19)
2. 4. 2. The boundar y condi t i ons
On the free surface the condi t i ons may be written as follows:
- kgr ad T. n = h ( T - Text) , (20)
where Tex t is the external t emperat ure.
The coefficient h is complex, t aki ng i nt o account convection and radi at i on phe-
nomena:
h = he + e, ar ( T + Text)(T 2 + T2xt), (21)
where he is the convection coefficient, er is the met al emissivity and tr, is the St ephan
constant.
On the surface in cont act with the die, in addi t i on to a convective conduct i on term,
there is surface energy dissipation due to friction.
The resulting heat flux can be approxi mat ed by:
b
bd ctK 11Av II p + x (22) - k g r a d T' n = hcd( T - Td) b +
where hcd is the heat transfer coefficient, Td is the die t emperat ure, and b and bd are the
effusivity of the part and of the die respectively.
There is also a condi t i on of i mposed t emperat ure T = Ti.
3 . D i s c r e t i z a t i o n a n d r e s o l u t i o n
As an updat ed l agrangi an met hod is used, the process is divided i nt o small time
steps. At each time step the mechani cal and t hermal problems are solved separately,
so t hat there is not a full t hermo-mechani cal coupling. However, the t emperat ure field
284 Volker Szentmihali et aL/Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 f 1994) 279-291
is needed in or der to solve t he mechani cal pr obl em t hr ough a t hermal dependence of
t he consistency. On the ot her hand, t he heat equat i on cont ai ns mechani cal variables
t hr ough the vol umet ri c heat pr oduct i on and t he surfacic heat dissipation due to
friction. Ther ef or e the t her mal coupl i ng is per f or med from one step to t he next one.
3.1. The mechanical problem
The numeri cal met hod used to solve the mechani cal pr obl em is the finite-element
met hod. At each t i me step t he domai n f2 is discretized i nt o elements f2e and the
vel oci t y is t hen appr oxi mat ed by:
q
v = ~ Ni V' , (23)
i =1
where q is t he t ot al number of nodes, and V i and Ni are respectively t he nodal velocity
vect or and t he shape funct i on rel at ed to node i. Then a discretized funct i onal which
depends on t he q nodal velocity vect ors can be written, its mi ni mi zat i on leading to
a set of 3q non-l i near equat i ons which is solved by a classical Newt on- Raphs on
met hod.
The nodal velocity is t hen used t o cal cul at e the ot her variables such as the strain
rat e and the stress tensor. The i nt egrat i on scheme is Eul eri an and explicit and is used
t o updat e the domai n and hi st ory variables such as t he equi val ent strain, the mi cro-
st ruct ural par amet er s and the t ool wear.
For any vari abl e v:
v(t + A t) = v(t) + ~At. (24)
For instance, t he domai n is updat ed by "
g2(t + At ) = g2(t) + ~t ) At , (25)
and equi val ent strain by:
~(t + At) = ~(t) + ~(t)At. (26)
3.2. The thermal problem
The t her mal pr obl em is solved with the same di scret i zat i on and the same shape
funct i ons as t he mechani cal probl em. Thus t he t emper at ur e field can be appr oxi mat ed
by:
q
T = ~ Ni T i, (27)
i =l
where T i is the nodal t emper at ur e of node i. The Gal er ki n met hod is empl oyed and
finally a set of q non- l i near equat i ons has to be solved. If these are wri t t en in mat ri x
form, then:
cdr
dt + KT + Q = 0. (28)
Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279-291 285
For time i nt egrat i on a three-level i nt egrat i on scheme which is consistent to the second
order is chosen [13]. Under these conditions, temperature and its derivative are written:
lc = a Tt - a , , + (3 - 2a - g)Tt + (a - + g)Tt+a,~,
- T , - A , , T , +a, 2 - T ,
d T = ( l _ g ) Tt At x + g At z
(29)
Not e t hat in this scheme all the non-l i near terms are linearized so t hat C is written:
c * = ( - g ) c , _ ~ , , + ( + g ) c , ,
( 3 0 )
wi t h similar forms for K and Q.
Fi nal l y a linear mat ri x system with the nodal t emperat ures at time t + At2 as the
unknowns has t o be solved.
3.3. The gl obal t hermo- mechani cal resol ut i on
At each time step, the following stages are performed:
(i) The domai n at time t, t emperat ure at t i me t and t - At1 are known, so t hat the
consistency K at time t is known. The mechani cal resol ut i on is achieved and gives
the velocity field.
(ii) Wi t h this velocity field are t hen comput ed the stress tensor, the strain -rate t ensor
and the equivalent strain-rate and the confi gurat i on is updat ed so t hat the
domai n, the equivalent strain, the hi st ory variables, the friction heat flux and the
plastic work rate are known at time t + At2.
(iii) Finally, the t hermal cal cul at i on is performed so t hat t emperat ure at time t + At2
is known and step (i) can be ret urned t o by maki ng t ~ t + At2.
4. The automatic remeshing procedure
Present ed here the mai n stages of the aut omat i c procedure, which later is concerned
with the creation or the remeshing of a spatial domai n wi t h t et r ahedr on bricks. For
the finite-element calculation and in part i cul ar to t ake i nt o account the condi t i on of
incompressibility, ten-nodes quadrat i c elements, are used.
4.1. The initial dat a
A fully aut omat i c procedure of mesh creat i on needs a mi ni mum of data, in the
present case, this being a description of the boundary. Two cases may occur, but have
the same initial data.
(1) The dat a is given initially by a CAD code t hr ough a discretization i nt o linear
triangles of the boundary.
286 Volker Szentmihali et aL/Journal ~/' Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279 291
(2) A remeshing is required: the same dat a is obt ai ned by exploiting the current mesh.
Two sub-stages are made:
(i) the boundar y of the part which is made up of quadrat i c triangles is over-
discretized into linear triangles by cutting each face i nt o smaller triangles.
(ii) As new nodes have been created, a cont act analysis is made in order to keep the
over-discretized surface as close as possible to the previous cont act configuration:
projection of the inside nodes, projection of new nodes which are found to be in
cont act (within a given margin) are necessary to satisfy this geometrical constraint.
4.1.1. The remeshing procedure
As ment i oned above, the boundar y is over-discretized, so t hat the number of surface
nodes is very i mport ant . The previous description of the boundar y is then modified in
order to obt ai n the same st ruct ural description with a more tractable number of
nodes, whilst a good precision of the geomet ry is mai nt ai ned.
Then a quadrat i c surface is created by curving the linear triangles of the previous
surface. The way this curvat ure is done matches as precisely as possible the real
surface of the part which is represented by the over-discretized surface.
A volumetric linear t et rahedral mesh is created first which fits the surface. It is
refined by addi ng internal nodes, the boundar y faces are curved when necessary and
ten node elements are created in the whole discretized domai n. It shoul d be not ed t hat
all internal elements have straight faces: onl y the surface can present curvature.
4.1.2. The whole simulation
Up to now the whole si mul at i on is not fully aut omat i c due to different stages of
mesh creation. The procedure described above needs the i nt ervent i on of the user,
mai nl y to cont rol interactively the precision, the qual i t y of the mesh and the total
number of nodes in order to cont rol the comput at i on time (an identical procedure in
2-D is fully aut omat i c because the procedure is not so limited by the number of nodes).
The si mul at i on of a complete pass of forging can be divided i nt o 4 stages.
(1) Using a CAD description of the initial boundary, an initial mesh is created.
(2) The forging si mul at i on is performed step by step until remeshing is necessary:
either by degeneracy of an element or by the choice of the user.
(3) A new mesh is created with the surface description of the deformed mesh when
the comput at i on is interrupted.
(4) State variables are t ransport ed from the old mesh to the new mesh (temperature,
strain . . . . ). Ot her variables concerning the tool can be transported: for instance
the wear, which is a hi st ory variable.
Steps (2)-(4) are repeated until the end of the process is reached.
5. Re me s hi ng o f a hel i cal gear
The helical gear is composed of 30 teeth: an approxi mat i on was developed to t ake
i nt o account one t oot h only. The cut edges present no plane of symmet ry, but the
periodical structure of the entire workpiece permits a meaningful sub-division.
Volker Szentrnihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279-291 287
Assuming that there is no flow of material perpendicular to the cut edges, these
degrees of freedom were suppressed by two additional fictitious tools with no friction
which are adjacent to the two cut edges Fig. 1.
The forming force is transmitted to the workpiece by two punches which move towards
each other, so that the material flow perpendicular to the moving direction of the punches
" a
b
z
Fi g. 1. (a) Wor kpi e c e ; (b) a n d (c) a d d i t i o n a l l i mi t a t i o n surfaces (fi ct i t i ous tools).
c
&
z
Fi g. 2. (a) Wor kpi e c e ; (b) t o o t h e d di e wi t h cl os i ng di es a t t he u p p e r a n d l ower side; (c) u p p e r p u n c h ;
(d) ma n d r e l ; (e) l ower p u n c h .
288 Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279 291
occurs, mai nl y in t he radi al di rect i on i nt o t he t oot h space of t he die. The move me nt of
t he mandr el in the cent ral bor e is coupl ed with t he move me nt of the upper punch.
The geomet r i cal model l i ng for the si mul at i on was done by the pre- and post -
pr ocessor PATRAN, wher eby the t hr ee- node t r i angul ar el ement s of t he surface of the
z
Fig. 3. (a) initial mesh; (b) 6th mesh at 60% reduction; (c) 12th mesh at 75% reduction; (d) final mesh at the
end of the simulation.
Volker Szentmihali et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 43 (1994) 279-291 289
Fig. 3. (continued).
Z
Fig. 4. Distribution of equivalent strain in the workpiece at the end of the forming process.
raw piece only served as a geometric basis for the mesh generator of FORGE3,
whereas the tool meshes Fig. 2 could be taken directly for the tools, which latter were
assumed to be rigid. The workpiece meshes had between 180 and 205 boundary linear
triangles out of which 622 quadratic tetrahedral elements with 1260 nodes were
formed at the beginning of the process and finally 781 quadratic tetrahedral elements
with 1523 nodes were generated. The forming process was achieved after a punch
displacement of 5.15 mm, for which 192 load increments were needed. For this
purpose 20 remeshing processes were required, the first of which was conducted after
40 steps because separate tool nodes penetrated too deeply into the tools. All further
290 Volker Szentmihali et a/./Journa[ o[' Materials Processing Techno/og)' 43 f 1994 J 279 291
remeshi ng processes had t o be conduct ed because of mesh degeneracy. The critical
posi t i on was, always the radius at the fillet from t he vertical i nt o the hor i zont al part of
the closing die. This radius was chosen as 0.2 mm, which is r at her large as compar ed
t o the shar p edge in the experi ment , but still r at her small for a sudden change in the
movi ng di rect i on of the el ement nodes.
Fig. 3(a) shows the first workpi ece mesh for the given raw piece geomet ry. Figs. 3(b)
and 3(c) show the 6th and the 12th mesh after about 60% resp. 75% of formi ng way
and in Fig. 3(d) the state at the end of the si mul at i on is shown.
Apart from the flow of the material, the di st ri but i on of the equi val ent strain in the
workpi ece and the di st ri but i on of cont act nor mal stresses on the workpi ece surface
are i ncl uded (Fig. 4). These are used for the det er mi nat i on of elastic t ool def or mat i on
by means of the boundar y- el ement met hod, which deformat i ons are finally to be
compensat ed for.
6. Conclusions
The FORGE3 code t oget her with its new pr ocedur e for generat i on of FE-meshes is
presented. The step-wise gener at i on of t he vol ume mesh of quadr at i c t et rahedral
elements resulting f r om a workpi ece surface meshed with l i near t ri angul ar elements is
described. As an example, t he si mul at i on of t he col d lateral ext rusi on of a helical gear
out of a thick-walled hol l ow cyl i nder is descri bed and t he results are presented. It has
been shown t hat by using quadr at i c t et r ahedr al elements, it becomes possible to
describe accurat el y compl i cat ed i ndust ri al component s with surfaces with st rong
curvat ures, despite t he relatively small number of elements. The pr ogr am FORGE3 is
t herefore an i mpor t ant t ool for t he analysis of formi ng processes for the rapi dl y ad-
vanci ng t ehnol ogi es of bul k forming.
7. Acknowledgement
The aut hor s wish t o t hank the Mi ni st eri um ffir Wirtschaft, Mi t t el st and and Tech-
nologie, Baden-Wi i rt t emberg, for financial suppor t of this project.
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