BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN OF THIN ELEMENTS

Cold formed steel structural members consist of several plate elements. These elements
fall under two basic categories, namely unstiffened compression element (U.C.E) and
stiffened compression element (S.C.E). Unstiffened compression element (U.C.E) is a flat
compression element which is restrained against translation normal to its plane along
only one edge parallel to the direction of compressive stress and the other parallel edge
free. hereas stiffened compression element has both edge parallel to the direction of
compressive stress restrained against translation .typical e!amples of both types of
elements in cold formed steel members are shown in fig " .
"
Elements which are stiffened by intermediate stiffeners parallel to the direction of
compressive stress, in addition to webs at the edges .fig # .shows sections with multiple
stiffened compression elements.
BEHAVIOUR OF COMPRESSION ELEMENTS
Stiffened and unstiffened individual elements of cold formed structural elements are
usually thin compared to their width. They often do not satisfy the $S%&'' re(uirement of
minimum thic)ness to width ratio. Conse(uently these elements may buc)le locally as
shown in fig * even before the yield stress is reached. The design of such members is
covered in $S &'"%"+,-.The elastic local buc)ling of thin elements does not immediately
lead to failure unli)e fle!ural buc)ling of columns. The elements can carry additional
load in the post buc)ling range before failure occurs
#
. The post buc)ling strength of elements having relatively large flat width to thic)ness
ratio may be several times the load that causes local buc)ling. Conse(uently all the cold
formed design specifications ta)e into account the post buc)ling strength. The stress at
which the local buc)ling of a thin walled plate element occurs may be obtained by
solving .ryon/s differential e(uation based on small deflection theory. The local buc)ling
stress of a plate element is given by
0cr 1 )2
#
E
333333333333
"#("%4
#
)(5t)
#


here 0cr 1 6ocal buc)ling stress
1 flat width of element
t 1 thic)ness of element
) 1 buc)ling coefficient, ) depends upon the aspect ratio
(length to width ratio), boundary conditions along the edge of the element and the type of
stress distribution on the element. The two important ) values of stiffened and unstiffened
elements with no rotational restraints along edges are 7.' and '.7#- respectively and
these values are often conservatively used in design.
*

8s already indicated, unli)e column buc)ling, local buc)ling of compression elements
will not lead to immediate collapse. 8fter local buc)ling the compression stress is
distributed over the width of the plate, as shown by fig-.The mechanism of the post
buc)ling behaviour can be easily visuali9ed from the s(uare plate model shown in fig :.
The models represent one half sine waves from the buc)led configuration of a stiffened
element supported along edges ac and bd against translation uniform compression is
applied along ab and cd. The plate is discreti9ed into grid members parallel and
transverse to the direction of compression. $n the absence of transverse members all the
parallel members will perform as individual columns and buc)le at the critical stress with
7
very little reserve strength thereafter. ;owever the transverse members restrain the
column type buc)ling deformation of the parallel members, in turn e!periencing a!ial
force. Thus the members parallel to the direction of compression behave as column with
elastic restraints against transverse deformation along their lengths This restrain is more
on parallel members closer to the edges and less on parallel members farther away from
the edges. Conse(uently the post buc)ling stiffness and stress are larger close to the edges
and smaller away from the edges .This is shown in fig -.
The load at failure may be obtained by the integration of non%uniform stress distribution
over the width of the plate. The actual stress distribution may be ideali9ed as given below
in two ways for the purpose of design.<
".The ma!imum stress fma! may be assumed to be uniformily distributed over a reduced
width,b referred to as =E00ECT$>E $?T; =such that

b.fma! 1 @f(!)d! %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% "
w
#.$nstead an average stress,fav may be assumed to be uniformily distributed over the
entire width w such that
w.fav 1 @f(!)d! %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% #
w
8mong the two idealisatins, the former first introduced by >on Aarman is more
commonly used in practice.The >on )arman formula for effective width of stiffened
element is
b Bfcr
%%%% 1 %%%%%% C ".' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%*
w Bfy
where fcr 1 local buc)ling stress
fy 1 yield stress
This e(uation was e!tremely used in aerospace industry. when the results are compared
with e!periments, it was found that the members e!hibited certain deviation on the non%
conservative side .This has been attributed to the effect of initial imperfections which is
-
more pronounced in elements having large w5t ratio. Conse(uently Deorge winter on the
basis of e!perimental results, empirically modified e(n. *

b fcr fcr
%%%% 1 %%%%%%%%% ("%'.## %%%%%%% ) C ".' %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%7
w fma! fma!

;e has shown by comparision with e!perimental results that e(n 7 may be used not only
at failure load(fma!1fy) but also over the entire post buc)lng range by substituting the
ma!imum stress at the edges in the place of yield stess fy.
The effective width (uation for the post buc)ling range of stiffened elements may be
further simplified bye(n " for the local buc)lingh coefficient ) to be e(ual 7
conservatively.the resulting simplified e(n is as follows

b 1 ".+t B(E5fma!) (".'%'.7"-(t5w)B(E5fma!) C w%%%%%%%%%%%-
inter proposed an effective width e(n also for unstiffened elements,which is given
below

b
%%%%%% 1 '.&t B(E5fma!) (".'%'.#'#(t5w)B(E5fma!) C ".'%%%%%%%%%%%:
w
E(n : may be modified by using e(n " and the value of '.- for local buc)ling coefficient
to obtain the effective width e(n for unstiffened elements in the form
b
%%%%%% 1 "."+ B(fcr5fma!) (".'%'.*(t5w)B(fcr5fma!) C ".'%%%%%%%%%%%,
w
This e(n for the unstiffened elements has not been porated in any design specification
,whereas the effective width e(n for stiffened elements e(n- is used in many
specifications.The concern regarding possible undesirable distributions of unstiffened
elements even in the service load range has been the main reason.
:
DESIGN OF COMPRESSION ELEMENTS:
ST$00EEE? E6EFEETS<
Fa!imum allowable direct stress 0,in tension members or fle!ural
members is determined by dividing the yield stress of the material by a factor of safety of
".:, (sec :.") to yield 0 1 '.:0y .the basic allowable design stress for different grades of
steel is given in table # of $S &'"%"+,- .Gn the basis of vor mises yield theory and using a
factor of safety of ".77 the following e(n for basic allowable stress in shear is given by
0 1 ("5".77)( 0y5 B*)1 '.7 0y.
EFFECTIVE WIDTH FOR DEFELECTION DETERMINARION P.B CODE:
0langes are fully effective upto (w5t)lim 1 "&-'5 Bf
0or flanges with (w5t) larger than (w5t)lim
b5t 1 #,7'5 Bf H"%I:''5((w5t) Bf)JK
ELCEMT$GE<
0langes of closed s(uare and rectangular tubes are fully effective upto
(w5t)lim 1 "++'5 Bf .0or flanges with w5t larger than (w5t)lim.
b5t 1 #,"'5 Bf H"%I-7-5((w5t) Bf)JK
DN8?ES G0 STEE6 where, w5t% 0lat width ratio.
St *7%"',+%#" Ag5mm
#
b%Effective design width in cm

St 7#%"',+%#7 Ag5mm
#
f% 8ctual stress in compressive element.

St -'%"',+%*' Ag5mm
#
St -#%"',+%*: Ag5mm
#
,
EFFECTIVE WIDTH FOR LOAD DETERMINATION : P.6

0langes are fully effective (b 1w) upto (w5t)lim 1 "7*-5 Bf
0or flanges with (w5t) larger than (w5t)lim .
b5t 1 #"#'5 Bf H"%I7:-5((w5t) Bf)JK
1).compu! "! !##!c$%! &!'$() *$&" #o+ ,o-& -)& &!#,!c$o) &!!+m$)-$o) #o+ "!
comp+!''$o) #,-)(! o# "! "- '!c$o) '"o*) $) #$( $# "! m-!+$-, "-' -) .$!,& '+!''
o# /1 0(1mm
/
.
Step "< get allowable stress 0 from Table # corresponding to the yield stress of #"
)g5mm
#
.

0y 1 #" )g5mm
#
< 0 1 "#-' )g5cm
#

Step #< Effective width for load determination M.: code.

lim
) 5 (
- . --
": . '
&& . &
5
&& . & ) 7 . ' ": (. # "'
t w
t w
cm w

+

(w5t)lim 1 "7*-5Bf 1 "7*-5 B"#-' 1 7'.-+
(w5t) O (w5t)lim
So b5t 1 (#"#'5 Bf ) H "%(7:-)5((w5t)Bf)K

b 1 '.":(#"#'5B"#-' I"%H7:-5(--.-(B"#-'))KJ.
1 ,.*#cm.
Step *. Effective width for deflection determination. M.: code

(w5t) 1 --.-
&
(w5t)lim 1 "&-'5Bf 1 "&-'5 B"#-' 1 -#.**
(w5t) O (w5t)lim
So b5t 1 (#,7'5 Bf ) H "%(:'')5((w5t)Bf)K
b 1 '.":(#"#'5B"#-' I"%H7:-5(--.-(B"#-'))KJ

1 &.:"cm
/) .I# "! +!c-)(u,-+ 2o3 '!c$o) '"o*) $) #$( $' o 2! u'!& -' - co,um) .&!!+m$)!
"! &!'$() *$&" #o+ "! !,!m!)' $) "! co,um) #o+ "! pu+po'! o# ,o-&
&!!+m$)-$o). 4$!,& '+!'' o# "! m-!+$-,' $' /5 0(1mm
/
.
Step "< Det the allowable stress from Table # corresponding to a yield stress of #7
)g5mm
#
. 0y 1 #7 )g5mm
#
. 0 1 "7-' )g5mm
#
.
w" for load determination -.#."." M.:
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UEST$00EEE? E6EFEETS <
Earlier an effective width e(n for the post buc)ling range of
unstiffened elements was presented however it was indicated that the unstiffened
elements are currently designed on the basis of allowable stress specified by
$S &'"%"+,-.
The allowable stresses are governed by the local buc)ling rather than
failure of elements in the post buc)ling range. The rationale behind this allowable stress
may be inferred from 0ig in page "'.
Unstiffened elements with the values of (w5t) ratios appro!imately
less than "' fail by yielding without any evidence of buc)ling. Therefore for such
elements compressive strength may be ta)en as 0y ,provided that (w5t) is less than "' or
:*.*5(0y)
"5#
whichever is smaller .This relationship between the compressive strength and
(w5t) is shown in curve 8. $n elements with w5t greater than "' or :*.*5(0y)
"5#
. .ut less
than #- local buc)ling may occur at stresses below the theoretical buc)ling stress. The
compressive strength for such elements may be closely appro!imated by a straight line
between yield stress 0y at (w5t) and buc)ling stress for defined by
1).I (Q
#
E)5H"#("%R
#
)(w5t)
#
KJ
8t w5t e(ual to #-, as shown by curve ..$n elements with (w5t) ratios between #- S :'
gradual wave li)e distributions may occur at stresses e(ual to or higher than the
theoretical buc)ling stress for and the strength 0 of such elements can be closely
appro!imated by for as shown by curve C. Gn elements with w5t ratios greater than :',
The distortions even at low stress are so pronounced that such elements should not be
used in structural members .The allowable stress curves are shown by a redline a factor of
safety of ".:, is used.
Gn the basis of the obTectives mentioned the $S&'"%"+,- presents the
follwing e(ns for the allowable compressive stress,0c for unstiffened compression
elements M."*.ref clause :.# compression on unstiffened elements
"*
(a). 0or w5t not greater than -*'5B0y (0c 1 '.: 0y)
(b)for w5t ratio greater than -*'5B0y but not greater than "#"'5B0yU
0c 1 0y H'.,:,% H(*."-5"'
7
) (w5t) B0y

KK

( c) 0or w5t ratio greater than "#"'5B0y but not greater than #-.
0c 1 -:'''5(w5t)
#
(d) for w5t from #- to :'.
0or angle struts 0c 1 -:#'''5(w5t)
#

0or all other ratios 0c 1 "*+' V #'(w5t)
Since "#"'5B0y for 0y less than #*#' Ag5cm
#
is greater than or e(ual to #- , there is no
range for which conditions W will be applicable. $n the case of such materials (0y X #*#'
Ag5cm
#
), the allowable stresses are obtained by the linear interpolation

as given below,
0c 1 '.:0y % IH(w5t)%(-*'5B0y)K 5#-H"%(#".#5B0y)KJ
$n fle!ural members , if the unstiffened compression elements are parallel to the neutral
a!is .The ma!imum value of the uniform stresses in such elements is limited by the
allowable stress 0c specified above on the other hand , if the the unstiffened compression
elements are not parallel to the neutral , the compressive stress will be non uniform. This
situation arises in the case of stiffening lips of channels 9%sections and those sections. $n
such cases the average stress and not the ma!imum stress in the unstiffened compression
elements are limited to be less than the allowable stress 0c. $t should be noted that the
ma!imum allowable stress in the stiffened element (with a bent lip edge stiffener which is
in an unstiffened element) may be sometimes limited by the stress in the unstiffened
element at its Tunction with the stiffened element and not by e(n 0 1 0y . $n these cases
stress in unstiffened element at its Tunction with the stiffened element should be used to
calculate the effective width of stiffened element.
5)D!!+m$)! "! -,,o*-2,! comp+!''$%! '+!''!' #o+ "! u)'$##!)!& op -)& 2oom
#,-)(!' '"o*) <$# 7-) ' 5/819:; '!!, $' u'!& 7F.):/5 0(1mm/ 72) ' =/819:; '!!, $'
u'!& 7F. > 66 0(1mm/).
"7
Step"< 0y 1 #7'' )g5mm
#
.
Top flanges<
"-
( )
( )
[ ]
#
. #
#
#
# #
#
#
#
#
5 #+' ) -- #' ( "*+' ) #' ( "*+' (
:' #- < --
<
5 "# . """'
- . ##
-:#'''
) (
-:#'''
#-
"#"'
", . #'
*"''
"#"' "#"'
- . ##
<
. 5 #":' ...... .......... .......... 5 *:''
"',+ -#
< *
. 5 #+'
. 5 "7-' <
. 5 #+'
)) -- ( #' ( "*+'
) 5 ( #' "*+'
:' 5 #- ) ( "7 . Ne
--
# . '
' . ""
"" ) * . ' # . ' ( - . ""
<
5 - . "'', #7'' - . ##
"'7
"- . *
,:, . ' #7''
"'7
"- . *
,:, . '
) ( sec
"#"' -*'
,' . #7
#7''
"#"' "#"'
&# . "'
#7''
-*' -*'
: . U "* . # . : Ne
- . ##
# . '
- . 7
- . 7 ) * . ' # . ' ( -
cm kg
t
w
Fc
t
w
t
w
ges BottomFlan
cm kg
t
w
Fc
t
w
Fy
Fy
t
w
topflange
cm kg F cm kg Fy
st
tep
cm kg es eabovevalu takeonlyth langeswill Topandbotf
cm kg ressis thebasicst note
cm kg
t w sFc rcondition forallothe
t w d case f!
t
w
cm w
ges BottomFlan
cm kg
Fy
t
w
Fy Fc
b ondition u
Fy t
w
Fy
Fy
Fy
edelement forstiffen ! ts enedelemen nonunstiff compressio ! fclause
t
w
cm w

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":
NOTE< Eventhough the basic allowable design stress is #":' Ag5 cm
#
.Top and bottom
flanges will ta)e only """'."# Ag5cm
#
and #+' Ag5cm
#
. The above problem
illustrates the ineffectiveness of using high strength steel in unstiffened
compression elements especially for larger w5t ratios.
=) D!!+m$)! "! -,,o*-2,! '+!'' $) u)'$##!)!& comp+!''$o) ,$p -)& "!
co++!'po)&$)( !##!c$%! *$&" o# '$##!)!& comp+!''$o) !,!m!) o# "! 2!-m
'"o*) #o+ ,o-& &!!+m$)-$o) .T"! m-!+$-, $' ' 65819:;8'!!, .
0y 1 #"'' )g5cm#.
Step "< 0ind allowable stress in unstiffened lip< assuming that the compression flange is
fully effective .The neutral a!is is at &.'cm from the top
1 *.'%('.#Y'.7) 1 #.7cm .
w5t 1 (#.75'.#) 1 "#< -*'5B0y 1 -*'5B#"'' 1 "".-,.
"#"'5B0y 1 "#"'5B#"'' 1 #:.7'.
So, -*'5B0y X w5t X "#"'5B0y.
Nef M."* This is a case where yield point of steel (i.e.) #"'' )g5cm
#
is less than #*#'
)g5cm
#
.so for w5t ratios between -*'5B0y and #-,
",
[ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
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#"''
# . #"
" #-
+'' #"'' : . ' -, . "" "#
#"'' : . '
# . #"
" #-
+'' : . '
-*'
: . '
Fy
Fy
Fy t
w
Fy Fc
1 "#7&.7 )gf5cm
#
Step#< 0ind effective width of stiffened flange stress at the level of stiffened element is
0irst found out.
Stress at the level of the stiffened elements 1 ("#7&.7(&%*Y'.")5(&).
1,+: )g5cm
#
.
w 1 ""%(#('.#Y'.7) 1 +.& cm.
w 1 (+.&5'.#) 1 7+.
Nef< stiffeners for compression elements M.& code edge stiffeners <where the stiffener
consists of a simple lip bent at right angles to the stiffened element , the re(uired overall
depth dmin of such a lip may be determined as follows,
?min 1 #.& t :B H(w5t)# V #&"#''50y K
.ut not 6ess than 7.&t
?min 1 #.& ! '.# :B (-#)# % (#&"#''5#"'') 1 #.', cm
.ut not less than 7.& ! '.# 1 '.+: cm .
.ut d provided 1 * cm the flanges are effectively stiffened.
0 1 ,+: )g5cm
#
and not '.: 0y.
Effective width for load determination<
(w5t) lim 1 "7*- 5B0 1 "7*- 5 B,+: 1 -'.&:cm
(w5t) is not greater than e(ual to (w5t)lim so b 1 w 1 +.& cm.
(Nefer hardcopyZ.some part missing)
"&
Since the effective width of the compression flange is smaller than the actual
width. The neutral a!is location will shift down towards the tension flange. Conse(uently
all the calculations involving stiffened flange (starting from the allowable stress at the
level of stiffened flange) has to be repeated, until the assumed location of neutral a!is is
close to the actual location, calculated on the basis of the effective width of the
compression flange.

S;E8N $E ST$00EEE? E6EFEETS<
hen the height to thic)ness ratio5t of an element subTected to shear
stress is small, the element fails by yielding in shear the failure stress may be calculated
by vonVFises failure criteria. 0or webs with large h5t ratios the web will e!perience
elastic shear buc)ling before yielding at a stress [
cr given below ,
[
cr 1 *,*'
B0y5 (h5t)
The $S &'" %"+,- provision for allowable shear stress is based on the above
shear buc)ling e(n with ade(uate factor of safety. Thus the allowable post shear buc)ling
strength of these elements is not used in cold formed steel members and the web is
prevented from local shear buc)ling at service loads. The allowable stress in shear 0v is
given by :.7." p."- code.
The ma!imum average shear stress 0v in Ag5cm
#
on gross area of a flat web
shall not e!ceed,
(a) 0or h5t not greater than 7-+'5 B0y.
0v 1 "#,-B0y5(h5t) with a ma!imum of '.7' fy
(b) 0or h5t greater than 7-+'5 B0y.
0v 1 -&-'''5(h5t)
#

.EE?$ED $E ST$00EEE? E6EFEETS<
.ending in stress in stiffened elements may also cause local buc)ling
prior to yielding if the height to thic)ness ratio, h5t is large. The local buc)ling is
given by f
cr
1 )Q#E 5H"#("%R)
#
(h5t)
#
K here ) can be got from hand boo)s.
"+
.ecause considerable post buc)ling strength is available in such members the
following e(n. for allowable bending stress 0bw in stiffened elements are derived from
the earlier e(n with a smaller factor of safety e(ual to ".#*.
Nefer :.7.# p.": .The compressive stress 0bw in Ag5cm
#
in the flat web of a
beam due to bending in its plane, shall not e!ceed 0 nor shall it e!ceed
0bw 1 H(*-.-:! "'
:
) 5 (h5t)
#
K

Ag5cm
#


?ES$DE G0 06ELUN86 FEF.ENS<
8ny cold formed steel member designed for fle!ure should satisfy the
following re(uirement
". The member should have ade(uate moment resisting capacity.
#. The member should have ade(uate stiffeners.
*. The web elements should be able to withstand the combined bending and shear
stress imposed upon it.
7. The web element should be able to carry any concentrated load imposed upon it
without crippling.
Similar to the design of the structural members using other materials
.?esign of cold formed members follows a trial and error procedure. .ecause of the
comple!ity of the structural behavior the design problem reduces to one of iterative
analysis of a chosen trial section.
The $S &'"%"+,- imposes restrictions on the ma!imum flat width ratios
that may be used in cold formed steel members .These restrictions have been imposed.
(a) To avoid e!cessive distortion of the elements even in service load range due to
local buc)ling.
(b) To avoid use of design e(ns beyond the range of their applicability. The
limitations are ref clause -.#.* ma!imum overall flat width ratios.
(c) Stiffened compression elements having one longitudinal edge connected to a web
or flange element the other stiffened by simple lipZ.:' any other )ind of
stiffeners ZZ..+'.
#'
(d) Stiffened compression element with both longitudinal edges connected to other
stiffened elements ZZ..-''.
(e) Unstiffened compression element ZZZZ..:'.
FGFEET C8M8C$T\ G0 .E8FS 8?E]U8TE6\ 68TEN866\
SUMMGNTE?<
The compression flange of a beam may be a stiffened or
unstiffened elements .8s already indicated, the design of unstiffened elements is
based on the allowable stress , depending upon the w5t ratio . hereas stiffened
elements are designed for the basic allowable stress (i.e) '.: 0y and the effective
cross sectional area is reduced to account for the effect of increase of w5t ratio.
.E8FS $T; UEST$00EEE? CGFMNES$GE 068EDES<
The bending strength of the beam is governed by
". The section modulus of the actual full section.
#. The allowable stress in compression is the smaller of the p."* clause :.#.
(a) The basic allowable stress given by 0c 1 '.: 0y.
(b) The basic allowable stress governed by local buc)ling
0or w5t ratio greater than -*'5B0y . but not greater than "#"'5B0y U
0c 1 0y H '.,:, V H(*."-5"'7) (w5t) B0yKK
0or w5t ratio greater than "#"'5B0y . but not greater than#-U
0c 1 -:#'''5(w5t)
#
0or w5t ratios from #- to :'
0or angle struts 0c 1 -:#''5(w5t)
#

0or all other sections 0c 1 "*+' V #' (w5t)
(c) The allowable stress governed by the lateral buc)ling of inade(uately laterally
supported compression flanges.
*. The allowable stress in the tension e(ual to the basic given by 0 1 '.: 0y.
#"
6) D!!+m$)! "! -,,o*-2,! 2!)&$)( mom!) #o+ "! I '!c$o) '"o*) $) #$( -''um$)(
"- ' 5/8 19:; '!!, $' u'!& -)& "- "! comp+!''$o) #,-)(! $' -&!?u-!,.
'uppo+!& ,-!+-,,.
Step"< Det w and h.
w 1 -.' V ('.# Y '.7) 1 7.7cm
h 1 ": V #('.# Y'.7) 1 "7.& cm.
Step #< section properties.
E6EFEET 8NE8 = 8^
cm#
y distance from
E.8 (cm)
8y# (cm7) $g (cm7)
0langes (7 ! 7.7 ! '.#)
1 *.-#'
& V '." 1 ,.+ #"+.:&*# 7 !("5"#)! 7.7!
'.#
*
1 '.'"",*
_
Corner 7 ! ".-, ! '.-
'.# 1 '.:#&'
& V '.# V '.7 Y
('.:*, ! '.-) 1
,.,"&-.
*,.7"** 7 ! '."7+ '.-
*
1
'.',7- _
ebs # ! "7.& ! '.# 1
-.+#'
'.' '.' # ! ("5"#) ! '.#
! "7.&
*
1
"'&.'-+,*
"'.':& #-,.'+:- "'&."7-+:
$ !! 1 #,-. '+:- Y "'&."7-+: 1 *:-.#7& cm
7
`!! 1 (*:-.#7#-5&) 1 7-.:--* cm
*
.
_ can be neglected .
Step * Calculation of allowable stress in the flanges<
0or st 7# %"',+ steel 0y 1 #7'' )g5cm
#
.
(w5t) 1 7.75'.# 1 ## < -*'5B0y 1 -*'5B #7'' 1 "'.&#
##
"#"'5B0y 1 "#"'5B #7'' 1 #7.,'< -*'5B0y X (w5t) X "#"'5B0y
0c 1 0y H '.,:, V (*."- ! "'a % 7)(w5t) B0y K
1 #7'' H '.,:, V(*."- ! "'a%7)( ##) B #7'')K
1 "'#: )g5cm
#
.
Eote allowable stress from Table # < 0 1 "7-' )g5cm
#
Step7< Fa!imum allowable bending moment 1 `! b 0c
1 7-.:--* b "'#: 1 7:&.-#. )g.m.
BEAMS WITH STIFFENED COMPRESSION FLANGES

The .ending moment capacity of beams with stiffened compression flanges is
determined by
" .(a)The allowable stress, 0 given by 01'.:0y
(b)The allowable stress for lateral buc)ling
(c)The stress at the level of stiffened flange as determined by the allowable
stress on the lip (an unstiffened lip)if any
#. The section properties of the effective section as determined by the e(ns and
the compressive stress in the flanges.
$f the neutral a!is closer to compression flange, in which case the tensile stress would
govern the design or if in the analysis, stress for some bending moment less than the
ma!imum allowable moment is desired, the stress in compression flange is an un)nown
to start with and hence the effective width of the stiffened compression flange is not
)nown. $n such cases the problem has to be analy9ed iteratively by assuming the value of
stress at the compression flange level comparing it with the calculated stress at the end.
#*
:) C-,cu,-! "! -,,o*-2,! 2!)&$)( mom!) #o+ "! c"-))!, '!c$o) *$" '$##!)!&
comp+!''$o) #,-)(!' -' '"o*) $# "! .$!,& '+!'' o# o# '!!, $' /199 0(1cm
/
-)& "!
comp+!''$o) #,-)(!' ,-!+-,,. 'uppo+!& .
Step"< 0ind dmin for stiffened lip Nef -.#."." from Mage &.
cm cm d
Fy t
w
t d
# , . "
#"''
#&"#''
#
": . '
) 7 . ' ": . ' ( # "'
": . ' & . # min
#&"#''
# & . # min
:
:
<
,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

Therefore the flanges are ade(uately stiffened.
Step #< 0ind allowable stress in lip
wlip 1 #%'.": %'.7 1 ".77 cm.
t 1 '.":cm
w5t 1 (".775'.":) 1+ U -*'5 B0y 1 -*' 5B#"'' 1 "".-,
w5t X -*'5 B0y so 0c 1 '.: 0y 1 '.: ! #"'' "#:' )g5cm
#
.
Step*< 0ind allowable stress in the compression flange
8llowable stress in the lip will not govern the allowable stress in the compression flange
0 1 "#-' )g5cm
#
. Nef Table # U 0or 0y 1 #"'' )g5cm
#
.
w 1 "'%# ('.": Y'.7) 1 &.&cm.
t 1 '.": cm .
(w5t)lim 1 "7-'5B0 1 "7*- 5 B"#-' 1 7'.-+.
(w5t)1 &.&&5'.": 1 --.-.
w5t O (w5t) lim
#7
cm
f
t
w
f
t b
*# . ,
"#-' - . --
7:-
"
"#-'
#"#'
": . '
7:-
"
#"#'

'

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

'

'

1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

Step 7< Mroperties of the sectionU

; 1 #'% #('.":Y'.7) 1 "&.& cm.
0irst 7 columns are done first calculate c top then fill up columns -,: and ,.( N/ 1 '.7
Y'.'&)
E6EFEET 8NE8 d8/
(CF
#
)
ytop (cms) 8y top
(cm
*
)
c (cm) 8c
#
(cm
*
) $y (cm
7
)
Top flange ,.*# ! '.":
1 ".","#
'.'& '.'+*, "'.*,&%
'.'& 1
"'.#+&
"#7.#'77 %
Top
corners
# ! ".-, !
'.7& ! '.":
1 '.#7"#
'.7 Y
'.":%'.:*,
! '.7& 1
'.#-7#
'.':"* "'."#*& #7.,#'+ %
Top lip (#% '.": '.7)
! '.": 1
'.#*'7
'.7Y '.":
Y".77 1
".#&'
'.#+7+ +.'+& "+.',"' %
eb "&.&& ! '.":
1 *.'#'&
"'.'' *#.#'& '.*,& '.7*": ("5"#) !
'.": !
"&.&&
*
1
&+.,*"-
.ottom lip (# V '.":
%'."7) ! '.":
1 '.#*'7
#' %".#& 1
"&.,#
7.*"*" %&.*7# ":.'*** %
.ottom
corners
# ! ".-, !
'.7& ! '.":
1 '.#7"#
#' V
'.#-7# 1
"+.,7-&
7.,:#, %+.*:,& #".":: %
.ottom
flange
&.&& ! '.":
1 ".7#'&
#' V '.'&
1 "+.+#
#&.*'#* %+.-7# "#+.*:*- %
e8 1 :.--: e8y 1
:&.'*:
**7.++"7 &+.,*"-
c top 1 e8y5e8 1 :&.'*:5:.--: 1 "'.*,& cm.
$! 1 ***.++"7 Y&+.,*"7 1 7#7.,##+ cm
7
8llowable bending moment 1 (7#7.,##+5"'.*,&) ! "#-' 1 -"".-: )g.m.
&). Calculate the moment capacity of the section shown in fig .given that the member is
mode.
#-
So,u$o)< Since the neutral a!is is closer to the compression flanges section modulus to
the bottom fibre governs .So this problem re(uires an iterative analysis.
Step "< 0y 1 #"'' Ag5 cm
#
.
0 1 "#-+ Ag5cm
#
.(Fa! allowable stress in tension)
Step#<0ind effective width of compression flange for an assumed allowable stressX "#-'
Ag5cm
#
.

w 1 (*# V ((: ! '.*) Y ( 7 ! '.#)) )5# 1 "7., cm.
(w 5t) 1 ("7., 5 '.#) 1 ,*.- cm.

C\C6E%$
< 8ssume f 1 "#'' Ag5cm
#
.

#:
( )
( )
[ ] ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
#
#
lim
'7+ . "
### . " - . ,*
, . "7
,*7 . +
"
*'
"
, . "7
,*7 . + #
*
### . "
: . * 7 . ' -, . " 7 # . ' & . " # 7
<
. ,*7 . +
:' - . ,* # . ' " . ' ''7 . "'
:' " . '
. :' sin
''7 . "'
"#''
7:-
"
"#''
#"#'
# . '
7:-
"
#"#'
. 7# . 7"
"#''
"7*- "7*-
cm
A
cm
L t A
r testiffene "ntermedia
t
w
t b b
t
w
ce
cm
t
w
f t
w
f
t b
t
w
f
t
w
ef
st
ef

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

>

1
1
]
1

'

1
1
1
]
1

'

<
,
_

Centroid of the stiffener from the top fibre 1 '.# Y '.* Y'.+.
1 ".7 cm.
The section properties are then calculated.
E6EFEET 8NE8(8)cm
#
\top (cm) 8y top
(cm
*
)
c (cm) 8 c
#
(cm
7
) $g(cm
7
)
#,
Cycle%$$
for f1""'')g5cm#
(w5t)lim17*.#,
.1"'.*-
.eff1"'.'&
8ef1".'7+
E81"7.#*:7:
\top1'.&-
.ottom lip # ! ".- ! '.# 1
'.:
"#.- V '.-
%'.,- 1
"".#-
:.,- "#.- V -.&-
%'.# %'.* V
(".- 5#) 1 :.7
",.7+: %
.ottom
corners
".-, ! '.7 ! 7 !
'.# 1 '.-'#7
"#.- % '.-Y
('.:*, !
'.7) 1
"#.#-7&
:."-& "#.- V -.&- V
'.- Y'.:*, !
'.7 1 :.7'7&
#'.:'+# %
.ottom
flanges
(+ V '.- V '.-) !
'.# ! # 1 *.#
"#.- V '."
1 "#.7
*+.:& "#.- V -.&- V
'." 1 :.--
"*,.#&& %
eb ("#.- %'.- %'.- )
! '.# ! # 1 7.:
"#.- 5 # 1
:.#-
#&.,- "#.- %-.&-
%'.- %:.#- 1
'."
'.'7: ("5"#) !
'.# ! "".-
*
! # 1
-'.,'
Top
corners
".-, ! '.7 ! # !
'.# 1 '.#-"#
'.- V '.:*,
! '.7 1
'.#7-#
'.':": -.&- V '.- Y
'.:*, ! '.7 1
-.:'7&
,.&+"" %
Top
flanges
+.,*7 ! # ! '.#
1 7.'*#
'.# 5# 1'." '.*&+*
:
-.&- V '." 1
-.,-
"**.*'& %
Stiffener ".'*: ".7 ".7-'7 -.&- V ".7 1
7.7-
#'.,,#& %
"7.'&*# &*.#*&
":
**,.7""" -'.,'
c 1 &*.#*&": 5 "7.'&*# 1 -.+" cm
f 1 (-.+" ! "#-') 5 ("#.- V -.+") ""#" Ag 5 cm
#
X X "#'' Ag5 cm
#
assumed.
Therefore, assume the stress in """' )g5cm# and redo the calculations
y top 1 e8y 5 e8 1 &*.#,'# 5 "7.#*7: 1 -.&-.
$! 1 &*,.7""" Y -'.,' 1 *&&."""" cm
7

R!& co,o+: -#!+ "! c.c,!8II
`top 1 *&&.""" 5 -.&- 1 ::.*7 cm
*
.
("#.- V -.&-) 5 "#-' 1 (-.&- 5 f)
0 1 "'++.:# Ag5cm
#
1 ""'' Ag 5cm
#
.
`bot 1 *&&."""" 5 :.:- 1 -&.*: cm
*
.
8llowable bending moment 1 `bt ! f tension
1 -&.*: ! "#-' 1 ,#+.- Ag.m.
ECONOMIC DESIGN FOR BEAM STRENGTH
#&
8n economic design of a beam for strength must yield the desired moment
capacity using the least possible weight of material and this can be achieved only by
following one of many optimi9ation techni(ues available. ;owever, this comple! non%
linear problem can be solved by using computers, that too with great difficulty. ;owever
for a given depth and thic)ness of a section ,it has been shown by ie en \u that the
0lat width to thic)ness ratio causing little reduction in stress below the basic stress in the
case of unstiffened elements and little reduction in effective width in the case of stiffened
elements would result in an economical design. 8t times other considerations such as
design for minimum flat width may control the width of compression flange.
;). T*o '$##!)!& c"-))!, '!c$o) o# &$m!)'$o)' '"o*) $) #$( !3 :: -+! u'!& o 'p-)
6m.D!!+m$)! "! &!#,!c$o) $) "! 2!-m *"!) "! u)$#o+m,. &$'+$2u!& ,o-& c-u'!'
"! m-3$mum -,,o*-2,! mom!) - "! m$& 'p-) '!c$o) :
Step"<0rom e!ample ,<
F allowable 1 # ! -"".-:
1 "'#*."# Ag.m.
allowable 1 (&m)5 l
#
1 (&! "'#*."#)5:
#
.1 ##,.*: )g5m
Step #<Section properties<
Since the effective width of the section calculated for deflection will be larger than that
calculated for load determination , the stress in the stiffened compression element will be
less than the basic stress.
8ssuming f 1 "#''Ag5cm#.
#+
( ) ( )

1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

>
+

,
_

,
_

f
t
w
f
t b
t
w
t
w
t
w
:''
"
#,7'
lim - . --
": . '
7 . ' ": . ' # "'
7' . -*
"#''
"&-'
lim
( )
. , . &
"#'' - . --
:''
"
"#''
#,7'
": . '
cm

,
_

'

1
]
1

Step *<0ind `top for one channel section<

E6EFEET 8NE8 8
(cm#)
\top(cm) 8ytop(cm*) c(cm) 8 c#
(cm7)
$g(cm
7
)
Top flanges &., !
'.":1".*+#
'.":5# 1
'.'&
'."""*: +.+: "*&.'&
&:
%
Top corners # ! ".-,('.7
Y '.'&) !
'.": 1
'.#7"#
'.-: V '.:*,
! '.7& 1
'.#-7#
'.':"**" "'.'7 V '.-: Y
('.:*, ! '.7&)
1 +.,&-&.
#*.'+& %
Top lip (#%'.-:) !
'.": 1
'.#*'7
'.-:Y(".775#
)1".#&
'.#+7+ "'.'7 V '.-: V
'.,# 1 &.,:
",.:&'
-
%
eb (#' V (# !
'.-:)) ! '.":
1 *.'#'&
"'.'' *'.#'& '.'7 % ("5"#) !
'.": (#'
V "."#)
*

1
&+.,*"-
.ottom lip '.#*'7 #' %'.-:
%'.,# 1
"&.,#
7.*"*" #' V "'.'7 V
'.-: V '.,# 1
&.:&
",.*-&
+
%
.ottom
corners
'.#7"# #'%
'.-:Y('.:*,
! '.7&)1
"+.,7&
7.,:#, #' V "'.'7 V
'.-:Y('.:*, !
'.7&)1+.,'-&
##.,#"
,
%
.ottom
flange
H"' %#('.-:)K
1 ".7#'&
"+.+# #&.*'#* #' V "'.'7 V
'.'& 1 +.+&
"*&.:+
'-
%
e81:.,,:& e 8ytop 1
:&.'-*,
*-,.:*
,&
&+.,*"-
c 1 e 8ytop 5 e8 1 :&.'-*, 5 :.,,:& 1 "'.'7 cm.
*'
$! 1 (*-,.:*,& Y &+.,*"-) ! # 1 &+7.,*&: cm
7
.
`top 1 (&+7.,*7&) 5 ("'.'7) 1 &+."# cm
#
.
Stress at the top fibre 1 ("'#*."# ! "'#)5 (&+."#) 1 ""7& Ag5cm# X "#'' Ag5cm
#
8ssume f Y """' Ag5cm
#
.
(w5t)lim 1 "&-'5 (B""'')1 --.-* O (w5t).
0langes are fully effective.
$! 1 7(".7#'& ! +.+#
#
Y '.#7"# ! +.,7:
#
Y '.#*'7 ! &.,#
#
Y '.- ! &+.,
#
)
1 +''.7 cm
7.
`top 1 (+''.7)5"' 1 +'.'7 cm
Stress at the top fibre 1 ("'#*."# ! "'') 5(+'.'7) 1 ""*:.* Ag5cm
#
.
Step *<?E06ECT$GE
Fa! deflection at mid span 1 (-w67) 5 (*&7 E$)
1 (- ! ##,.*: ! :
7
! "'
:
.) 5( *&7 ! #.'& ! "'
:
! +''.7)
1 #.'- cm
8llowable deflection 1 6 5 *#- 1 :''5 *#- ".&7: cm X #.'- cm.
Clause *."* M.*7 $S &''.
BEAM WEBS
ebs of beam should be design to withstand the stress imposed without
initiating failure. $n webs in hot rolled steel plate grinders, the local buc)ling is allowed
to ta)e place, if ade(uate stiffeners are provided to sustain the tension fields in the post
local buc)ling range. ;owever in cold formed steel beams it is often not practical to
provide intermediate stiffeners in the webs. .esides the webs are called upon to support
and restrain flanges which may themselves undergo local buc)ling before failure.
Conse(uently the $S&'"%"+,- provisions for the allowable stresses in web are based on
the local buc)ling stress in web due to shear and bending. The ma!imum allowable depth
to thic)ness ratio h5t of webs is usually restricted to be less than "-' unless stiffeners are
provided at supports and other points of concentrated load in which case the ma!imum
*"
value of h5t ratio may be as high as #''.ref page ": clause :.7.*%Combined bending and
stresses in web

B((fbw50bw)
#
Y(fv50v)
#
) f "

here fbw 1 actual compressive stress at the Tunction of flange and web
*:-:''''
0bw 1 %%%%%%%%%%%%%% )g5cm
#
(h5t)
#
fv 1 actual average shear stress ,that is shear force per web divided
by web area.
0v 1 8llowable shear stress as specified in :.7." e!cept that the
limit of '.7 0y shall not apply
WEB CRIPPLING
.earing stiffeners are rarely used in cold formed steel beams at points of concentrated
load and reactions. Conse(uently at these locations in a beam the web range may cripple
(bearing failure) as shown in fig " due to high concentration of bearing stress in the webs.
The following factor influence web crippling
". Elastic and inelastic stability of web elements
#. Nestrain of web crippling by adTacent elements
*. Stress distribution and local yielding of region adTacent to concentrated load
(reaction)into the web through the flanges, due to corner radius.
The $S &'"%"+,- design provisions are given in section :.-.read p5": and p.",.
*#
19) C-,cu,-! "! -,,o*-2,! '"!-+ $) "! I '!c$o) '"o*) $) !3-mp,! 6. *"!) $' "!
-,,o*-2,! co)c!)+-!& +!-c$o) - !)&' -)& co)c!)+-!& ,o-& - "! m$&&,! o# "!
2!-m "- c-) 2! c-++$!& *$"ou *!2 c+$pp,$)( I# =9mm *$&! 2!-+$)( p,-!' -+!
u'!&@ C"!c0 *"!"!+ "! 2!)&$)( '+!'' $) "! *!2 &u! o m-3$mum -,,o*-2,!
mom!) c-,cu,-! $) "! !3-mp,! 6 $' ,!'' "-) "! -,,o*-2,! 2!)&$)( '+!'' $) "!
*!2.
STEM"< 0ind allowable shear sec :.7." h V clear distance between flanges.
. 7++, ) # . ' # ( ": ( # . ' # & . &''
5 +:' #7'' 7 . ' 7 . '
5 & . &''
,&
#7'' "#,- "#,-
,& , . +*
"#''
7-+' 7-+'
"-' ,&
# . '
) # . ' # ( ":
#
#
#g x x x hear Allowables
cm #g x Fy $axFv
cm #g
t
h
Fy
Fv
Fy
savoided cripplingi
x
t
h



>
<

Step *< E. CN$MM6$ED < Nef :.- (b) M",

End section $ma! 1 #(t # 0y (7.77 Y '.--& B(E5T)
#
1 #('.# # L#7''(7.77 Y '.--& (B(-5'.
#
).
1 "*&&.# Ag.
Step *< .EE?$ED STNESS. Nef sec :.7.#
0bw 1 (*:-:''''5 ((h5t)
#
) 1 (*:-:'''' 5 (,&
#
) ) 1 :''+.# Ag5 cm
#
O "'#: Ag5cm
#
.
68TEN86 .UCA6$ED G0 .E8FS<
Cold formed steel beams fail in fle!ure by one of the mechanisms
(yielding before or after buc)ling), when ade(uately laterally supported or close
intervals. hereas when the spacing of the lateral support is too far apart, the beam
twist t and deflects laterally in addition to deflecting vertically (similar to hot rolled
beams) even before the failure by the other mechanisms. This lateral buc)ling is
almost immediately accompanied by failure, the way columns fail after fle!ural
buc)ling. The moment capacity, hence the fle!ural stress, of inade(uately laterally
supported beam is lower than that of a ade(uately laterally supported beam.
**
*7