Fluid Heat

Issue 002 Section 10
-section Index {i)

Copy No.
10. HEAT TRANSFER
10.1 Heat Removal from Fluidised Bed Combustors
10.2 Heat Transfer to In-bed Surfaces
10.2.1Heat transfer mechanisms
10.2.2 Heat transfer equations
10.2.3 Calculation of the radiation component, hr
10.2.4 Calculation of the convection component, h.
10.2.4.1 Horizontal plain tube banks
10.2.4.2 Definition of tube gap
10.2.4.3 Correction for tube bank height
10.2.5 General effects of operating parameters on h
0
10.2.5.1 Fluidising velocity
10.2.5.2 Particle size
10.2.5.3 Factors affecting the surface flow
10.2.5.3.1 Nature of flow
10.2.5.3.2 Nature of surface
10.2.5.4 Operating pressure
10.2.5.5 Gas and solid physical properties
10.2.6 Values of h, for specific surface geometries
10.2.6.1 Single tubes
10.2.6.2 Horizontal coils
10.2.6.3 Banks of vertical plain tubes
10.2.6.4 Vertical walls, plain or membrane tube construction
10.2.6.5 Banks of vertical finned tubes
10.2.6.6 Banks of horizontal finned tubes
10.2.6.7 Membrane walls with horizontal tubes
10.2.7 Distribution of heat transfer around a tube circumference
10.3 Procedure for Calculating In-bed Surface Area
10.3.1 General considerations
10.3.2 Tube bank design for the bed expansion method of turndown
10.3.2.1 Worked example for tube bank design for the bed
expansion turndown method
10.3.2.1.1 Input parameters
10.3.2.1.2 Estimation of bed and immersed surface
areas
10.3.2.1.3 Preliminary tube bank geometry
10.3.2.1.4 Variation of immersed surface with depth
10.3.2.1.5 Use of program BEDEXP8 to optimise tube
bank location
Issue 002
Section 10
Section Index (ii)
Copy No.
6
10.3.2.2 Sloping tube banks
10.3.3 Tube bank design when the bed expansion method is not
used
10.3.3.1 Stepwise procedure
10.4 Heat Transfer in the Freeboard
10.5 Heat Transfer in Slumped Beds
10.6 References
Section Index (iii)
Copy No. -_
Additional Symbols used in Section 10
SI British
Units Units
H Height of splash zone m ft
2
h Freeboard heat transfer J/(s m
2
K) Btu/(ft'h F)
fc coefficient, convection component
h Freeboard heat transfer J/(s m
2 0
K) Btu/(ft
2
h F)
fo coefficient, gas to surface
h Freeboard heat transfer J/(s m K) Btu/(ft'h 'F)
fr coefficient, radiation
component
k Freeboard gas thermal J/(m s K) Btu/(ft h F)
g conductivity
U Gas velocity in freeboard m/s ft/s
g
x Height in the splash zone m ft
S above distributor datum
0'
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Conv No.
10. HEAT TRANSFER
10.1 Heat Removal from Fluidised Bed Combustors
The burning fuel particles in a fluidised bed combustor transfer the heat
of combustion initially to the inert particles in the bed and to the fluidising
gas. In a well fluidised bed, (see Section 9.6, Issue 002, for a definition of
fluidisation quality) there is intimate mixing between solids and gas so that
this heat transfer process is rapid. In consequence, individual burning fuel
particles have a temperature close to the average bed temperature. It is very
difficult to measure the temperature of individual particles but research (10.1)
has confirmed the conclusion reached from operating experience that the
individual particle temperature rarely exceeds the average bed temperature by
more than 200
0
C (360F). It is quite practicable therefore to remove the heat of
combustion from the bed as sensible heat by using excess air alone although high
combustion intensities may require excess air levels of several hundred per cent.
Heat can also be removed from the bed through the walls or by immersing
cooling surfaces within it (termed in-bed cooling). This method has three main
advantages. Firstly, the heat transfer coefficients obtained between a fluidised
bed and a cooling surface are larger by up to an order of magnitude than those
found in conventional equipment using gas to surface heat transfer. Secondly,
the heat flux distribution around a tube circumference is more uniform than in
conventional equipment and thirdly, the excess air level may be kept at any
desired value by varying the size of the immersed cooling surface.
The bed temperature of a fluidised combustor is determined by a heat
balance over the bed. The items involved have been outlined in Section 3, Issue
002. The heat of combustion, the heat removed by in-bed surfaces and containment
walls and the heat removed as sensible heat in the gases and entrained solids
leaving the bed are the main terms.
In some applications when a low calorific value fuel is being used
(probably in incineration or waste disposal applications, see Section 7) the
recovery of heat from the bed may be impractical and an additional flow of a high
calorific value fuel may be required to maintain the design bed temperature.
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Copy No.
In most applications it will be necessary to recover the heat energy from
the off-gases as efficiently as possible. Also when in-bed heat removal is used
it is essential for steady state operation at design conditions that the correct
proportion of the heat of combustion be transferred to the in-bed surfaces. If
there is insufficient cooling surface in the bed, the equilibrium bed temperature
at the design throughput will be above the design temperature, and if there is
too much surface the temperature will be below the design level. In extreme
cases the consequences may be either -
a) An inability to achieve design throughput because of risk of
sintering at high bed temperature, depending on the ash fusion characteristics,
or
b) An inability to achieve design combustion efficiency because of
the low bed temperature.
Energy recovery from the combustor may be achieved through one or
more of the following routes:
i via surfaces immersed in or surrounding the bed.
ii via surfaces within or surrounding the freeboard.
iii via surfaces contacted by the exhaust gases after they have left
the freeboard.
iv via expansion through a gas turbine
Heat transfer to surfaces immersed in, or surrounding, the bed, route i,
is profoundly affected by the presence and nature of the bed particles. Design
methods are discussed in Sections 10.2 and 10.3. Occasions may also arise when a
knowledge of heat transfer to a slumped, unfluidised bed is required; this
situation is discussed in Section 10.5.
Heat transfer to surfaces in the freeboard, route ii, may be affected by
the presence of entrained particles. The extent of any effect will depend on the
particle concentration and is normally only appreciable in the splash zone
immediately above the bed surface. As the splash zone is traversed the heat
transfer coefficient reduces from a value characteristic of the bed to a value
Paae 3 of 80
Con' No. tV
characteristic of a dusty gas. Heat transfer in this zone is considered in
Section 10.4 below. At points in the freeboard higher than the splash zone it is
sufficient for design purposes to neglect any effects of entrained particles and
employ conventional methods for calculating heat transfer rates.
Routes iii and iv are not considered in this Manual since design methods
for them will be the same as those used for conventionally fired equipment.
10.2 Heat Transfer to In-bed Surfaces
10.2.1 Heat transfer mechanisms
Heat transfer from a fluidised bed to immersed cooling surfaces is a
complex process as several mechanisms are involved simultaneously. The effects
of operating parameters are therefore reviewed briefly after the design equations
are introduced so that the limits of validity of empirical equations may be
appreciated.
Heat is transferred to in-bed surfaces in the following ways:
i) by radiation from hot particles;
ii) by convection through a gas film surrounding the surface;
iii) by conduction from a hot particle that penetrates the gas film
and touches the surface.
The temperature levels in fluidised combustors are such that the
contributions by radiation and by routes ii) and iii) combined are of the same
order of magnitude. Typically the contribution by radiation is one third of the
total heat transfer. The extent to which routes ii) and iii) contribute
separately will depend on the number of particle contact points (and hence
inversely as the particle size) and on the frequency and time of contacting (and
hence on the degree of turbulence in the film). A number of theoretical models
have been suggested for representing the heat transfer process. (10.2, 10.3,
10.20, 10.36, 10.37). Currently the most satisfactory appears to be a surface
renewal or 'packet' theory whereby 'packets' or groups of particles approach the
surface at intervals but are periodically displaced from the heat transfer
surface by bubbles (10.19, 10.36).
Page 4 of 80
Conm No.
Thus the solids movement in a fluidised bed has beneficial effects on the
bed-to-surface heat transfer rate in two ways. Firstly, the movement of the
'packets' of solids increases the turbulence in the boundary film and the
particles also contribute to heat transfer through conduction when they touch the
surface. Secondly, the solids flow ensures that any particles which have already
transferred some of their heat to the cooling surface, and thereby become cooler,
are quickly replaced by fresh particles at the bulk bed temperature so that the
cooling surface is continuously in contact with particles near the mean bed
temperature. The radiant heat transfer occurs from these solids at or near the
surface and also from particles farther away "seen" through a void or bubble, and
hence at the bulk bed temperature.
0 Routes i) and iii) operate in parallel so it is assumed that their
effects are additive. The total bed to surface heat transfer coefficient, h , is
0
usually sub-divided into a radiation component, h , representing route i), and a
r
convection conduction component, h , representing routes ii) and iii). Some
c
authors (10.3) define separate gas-convective and particle-convective heat
transfer coefficients to represent heat transfer via routes ii) and iii)
separately. However, for design purposes it is unnecessary to know values of the
individual coefficients for routes ii) and iii) and no attempt is made in this
Manual to subdivide them in view of the complexity of the underlying mechanisms.
Thus, h , the convection component of the bed to surface heat transfer
c
coefficient, is defined to represent the net effect of both routes ii) and iii)
and the effects of any surface renewal of dense phase on them. Hence,
ho = hr + h, . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... lO.l t
10.2.2 Heat transfer equations
The equations governing the heat transfer processes are given below for a
tubular cooling surface by way of example. Except for those relating to the
bed-side coefficients they follow standard heat transfer procedures (see, for
example, reference 10.4), but are summarised for completeness and to clarify the
particular features relevant to fluidised combustors.
t Symbols are defined in Section 1 of this Manual.
Issue 002 section 10
Pace 5 of 80
Con,v No. .
a. Heat transfer from bed to tube outer surface.
Qt = ho At (Tb - Tw) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10.2
b. Conduction through the tube wall.
2 k,ntl
Qt = (Tw - Ti) - ... . 10.3
ln (Do /Di)
For thin tubes equation 10.3 simplifies to,
Qt = knDo 1 (Tw - Ti) ... ... .. ... ... ... 10.3a
c. Heat transfer from tube inner wall to bulk cooling fluid.
Qt = At hi (Di/Do) (Ti-Tf) ... ... ... ... 10.4
The datum heat transfer surface area is the immersed tube outer surface
area, A ; hence the correction factor, D ID
t i 0
Evaluation of h is discussed in Section 10.2.3. Evaluation of h is
r c
discussed in Section 10.2.4. Standard equations are available for the
calculation of the thermal conductivity, k, and of h.. For example, the film
heat transfer coefficient for water in turbulent flow without change of phase has
been obtained from,
Nu = h
1
D
1
= 0.023 Reo.8Pro.4(glpw)0..4 ... .. 10.5
Calculation of the film heat transfer coefficient for the flow of coolants with
change of phase should be carried out as in standard heat exchanger designs and
is outside the scope of this Manual.
10.2.3 Calculation of the radiation comDonent h
r
The rate of heat transfer from the bed by radiation is given by the
standard equation for grey body radiation.
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Copy No.
4 4
Qr = Ateba (Tb
4
Tw ) ... .. .. ... 0.6
where T' and T are absolute temperatures. For convenience a radiation
b w
component, h , of the bed to surface film heat transfer coefficient is defined
r
such that
hr = Qr/(At(T
b
- Tw))- ... ... ... .......... . ... ... ... ... ... 10.7
Thus, on combining equations 10.6 and 10.7, and substituting for the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, a, there results, in SI Units.
hr 5 67 o [(Tb)
4
- (Tw)4 ] ... ... ... 10.8
(Tb -T)
and in British Units,
hr = I.71 x 9 Eb [( b) ((T ,w) ] ... ... .. . ... . . ... . . ... 10.8a
hr = I.71x10
'9
(T )4 r T- T)4
55 (Tb - T'~)
For most applications the value of the effective bed emissivity, b, has
been assumed constant at 0.8. Both this value and the form of equations 10.8 or
10.Ba should be retained when calculating values of h for substitution in
r
equation 10.1.
The variation of h with the surface and bed temperatures is shown in
r
Figure 10.1.
Paae 7 of 80
Cony No
- --- --------f --.------- --- - t-t
- -- *-I---'---'------t---- -.-- I-
i1rhzr27m --- *..----- -- - 4- -- I---
C
E -
Ca
Ca
O -- - - *0 C
aco C
C-, -
(12 Ii
.12
I-
C,
Ca -
0
C -------- ---.---- -- - - =
- C - .- ' -- 3
-4-
I-
C. -
*
C
o - --
0
=----
C
C
C
(12
Ca
=
(0
a
C.
E
C
o
C,
=
0
C
C
. V ,-...-
=
-4-- =
C',
- t-t --
- .90OE8OO 70O -
- - ('4
-SzzzzS
-
-
= ('4
C - C C
C = 0
Figure 10.1 (SI Units)
Radiation Component of Bed to Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 8 of 80
Cony No
-
4-
-
__H tt - m- I
______________________________
-2=0
- C
P i 4- 1 r- -i----L
C
U. 0
3
-o
a ##--
1
--- -- j- - --- 7 f7
-4 =
-- 4------- 0
- -4-- _______ -
-- 03
0 "
o
0
03
0
0
0
- C
---- 4-. -___
-Th - -t= -___
-- 4 __
- -4- 0
- Co
-. -mil - -
4
- -
ttZ2I.tZW -
---- 4- __
C
0
Figure 10.1 (British Units)
Radiation Component of Bed to Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 9 of 80
Copy No.
10.2.4 Calculation of the convection component, h
c
10.2.4.1 Horizontal plain tube-banks
The following empirical equation for h has been derived from an
c
extensive series of tests (10.6, 10.47, 10.48, 10.55, 10.56):
he = hc f(z) + f(T
w
) ... ...... ...... ........ 10.9
In SI Units,
hc = 450 - 0.3ap + 1.1 X a
2
1.25 x 10
-
-p ... ... 10.10
1 f f(z)= [1-exp-(0.027 z + 1.5) ]/0.942 ... .... 10.11
f(Tw) = 0.
17
(Tw - 450) ... ................ ... 10.12
Where dp is in microns, z is in millimetres and T is in C.
w
In British Units,
hc = 79.3- 1342.7 p + 12505.3 p2- 36095.1 p
3
... ... ...............
f(z) = [I - exp- (0.686 z+ 1.5)]/0.942 ............................ 1 . Ia
f(Tw) = 0.01664 (Tw - 842) ................... 10.12a
where dp and z are in inches and T is in F.
w
It is emphasised that equation 10.9 is empirical. It has been found to predict
values of h within 10% for the ranges of operating and correlating parameters
shown in Table 10.1
Issue 002
Section 10
Paae 10 of 80
Cocv No.
Table 10.1
Range of Operating Conditions for Use with Equation 10.9
Mean bed particle size, dp 400-3000 mm 0.016-0.12 in.
Tube outside wall temperature, T 100-670
0
C 212-1240 *F
W
Fluidising velocity, U 0.6-3 m/s 2 - 9 ft/s
- f
Operating pressure, P 100-610 kN/m
2
1 - 6 atm abs
Expanded bed height, Lb 0.15 - 1.2 m 6 - 50 in.
Tube outside diameter, D 25 - 115 mm 1 - 4.5 in.
0
Tube horizontal pitch, Ph 75 - 230 mm 3 -9 in.
Tube gap, z 25 - 200 mm 1 -8 in.
Vertical distance between tube rows, p 40-200 mm 1.5 - 8 in.
v
Figure 10.2 shows h , calculated using equation 10.9, as a function of
the bed mean particle size, d. , for typical values of the parameters z and T
W
It should be noted that in the tests on which equation 10.9 is based, the
experimentally measured quantity was the overall heat transfer coefficient, U.
The total bed-to-tube film coefficient, h , was then calculated and the values of
h that have been correlated were found by subtracting from h a value of h
c
0 r
calculated from equations 10.8 (or 10.8a). This procedure should, therefore, be
used in reverse to obtain values of U for design purposes. The tube outside wall
temperature, T , in these tests was either calculated using the heat flux (see
W
Section 10.3) or measured directly by thermocouples.
Issue 002
Section 10
Paae 11 of 80 ;
Copy No.
7 i
i - ... i ..
* <,
I E o
==-
--
-------- -
.
iLt
=---I
_T-___=
ACi
... :. . V-=
iC _,__ i 2 X X
. e.j _ , 1 M X g -. E
Figure 10.2 (SI Units)
Convection Component of Bed to Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 12 of 80 :
Copy No.
__U_:-_- ..... ;--------:-- . - -- -- :-- -
ii:::::::::::::: ,.: :,::::::.:.'::.: .... :-= ...... ' T.,
) 0-- - c__. F_ =-:
_____Fgu re 10 t( Bi-t Un-its) I
t-1 ,oIvIcio Co_--n-=' o f B
=
S
ne
NX~S mNQ)N L0 X
0"
Page 13 of 80
Cony No.
@ 10.2.4.2 Definition of tube Rap
For an equilateral triangular pitch the tube gap, z, is defined as the
minimum distance between adjacent tubes, which is given by,
Z = Ph - Do .
.
. ... ... ... 10.13
where D is the tube outside diameter and ph is the horizontal pitch.
For other tube arrangements the tube gap is defined as that for the
equivalent triangular pitch which gives the same tube surface/bed volume ratio.
Examples of the method of calculation of z are given in Figures 10.3 and 10.4.
When only a single row of tubes is present the tube gap is defined as the
physical gap between the tubes; see example 5 in Figure 10.4.
When only a single tube is present the tube gap is large. The correction
factor, f(z), should be assumed to be the maximum value of 1.06.
10.2.4.3 Correction for tube bank height
In atmospheric pressure applications the number of rows of tubes in a
tube bank is generally less than 10 and is often only 1, 2 or 3. In such
circumstances it can be assumed, within the error of the calculation for h
c
(equation 10.9) that the heat transfer coefficient is the same for all the tube
rows.
However, in certain applications, generally for pressurised operation, as
it is only during pressurised operation that the extra bed pressure drop caused
by deep beds is economically acceptable, tube banks up to 2.5m (8ft) deep (10.16
- 10.18) have been used with up to 27 rows of tubes. With such deep tube banks
the tube position has been shown to have a significant effect on h . The effect
c
is illustrated by Figure 10.5 which shows the ratio of the experimental value of
h to that calculated using equation 10.9, plotted against the number of tube
c
rows in the tube bank. The rows are counted from the top downwards, the top row
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 14 of 80
Copy No.
Example 1 Eouilateral Triangular Pitch
Definition of Tube Gap, z
h P
Tube surface area per shaded triangle portion of bed (per unit tube length)
v( D
o
. 1
2
Bed Volume per shaded triangle portion of bed (per unit tube length)
Sh x. 1 e,i since x jp (h) 2
4 (2)
Hence, R, the tube surface area/bed volume ratio is,
2 if D
O
3 Ph anld Ph /
Example
2
General Triangular Pitch
For the shaded portion, ID /2
Tube surface area/Bed volume ratio, R a D
x P
1
/2
21 DO x pi 2 x p
1
Equivalent Pitoh, Ph p i3 - D
o
Ph -D
Figure 10.3
Example Caloulation of z
Issue 002
Section 10
Pace 15 of 80 -
Copy No.
Example 3 Rectangular Pitch
For the shaded portion,
Tube surface area/bed volume ratio, R D /(p
l
.x)
Equivalent pitch, Ph =J - = (2x pl/P )
i _F3 4 D
o
z = Ph - Do
Note For a square pitch Ph P
1
J2/3)
Examole 4 Rectangular pitch with an additional central row
For the shaded portion,
Tube surface area/bed volume ratio, R = 2' Do/(y pD)
2-f D y p J_3
Equivalent pitch, ph r 2 - D1
Ph - D
Example 5 Single row of tubes
Assume the Tube gap equals the physical gap; i.e.. P
1
- Do
Example 6 A single tube
Assume tbat z is large , say 200 mm, so that '(z) = 1.0/0.942 = 1.06
Figure 10.4
Further Examples of the Caloulation of z
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Comy No.X
of the bank being row 1. The tube banks used contained 1 inch (25mm) outside
diameter tubes on various triangular pitches. Agreement between experimental and
predicted values is good, (h exp/h calc = 1), at the top of the tube bank.
o c
However, the bottom tube row in deep tube banks may give an experimental value of
h as low as three-quarters of the value for the top row.
c
The cause of the effect of tube position on h is not clear. It is
c
probably connected with a disturbance of the particle flow over the tube surfaces
because the presence of the tubes to some extent hinders the particle flow in the
bed. In deep beds segregation of finer particles in the upper regions of the
tube bank and the break-up of large bubbles by the tube bank might also account
for the heat transfer coefficients in the upper regions of the bank being larger
than those in the lower regions. In shallow beds the lowest tubes are exposed to
less turbulent conditions because the bubbles there are smaller ones which will
tend to give lower convective coefficients.
10.2.5 General effects of operatinx parameters on h
0
The following observations on the effect of operating parameters on h
0
are included both as a guide and as a caution should it be desired to use
equation 10.9 outside the range of operating conditions so far investigated.
Much of the published information of bed-to-surface heat transfer is concerned
not with tube banks but with surfaces in other forms, and the temperatures are
generally low so that radiant heat transfer is negligible and h equals h
c o
Nevertheless, the trends shown for illustration are generally confirmed by the
data available from tube banks in fluidised bed combustors.
Ls sue- 002
Section 10
Page 17o f ~80-
he ex_ -- - --------------
1,3
1.2
1.0
L -
0.8
0.7 ___
(10.16,1. , 018, 10.34, 10.35) ~= --
Uf 0.67 - 2.13 mn/s
0.5T
2.2 -7.0 ft
-/S~. - - -
P 10.018 -0.048 i -___
1 3 5 7 9 1 1 1 3 1 E 17 19 21 23 26 27 29
Top
row
~~~~~~~~~Number of tube rows
Figure 10.5
Variation of hc with Tube Bank Height
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10.2.5.1 Fluidising velocity
The general influence of increasing fluidising velocity on h is shown
0
diagrammatically in Figure 10.6 for the size of bed particle likely to be used
for fluidised bed combustors. A sharp rise in h occurs at the onset of
0
fluidisation and a peak value is obtained in the range Uf = (2 to 5) x U f when
the solids circulation patterns are fully established. There then follows a flat
plateau with little effect of Uf on h . As the fluidising velocity increases the
bed bulk density reduces along with the particle residence time and
concentration. However, flow conditions become increasingly turbulent and the
particle convective heat transfer coefficient reduces only slightly. Eventually,
as the terminal free fall velocity is approached, the solids concentration is
rapidly reduced and h falls. The correlation of equation 10.9 corresponds to
the plateau region and this is why Uf does not occur in equation 10.9. A
relationship between h and U like that shown in Figure 10.6 has been shown by
a f
Davidson to be predictable on the basis of the two-phase theory of fluidisation
(10.38).
10.2.5.2 Particle size
It is generally accepted that h decreases with increasing particle size.
0
The general effect is shown in Figure 10.7. The left hand graph (Figure 10.7a)
shows experimental values of heat transfer for a 20mm diameter sphere (reference
10.8). The right hand graphs (Figure 10.7b) show values of heat transfer
coefficient estimated using equation 10.9 for h and equations in Section 3 for
c
U and U . The trends of these families of curves also suggests that the flat
* ~~mf f
plateau of the h versus Uf curve is characteristic only for the sizes of
particle likely to be used for commercial combustors; eg line 10 on Figure 10.7a
and the area marked in Figure 10.7b.
The decrease in h with increasing particle size applies principally to a
0
particle size range less than 1800 gm (0.07 in) as Figure 10.2 illustrates.
There is little further decrease in h for particles over 1800 gm (0.07 in) and
0
Issue 002
Section 10
Pace 19 of 80
copv No.
ho 3
~
U.,f
Packed | Fluidised bed Dilute phase
bed.
fluidisation
o
0 Umf Ut
Uf -
Figure 10.6
Effect of Uf on h
S~~~~~~f-
Issue 002
Section 10
Pave 20 of 80
~
Copy No .'
U, ft/s
0 2 4
Btu 0 5 10 15 20
W/m
2t
K 100 400 500
a, microns
500
300 700
~~~~~~400 <~ Tb 6a50m(i.
400W/M2 "K 11o ho
Btu
200 -
2
h IF
300 7
0 04 08 50 Recommended
foperating region
200 -//oeom1
Bed temperature 90O0C (1650EF)
Tube temperature 1000C (212OF)
Tube gap 50mm (2in.)
100 aI I 0 I h 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a
U, m/s
Heat transfer to 20mm diameter spheres Calculated coefficients for horizontal tubes.
Particle sizes in microns: Using,
1. ferrosilicon - 82.5 Equation 3.2 for Ur,,
2. hematite - 173 Equations 3.3 to 3.5 for Ut,
3. carborundum - 137 Equations 10.9, 10.8 and 10.1 for h,, hr and
4 to 10. quartz sand - 140, 198, 216, 428, 515, h
o
respectively. Assuming maximum h
0
650, 1100 respectively,
at 3 x Ur, and a dilute phase h, of
11. glass spheres - 1160 0.5 x maximum h
0
.
(from reference 10.8)
(10.7a) (10.7b)
Figure 10.7
Effect of Bed Particle Size on the Relation between h
0
and U,
Paae 21 of 80
Copy No. '
0
the trend may even reverse for particles greater than 2200 pm (0.09 in). Large
particles will have a greater heat capacity (due to their higher volume to
surface ratio) which maintains them at a higher temperature in comparison with
smaller particles when contacting immersed cooling surfaces and leads to higher
convection heat transfer coefficients. This reversal has been found
experimentally (10.7, 10.8, 10.9) and is considered to be connected with a change
from Geldart powder group B to group D when gas convection becomes appreciable
(10.5). Equations 10.10 and 10.10a will predict increasing values of h with
c
increasing dpfor values of dpgreater than 2200 microns (0.09 in) (Figures 10.2).
Although U does not enter directly into the correlation of equation 10.9
f
it should be remembered that it does affect h indirectly because dp and U are
0 f
linked by the necessity to maintain 'good fluidising' conditions as discussed in
Section 9.6, Issue 002.
10.2.5.3 Factors affecting the surface flow
Any factors that affect the flow of gas and particles in the boundary
film close to the heat transfer surface will affect the rate of heat transfer.
Such factors are of two kinds; those caused by the nature of the flow over the
surface and those caused by the geometry of the surface itself.
10.2.5.3.1 Nature of flow
The representation of a fluidised bed as being analogous to a
vigorously boiling liquid, described as bubble flow, (see Section 2.3.1), while
correct for low fluidising velocities, is over simplified for the higher
fluidising velocities used in some applications. Just as in gas/liquid systems,
more complicated and random flow patterns occur as the fluidising velocity is
increased. Figure 10.8 which is taken from reference (10.10), shows flow regime
maps for two beds without in-bed cooling surfaces and having mean particle sizes
of 650 and 2600 um (0.026 and 0.1 in). At low fluidising velocities bubble flow
does exist and becomes increasingly important as the operating pressure
increases. At high fluidising velocities the flow pattern is described as
turbulent. It corresponds to 'froth' flow in a gas/liquid system. At
intermediate fluidising velocities the flow pattern is in a state of
Issue 002
Section 10
Pace 22 of 81
Copv No.
MIXE
0 , MIXED TURBULENT
N m3
w~ .a~ ~,,,'~ ' ~ ~~~ F~~~i~Mean bed
:W 5 Ptanicle
S~~~~~~~~ /J;1~~~~~~~~ ~Size
Wr 5 = ,I650 microns
(0.0255 in.)
9 APPARENT SLUGGIN G/
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Uf/Ut
10
MIXED TURBULENT '
1i , 2600 microns
1, '/
(0.102 in.)
APPARENT
SLUGGING
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
UflUt
Figure 10.8
Effect of Fluidising Velocity and Pressure on the Flow Regime
in Fluidised Beds
K...
Paae 23 of 80
Colpy No.
transition described as 'mixed flow' unless the combustor dimensions satisfy the
condition,
bubble diameter 0.67 x combustor equivalent diameter
when slugging can occur.
The presence of a tube bank in the bed causes the turbulent regime to
occur at lower fluidising velocities. The particle flaw within a tube bank has
been described (10.10) as a quasi-steady state counter-current flow with a large
number of small, local circulating eddies particularly around the tubes. This
observation agrees with other reports that fluidisation is much smoother with a
marked reduction in bubble size when a tube bank is immersed in the bed than when
the bed is void. Data linking heat transfer rates with specific flow patterns
are lacking but the foregoing suggests that the equation 10.9 correlation has
been developed for turbulent and mixed type flows.
The general gas/solids flow patterns established in a fluidised combustor
can be greatly modified by the characteristics of the gas distributor. A serious
mal-distribution at the distributor, for example, can persist right to the
surface even of beds several metres deep. To obtain uniform fluidisation the
distributor designs recommended in Section 15 should be used. Even with good gas
distribution the flow conditions in the region immediately above the distributor
are different from those in the remainder of the bed where further gas
distribution and the establishment of the solids circulation pattern continue.
For this reason it is recommended that any extensive cooling surface such as a
tube bank should not be installed immediately above the distributor. A free
* space of O.lm (4 in.) should be left between the distributor and the lowest part
of the tube bank. Note, however, that the rate of erosion of immersed surfaces
increases with increasing bed depth. The positioning of a tube bank near the bed
surface may, therefore, be undesirable from erosion considerations but is often
unavoidable when the bed expansion method of turn-down is used. For this reason
relatively shallow beds are generally used for this method of turn-down. See
also Sections 19.3, Issue 001, 20.7, Issue 001 and 3.10, Issue 002.
Whatever the flow pattern the presence of a cooling surface in a
fluidised bed acts as an obstruction to the flow. When this happens some phase
separation of the flowing gas/solids mixture may occur. Thus pockets of gas tend
90
Paae 24 of 80
Copv No.
to collect underneath a cooling tube while a region of stagnant solids tends to
collect above the tube. For this reason the distribution of heat transfer is not
uniform around the circumference of a tube. This is discussed further in Section
10.2.7.
10.2.5.3.2 Nature of surface
Under this heading are included factors such as the type of cooling
surface, eg tube, wall, plate, etc., and the surface geometry, eg bare tube,
finned tube, horizontal, vertical, tubes with membrane walls, etc. It is to be
expected that each arrangement that significantly alters the boundary flow of gas
and solids over the cooling surface will require separate investigation.
However, this condition is less restrictive than it might seem. It is found in
practice that tube diameter, position of the surface within the bed (provided it
is not immediately above the distributor), and alignment of the surface
(horizontal or vertical) do not greatly affect the heat transfer rate from the
bed. This is explained as follows (10.23). The solid particles do not move
along the heat transfer surface for an appreciable time; at one instant they are
near the surface, at the next they have migrated into the core of the bed.
Consequently, the height of the surface, L, can only influence heat transfer when
L is commensurate with the vertical path of the particles, 1 , or the height of
0
the contour of circulation of particles in thick beds. It has been shown
(10.24), even for large particles (dp V 3 mm) and with low fluidisation ratios
(U /U < 2), that 1 0 20 to 25 mm, which is less than the height of vertical
f mf o
heat transfer surfaces in most industrial and laboratory equipment. See also
Section 10.2.6. Thus the equation 10.9 correlation should be used with caution
for tubes smaller than 25 mm (1 in.) OD.
The boundary flow of gas and solids over the cooling surface will be
altered if there is any obstruction to the flow. The presence of tube banks is
an example of such an obstruction and the gap between tubes, z, has been found to
have an important influence on heat transfer rates and is used as a correlating
parameter in equation 10.9. As the gap is reduced the solids flow is reduced and
the heat transfer coefficient decreases. The equation 10.9 correlation is
considered to be valid for both square and triangular pitch provided the
Paae 25 of 80
ComY No.
definitions of tube gap given in Section 10.2.4.2 are used. Tube erosion can be
reduced through the use of a square pitch; see Section 19.3, Issue 001.
The number of rows of tubes, that is the tube bank height, has also been
found to have a significant influence on the heat transfer rate. The reason is
not yet clear but is probably also connected with a modification to the boundary
flow pattern over the tube surfaces. See also Section 10.2.4.3.
Apart from modifying the flow patterns the mere presence of a tube bank
will increase the local fluidising velocity between the tubes. This will lead to
an upper limit to the operating fluidising velocity that may be used with a given
tube bank geometry. If the local fluidising velocity approaches the terminal
free fall velocity of the particles then the bed will be blown out of the tube
bank to occupy a position above it in the combustor thus giving unworkable
conditions. This situation should not occur if operating conditions are kept
within the ranges shown in Table 10.1 but it has been reported to occur for
fluidising velocities in the range 3.7-4.7 mls (12-15 ft/s) for tube banks of 50
and 100 mm (2 and 4 in.) OD tubes. (10.21)
The surface roughness may affect the effectiveness of the particle -
surface contacting. It has been reported (10.40) that the heat transfer
coefficient between bed and surface is significantly increased when the surface
is grooved so that the roughness dimension is similar to the size of the bed
particles.
10.2.5.4 Operating pressure
Laboratory studies (10.11 to 10.14) have shown two effects of increasing
pressure on fluidisation characteristics. Firstly, the bubbles become smaller
and secondly, the proportion of gas in the bubble phase decreases. Figure 10.8
shows also that the bubble flow regime becomes of increasing importance as the
pressure increases. However, these effects apply to the lower range of
fluidising velocities. The equation 10.9 correlation has been found to hold
equally as well at 610 kN/m
2
pressure as at 100 kN/m
2
(6 to 1 atm).
Pace 26 of 80
Copy No.
10.2.5.5 Gas and solid physical properties
The physical properties that may be expected to influence heat transfer
are the thermal conductivity, viscosity and density of the gas and the density,
specific heat and thermal conductivity of the solid. The individual contribution
and importance of these properties is unknown because of the complexity of the
heat transfer processes but the following points may be mentioned.
The use of the tube wall temperature, T , in the equation 10.9
W
correlation takes into account the effects of local film temperatures on the
physical properties, and in particular on the gas thermal conductivity.
It has been reported (10.8) that the solids thermal conductivity and
specific heat are unimportant under the operating conditions used for industrial
combustors. However, tests on beds of low density coal ash particles have
resulted in noticably reduced heat transfer coefficients compared to sand for the
same particle size (10.49). One possible explanation is that both the thermal
conductivity and the specific heat of the ash particles could have been reduced
because the ash particles were more porous and of lower density compared with the
more dense sand particles.
The gas density varies with temperature and pressure and the gas
viscosity varies with temperature during the operation of pressurised fluidised
combustors but these physical property alterations have no effect on the heat
transfer provided 'good fluidisation' conditions (see Section 9.6 for a
definition) are maintained.
It should be noted that the solids physical properties may affect the
expansion characteristics of the bed and hence the expanded bed height. See
Section 9.2, Issue 002. If the bed expansion method of turndown is used the heat
transfer rate to the tube bank may also be affected by the change in the bed
height. See Section 9.11, Issue 002.
Issue 002
section 10
Paae 27 of 80
Cony No.
10.2.6 Values of h for specific surface geometries
c
Since the correlation for h of equation 10.9 is well established for
c
banks of horizontal bare tubes it is convenient to refer to values for other
geometries by comparison with the equation 10.9 correlation.
10.2.6.1 Single tubes
Values of heat transfer coefficients for single tubes are generally
somewhat higher than those for tube banks having the same diameter tubes because
the adjacent tubes obstruct the gas/solids flow (10.23). This effect of
obstruction is allowed for in the equation 10.9 correlation by the incorporation
4\ of the correction factor f(z). See Figure 10.4, example 6.
10.2.6.2 Horizontal coils
It is recommended that h should be estimated for this configuration
treating the coil as a single row of a horizontal tube bundle and using the
equation 10.9 correlation. See Figure 10.4, example 5.
10.2.6.3 Banks of vertical plain tubes
Under comparable operating conditions the heat transfer rates obtained in
bundles of vertical tubes are very similar to those found in bundles of
horizontal tubes (10.42, 10.23). The reason for this agreement is discussed
above in Section 10.2.5.3.2. It seems possible, therefore, that the equation
10.9 correlation may be applicable to a vertical tube bank. It is not known
however, if the correction term for flow restriction by the tube which involves
the tube gap, z, is also applicable to a vertical tube bundle. Also unknown is
whether any correction to the equation 10.9 correlation is needed on account of
the height of a vertical tube bundle.
_Issue 002
Section 10
Paae 28 of 80
Cony No.
10.2.6.4 Vertical walls, Plain or membrane tube construction
Limited data has been obtained from membrane wall cooling circuits,
containing 32mm diameter tubes on a 44mm pitch (lin. OD lin. pitch), on
experimental rigs (10.42, 10.18). Extensive tests were also carried out using
both plain walls and finned water cooled vertical panels (10.57). Both membrane
and water-cooled walls have been used as the bed contaminant on a large number of
successful commercial units.
From the above experience it has been found that heat transfer rates to
vertical walls are significantly less than those to surfaces that are completely
immersed by the bed. The probable reason is that the solids movement is more
sluggish at the walls than in the bed proper. In particular, in the lower part
' of the bed (levels < 75mm (3in.)) the fluidising bubbles are still coalescing and
their restricted horizontal movement is insufficient to fluidise material in the
gaps between the air distributor and the wall; hence the heat transfer rates are
restricted in this region.
It is recommended that,
Heat flux to a wall = (heat flux to a tube) x 0 ... ... ... 10.14
where, for plain walls, 0 = 0.2 for bed depths s 0.075 m (3 in.)
0 = 1.0 for bed depths > 0.075 m (3 in.)
and, for finned walls, 0 = 0.1 for bed depths s 0.075 m (3 in.)
0 = 0.5 for bed depths in the range 0.075 m (3 in.) to Lb
0 = 1.0 for bed depths in the range Lb to H,
The heat flux to a tube is assumed to be calculated using equations 10.2,
10.1 and 10.9 above. The reduction of the tube heat flux at very low bed depths
gives an allowance for the developing fluidising conditions close to the
distributor.
10.2.6.5 Banks of vertical finned tubes
One series of tests (10.33) has been carried out on 0.9 x 0.6 m (3 x 2ft)
pressurised combustor using a bundle of vertical in-bed cooling tubes with
Page 29 of 80
Copv No. -
longitudinal fins. The tubes were 2.4m (8ft) long and approximately 100 mm
(4in.) OD on a 150 mm (6in.) pitch; they were completely immersed in the expanded
bed.
Because of the finned construction it is not possible to use the equation
10.9 correlation. Measured values of the bed-to-tube heat transfer coefficient,
h , were in the range 190 - 230 J/(mZsOK) (34 - 40 Btu/ft
2
h 'F) assuming a fin
0
effectiveness of 0.5 and at the following operating conditions: fluidised
velocity, 0.8 m/s (2.6 ft/s); bed temperature 870C (1600F); bed mean particle
size 800 gm (0.031 in.). These h values are lower than those to be expected for
0
an equivalent bank of horizontal plain tubes.
10.2.6.6 Banks of horizontal finned tubes
The heat transfer performance of three different designs of single
horizontal finned tube has been compared with that of a plain tube (10.41, 10.43,
10.44). Details of the fin design are given in Figure 10.9. The area and heat
flux ratios given are based on the plain tube external surface areas. The
calculated fin effectiveness was 75% for designs a and b and 100% for design c.
The heat flux was increased by up to 2.7 times that for a plain tube, depending
on fin design, through the use of finned tubing.
The bed to tube heat transfer coefficients are within 10% of values
calculated using equations 10.1, 10.8 and 10.9 if the coefficients are calculated
on a total effective area basis;t see Figure 10.10. The comparison in this
figure is based on data from heat transfer probes in research rigs (10.43, 10.44)
and the tube gap, z, has been taken as the minimum distance between the fin tips
and the combustor wall. The tube surface temperature has been assumed to be that
estimated for the tube surface at the base of the fins.
Fin tip temperatures have been found to vary with the tube design. For
the deeper fins (Figure 10.9b, fin depth 9.8 mm) the tip temperatures were up to
t The total effective area = fin efficiency * fin area + exposed root tube outer
area
Paoe 30 of 80
Copy No.
Area ratio 2.3
1.2 12.7 Heat flux ratio 1.7
______________ Fin efficiency 75%
t g -j_ 'i ASTM A213, grade 5
_a _ E _ EStainless Steel
.~ "r~ a Bed temperature 830C
N I~~~~~ ~~(1 526TF)
4... Fluidising velocity 0.95 m/s
(3 ft/s)
Tube height 1.2 m (4 ft)
Area ratio 3.35
Heat flux ratio 2.7
Fin efficiency 75%
Mild Steell-Helically
wound welded fins.
o_b ~ Bed temperature 900C
r, uz(1
652F)
Fluidising velocity 1.5 -4.1 mi/s
IF ' \ (5 - 13 ft/s)
Tube height 0.21 m (8 in.)
0 ~~~240 5.0
g ~~ ~~~~~~24' 3.0 5.0 ~~Area ratio 2.2
,~l~~~~~~~~~~~~ +||Heat flux ratio 2.2
LE~~~~ Za dZ iFin efficiency 100%
Mild Steel.Fins integrally
_~'~~ _' _ _ o C ~formed by cold extrusion.
Bed temperature 900C
(16520F)
Fluidising velocity 1 - 3.5 m/s
(3 - 11 ft/s)
Tube height 0.21 m (8 in.)
All dimensions are in millimetres Tube height 0.21 (8 in.)
Figure 10.9
*w~~~ ~Horizontal Finned Tube Details
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 31 of 80
CopyV No. i
500
0
300 ...............
.
Design
o
W/m
20
K A Figure 1O.9b
o Figure 10.9c
200
Total Calculated using
effective
equations 10.1, 10.8, 10.9
area basis and z = 50mm (2 in.)
Tw = 150CC (300F)
100 ------- a_
____
0
0 500 d p 1,000 microns 1,500
Figure 10.10
Heat Transfer to Horizontal
Tubing
Issue-002
Section 10_
Page 32 of 80
Copy No.
250C (450F) greater than the tube wall outer temperatures at the fin root.
Lower temperature increases, up to 80C (145F) were obtained with the shallow
fin design (Figure 10.9c, fin depth 4 mm).
During the testwork, which involved beds with mean particle sizes in the
range 800-1510 microns (0.03-0.6in), it was noted that large ash particles could
become trapped between the fins of the deep fin design (Figure 10.9b) which would
reduce the effectiveness of the fins. The fins of the short, tapered fin design
(Figure 10.9c) were found to be much less prone to blockage by bed solids.
10.2.6.7 Membrane walls with horizontal tubes
A horizontal membrane wall construction is used in a novel 'heat sink'
air distributor design (10.45, 10.46). The distributor design is outlined in
Figure 10.11. A flat coil of tubing is joined with flat fins acting as membranes
between adjacent turns. Holes are drilled in these membranes to admit and
distribute the fluidising air and thereby create a circulation of hot solids over
the exposed surface of the tubing. Water is pumped through the coil to cool the
distributor.
The heat sink distributor design has two advantages over the established
stand pipe type of distributor.
a) There is no need for stand-pipe nozzles as no static layer of bed solids
is required to insulate the distributor surface from the hot bed.
b) The heat removed by the combined distributor plate and bed containing
walls may be sufficient for operation of the combustor at an economic
excess air level without the need for an in-bed tube bank.
Operation of a boiler with a "heat sink" distributor and without an in-
bed tube bank has the further advantage that the bed cooling surface is taken
away from the expanded bed or splash zones, where rates of tube erosion are
relatively high, into a zone of relatively low erosion at the distributor. The
developing flow conditions there are used with advantage to create a solids
movement that results in high rates of heat transfer to the cooling tubing. It
is also easier to fit an over-bed burner start-up system as the burner flame has
a clear view of the bed surface. The simplifications resulting from these
Section
10 Issue 002
Page 33 of 80.
Copy No. k
I
z
0
it
-
C
In'ii
2
w
Lii
a-
I
IL4
ii'
I-i
0
I''
Iii
C
*
CU,C
:20
4
z
U,
*
z
w IL
-
n
Cr
is Al
..
C
z
Lid
Li,
z
4
C)
1.i
j
*
o
IL-J Iw -
Lii J
LLik -s Li-
-
WInD
11 cC
C)
ou
Figure 10.11
*
"Heat Sink" Air Distributor
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 34 ofO80
CoDy No.
advantages may allow the cost of small atmospheric fluidised bed combustion shell
boilers to be reduced by up to 10%. The retro-fitting of oil/gas fired water tube
boilers is also simplified.
Encouraging results have been obtained from the field trials of a 2.3MW
(8 x 106 Btu/h) unit fitted with a heat sink distributor (10.45). Typical test
data are shown in Figure 10.12. Variation in the rate of heat transfer with
fluidising velocity was about 3:1 over the fluidising velocity range 1-3 m/s (3.3
- 10 ft/s). The rate of change of heat transfer was not entirely linear with
velocity; the heat transfer increased more rapidly for a fluidising velocity
change from 1 to 2 m/s than it did from 2 to 3 m/s (see Figure 10.12). At
fluidising velocities above 2.4 m/s (8 ft/s) the bed to tube heat transfer
coefficient, on an effective surface area basis (membrane efficiency 87%), was
about 95% of the value calculated using equations 10.1, 10.3 and 10.9 with the
tube gap, z, assumed to be zero; (Figure 10.12).
10.2.7 Distribution of heat transfer around a tube circumference
Both the heat transfer coefficient and the tube wall temperature are not
uniform around the circumference of a horizontal cooling tube immersed in a
fluidised bed. The non-uniformity arises because the tube obstructs the flow
pattern in the bed. Gas bubbles, or gas with a lower than normal solids content,
tend to collect underneath a tube while a cap of solids, or gas with a higher
than normal solids concentration, collects on the top of a tube. Both these
conditions reduce the heat transfer rate. At the sides the tube is subject to an
intermittent flow of gas and solids with frequent solids renewal; these
conditions are favourable for high heat transfer rates.
The extent of non-uniformity will depend on the flow pattern and the
fluidising velocity. Several studies of the maldistribution of the bed-to-tube
heat transfer coefficients have been made (10.20, 10.21, 10.39). The general
picture that emerges is as follows: At low fluidising velocities the
maldistribution of heat transfer coefficients appears as in Figure 10.13a with
ratio of maximum to minimum coefficient around 3 to 31. As the fluidising
velocity increases the coefficients at the top and bottom at first increase
faster than at the sides so the ratio of maximum to minimum coefficients
decreases and the position of the maximum moves downstream as in Figure 10.13b.
Paae 35 of 80
Copy No. (' ' -
Fluidising Velocity ft/s
0 2 4 6 8 10
60
ho 300 - 1.5
Btu
ft
2
hF
40
40 200 - 1.0
h./ Ca culated
X/
W/m
2
K
20
100 / Bed temperature 890.970C(1630-1780F) 0.5
Tube Wall Temperature 150C (300F)
Effective area 2.36m
2
(25.4ft')
Bed mean particle size 800pm (0.03in.)
Assumed tube gap,z, 0
0 0
0 1 2 3
Fluidising Velocity mis
Figure 10.12
Heat Transfer Performance of Heat Sink Distributor
Section 10
Issue 002
Page 36 of 80
Copyv No.
m/s 0.1-0.2
0.7
Ut ft/s 0.3-0.6
2
Fig. 10.13a
Fig. 10.13b
Relative
value of heat
transfer
coefficient
Direction of gas/solids flow
450
315
Fig. 10.13c
Fig. 10.13d
m/s 2.5 to 3.8
Hf ft/s 8 to 13
Figure 10.13
Variation of Heat Transfer Coefficient around the Periphery
of a Horizontal Tube
Page 37 of 80
Cony No.
O At still higher fluidising velocities, Figures 10.13c and 10.13d the position of
the maximum moves further downstream to the 450 and 3150 position. At these high
velocities the ratio of maximum to minimum coefficients is in the range 1.8 - 2.5
and the ratio of the maximum to average coefficients is in the range 1.3 - 1.8.
There is some evidence to suggest that tube diameter and position in the tube
bank may slightly affect these ratios.
Temperatures around the periphery of a horizontal tube have been measured
for both water cooled (10.9) and air cooled tubes (10.22). The tube wall
temperature for the water cooled tubes was 250-300
0
C (480-570F) and the bed
temperature 800-950C (1470-1740F). At fluidising velocities in the range 1.8 -
2.4 m/s (6-8 ft/s) the top of the tubes was 20-30C (36-54F) hotter than the
bottom. However, at a fluidising velocity of 1.2 mls (4 ft/s) the bottom of the
. tubes was 20-60C (36-108F) hotter than the top. It is not clear if this change
is general or in some way specific to these particular tests. At all fluidising
velocities investigated the temperature differences were reduced significantly if
the insides of the tubes were rifle-bored as a turbulence promoter. Further
investigations (10.56) using 115 mm (4.5 in.) OD tubes and a fluidising velocity
of 2.6 mls (8.5 ft/s) have shown a greater uniformity of surface temperatures
with the mean temperature of the upper tube surface being 7 - 20 'C (13 - 36 OF)
above the mean temperature of the lower tube surface.
The temperature variations measured around the air cooled tubes are
summarised in Table 10.2. These measurements were all made at a constant
fluidising velocity of 0.91 mls (3 ft/s). As the average tube temperature,
measured at the 45 position (see Figure 10.13d) increases, the temperature
variation reduces and the position of the maximum moves from downstream to the
sides of the tube. Since the values quoted in Table 10.2 were obtained from
tests on a relatively small combustor, 0.3 m (12 in.) square section, caution
should be exercised in applying them to larger combustors.
10.3 Procedure for Calculating In-bed Cooling Surface Area
10.3.1 General considerations
The design of the in-bed cooling walls and tube bank for a particular
application generally involves some trial and error. Firstly, the heat transfer
Paae 38 of 80
Copn No .
Table 10.2
Temperature Variation in Air-cooled Heat Transfer Tubes
Mean tube Temperature variation from Position of
temperature mean
minimum maximum average minimum maximum
C
'F C 'F C
F
C 'F
-20 -35 69 125 bottom top
540 1000 87 157
1 -11 -20 75 135 bottom top
-17 -30 55 100 bottom top
650 1200 70 127
-9 -15 61 110 bottom top
0 0 69 125 laterally top
760 1400 45 82
0 0 22 40 laterally bottom
-3 -5 42 75 laterally bottom
843 1550 34 62
-5.5 -10 20 35 bottom top
Note 1: Readings are taken from two axial stations at each temperature.
Note 2: The mean temperature is that recorded at the 45
or 315
position.
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 39 of 80
Cony No. :.
coefficients from bed to surface and surface to cooling fluid are functions of
the surface outer, T , and inner, T , temperatures; but T and T are determined
by the heat transfer rates. Secondly, the bed to tube heat transfer coefficient
depends on the tube bank geometry which may not be known precisely at the outset,
and thirdly, the bed mean particle size, which affects the bed to tube heat
transfer coefficients may, in turn, be affected by the tube bank design through
its influence on the processes of abrasion and elutriation.
The procedure recommended for calculating the in-bed cooling surface area
also depends on the scale of the application and the method of turndown adapted.
For small and medium scale industrial boilers - up to 30 MW (1 x 108 Btu/h) heat
output - the bed expansion method of load control is recommended, see section
10.3.2 below. For larger scale applications and for other methods of turndown a
I more detailed analysis of the heat transfer process may be needed. A suitable
step wise procedure is described in Section 10.3.3 below.
10.3.2 Tube bank design for the bed exDansion method of turndown
The bed expansion method of turndown is outlined in Section 3, Issue 002.
When using this method it is necessary to determine first an approximate tube
bank geometry and then to check that the chosen tube bank location in the bed
gives the required operational flexibility. A computer program BEDEXP8 has been
developed as a design aid, (using APL language) for the latter purpose (10.54,
10.58). The program calculates the in-bed heat transfer and bed heat balance
step wise through the bed and splash zones for a specified tube bank geometry and
operating parameters. The program output shows how the combustor power output is
W predicted to vary with the operating parameters of bed temperature, excess air
level and fluidising velocity. As input the program BEDEXP8 requires values for
the bed cross-sectional area and for variation of immersed surface area with bed
depth. The bed cross-sectional area and the MCR immersed surface area can be
calculated from a combustor heat balance and a program FBCDES is available for
this purpose (10.52). A preliminary tube bank geometry can then be chosen and
the variation of immersed surface area (wall and tube bank) with bed depth can
be calculated using an auxiliary computer program SUBTUBE (10.53). FBCDES and
SUBTUBE are programs both written in BASIC language.
Page 40 of 8Q
Copy No. K
The complete procedure is most readily understood through the use of a worked
example.
10.3.2.1 Worked example for tube bank design for the bed expansion turndown
method
10.3.2.1.1 Input parameters
It is required to design the tube bank for a small industrial hot water
boiler burning either single or smalls coal fed using above bed feeding methods.
Sulphur retention is not required.
The input parameters specified are as follows:-
Coal analysis, % as fired basis:
Carbon 69.41
Hydrogen 4.48
Oxygen 8.03
Nitrogen 1.20
Sulphur 1.42
Moisture 10.10 (includes inherent and free moisture)
Inerts 5.36
Gross calorific value 28.75 NJ/kg
Air for feeding fuel 0 kg/kg fuel (i.e. coal is fed without
pneumatic air)
Excess air 30%, at MCR
Bed temperature 9700C, at MCR
Air preheat temperature 23C
Mean vater temperature in tubes 9000
Tube OD 50.8 mn
Thermal conductivity of tubes 45 W/inK
Steel-to-water inside tube film
heat transfer coefficient 5000 W/mK
MCR heat output 1.8 MW
Pane 41 of 80
CoDy No.
10.3.2.1.2 Estimation of bed and immersed surface areas
It is, recommended that the design procedure set out in Section 3.2.2.1,
Issue 002 and Figure 3.1 should be followed. The bed and immersed surface areas
are calculated by making a heat balance over the fluidised bed. Such a balance
is most easily found using program FBCDES (10.52). However, use of this program
requires further input data, as follows:-
1). Fluidising velocity. Current recommendations are given in Sections
3.5.1, Issue 002. Here a maximum continuous rating (MCR) value of 1.75
m/s has been assumed to minimise erosion of the tube bank.
2). Proportion of combustion occurring in the freeboard. No precise figures
are available but see Sections 3.7, Issue 002, 20.4, Issue 001 and Figure
20.3. For this example, since both singles and smalls coals have been
specified, calculations have been made for 0, 5 and 10% of combustion in
the freeboard.
3). 14/25 grade sand with a mean particle size of 900 microns has been
assumed to be the start-up bed material.
4). The static bed depth should be as low as possible to minimise tube bank
erosion. For this example a value of 0.1 m has been assumed for the
preliminary depth; this parameter could be altered later in the
calculations.
5). Tube gap and tube metal temperature. The program FBCDES calculates an
approximate value for the immersed surface area. The overall bed to
water heat transfer coefficient is calculated using equations 10.1, 10.8
and 10.9 for the bed to tube heat transfer coefficient and fixed, typical
values for the conductivity through the tube wall and the tube to water
coefficient. No allowance is included for fouling on the water side.
The tube outside metal temperature is assumed to be 500C higher than the
mean water temperature. The tube gap, z, is assumed initially to be
50mm, which is a typical value.
Paae 42 of 80
Cony No.
6). Fuel flow. Program FBCDES derives first a heat balance on a "per kg of
fuel" basis. A value for the fuel flow must then be input to enable
estimates of the bed and immersed surface areas to be calculated.
For the MCR operating conditions the combustion efficiency has been
assumed to be 97%. A more exact value could be obtained using correlations given
in Section 4.4.3, Issue 002 but there is no need for greater precision at this
stage. For a small industrial boiler equation 3.7 (from section 3) may then be
used to estimate the overall thermal efficiency.
flot = 0.84 x n = 0.84 x 0.97 = 0.815
Hence the MCR fuel flow is,
1.8 X 3600 276.6 kg/h
0.815 28.75
The results using program FBCDES are shown in Table 10.3. A bed cross-
sectional area of 1.86 m' is required. For this example a rectangular cross-
section combustor with the dimensions given in Figure 10.14 has been assumed to
be suitable. The total area of the immersed surfaces needed varies from 3.0 to
3.86 m
2
depending on the proportion of freeboard combustion that occurs.
10.3.2.1.3 Preliminary tube bank geometrv
The immersed surface areas given in Table 10.3 are those for wall and
tube bank combined. Assume that the effective wall area extends to the expanded
bed level. The expanded bed depth, Lb, is obtained from an empirical correlation.
That for 14/25 grade sand on page 9.14 of Section 9, Issue 002 is suitable.
Thus,
Lb = L, [1.35 + 0.3 (Us - Ur,) ]
The minimum fluidising velocity, Uuf, may be taken as 0.36 from Figure 3.5
of Section 3, Issue 002, with sufficient accuracy. Hence,
Lb = 100 [1.35 + 0.3 (1.75 - 0.36)] = 177 mm
Page 43 of 80
Conv No. \./
Table 10.3
Example Tube Bank Design for Bed Expansion Turndown Method
Results from Program FBCDES
a ~ ~
Freeboard combustion % combustion heat release 0 5 10
In-bed heat transfer % combustion heat release 44.9 42.0 38.8
Bed area m
2
1.86 1.86 1.86
Immersed surface area m2 z = 50 mm 3.86 3.43 3.00
Immersed surface area i J
2
z = 126 mm 3.73 3.31 2.90
Page 44 of 80
Copv No.
The wall surface is,
(177/1000) (1.28 x 2 + 1.45 x 2) = 0.97 m
2
The corresponding tube bank surface areas that are required are shown in
Table 10.4 depending on the proportion of combustion occurring in the freeboard.
Tubes of 50.8 mm OD have been specified. To minimise erosion (See Section
19.3.3, Issue 001) it is assumed that the tubes will be horizontal and a
convenient design in the form of "hairpins" is shown in Figure 10.14. A
clearance of 100 mm is allowed between the end of the hairpin and the combustor
wall to avoid any restriction on the bed solids circulation so the hairpin length
is 1350 mm. With this arrangement the surface area per tube is approximately,
x x 50.8 x 1350 = 0.215 m2
1000 1000
The total. numbers of tubes and hairpins required at different proportions of
freeboard combustion are shown in Table 10.4.
The expected range of above bed heat release is 0 - 10%. A choice of 5%
above bed heat release gives the greatest flexibility for different coal use.
Variations around the 5% figure can be accomodated by varying the bed depth in
order to maintain constant both the bed temperature and excess air level. Hence
a tube bank with 6 hairpins is selected.
The preliminary tube bank design is now as outlined in Figure 10.14. The
effective tube gap, z, could be increased by spacing the hairpins more widely.
Assuming an equal horizontal spacing between each hairpin and a 150 mm gap
between each end hairpin and the walls gives a horizontal gap of,
(1280 - 300 - 6 x 50.8)/5 = 135 mm
From Figure 10.4 the equivalent tube gap, z, for this arrangement becomes,
Z= Ph - D. = J 2xp
1
/ E - Do
= ] 2(50.8+ 23) (50.8 + 135)/ E3 - 50.8
= 126
Paae 45 of 80
Corp No.
Immersed surface areas calculated using this revised value of z are shown
in Tables 10.3 and 10.4. Although the tube surface area required is reduced by
the wider tube spacing six hairpins will still be satisfactory.
The use of six hairpins gives a tube bank with a surface area slightly
greater than that indicated by the calculations. However, it is not assumed that
all the tubes will be covered by the bed at MCR conditions and some over
allowance of tube area is recommended to give flexibility as it is easier to
reduce the effective heat transfer in an overcooled bed by bed depth reductions
rathet than to increase the heat transfer in an undercooled bed by adding more
tubes.
Issue 002
Section 10
Paae 46 of 80
CoDy No.
1450 - 1280
1350
. 363
E - _ - _ 5tO
Ls \ 1 '50
-- _ -_-- - - __ _-;
Bed area 1.86 m
---
ll dimensions a.e in mm
All dimensions are in mm
Figure 10.14
Proposed Tube Bank Geometry
Page 47 of 80
Copy No. :
Table 10.4
Example Tube Bank DesiRn
Data for Program SUBTUBE
Freeboard combustion % combustion heat release 0 5 10
14/25 grade sand, mean size 0.9 mm: tube gap 50 mmu
Wall immersed area m
2
0.97 0.97 0.97
Tube immersed area m
2
2.89 2.46 2.03
Number of tubes 13.46 11.46 9.44
Number of hairpins 7 6 5
14/25 grade sand, mean size 0.9 mm: tube gap 126 mm
2
0.97 0.97 0.97
2
2.76 2.34 1.93
Number of tubes 12.83 10.88 8.98
Coal ash, mean size 1.3 mm: tube gap 50 mm
2
0.83 0.83 0.83
2
3.52 3.03 2.52
Number of tubes 16.37 14.09 11.72
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 48 of 80
Copy NO.
10.3.2.1.4 Calculation of variation of wall and tube surface area with depth
The positioning of the tube bank in the bed is a matter of trial and
error. During start-up the whole tube bank should be above the static bed level
so that the start-up heat input is reduced as far as possible. At reduced loads
a part of the uppermost tubes should be above the splash zone while at MCR
conditions the tubes should just -be covered by the expanded bed and splash zone.
The splash zone itself is usually estimated as extending to a height 1.5 times
that of the expanded bed; see also Section 10.4.
For combustors with relatively shallow beds, as in this example, a 50 mm
gap between the lowest part of the tube bank and the top of the static bed has
often been found to be suitable and is assumed here as a starting value. The
resulting bed levels for MCR operation relative to the tube bank are shown in
Figure 10.15.
Once the tube bank has been positioned the variation of wall and tube
heat transfer surface area with bed depth should be calculated as this data is
required as an input to the program BEDEXP8. For simple arrangments of
horizontal tubes, as in this example, an approximate calculation by hand will be
sufficiently accurate. However, a program called SUBTUBE (10.53) can be used for
more complex geometries and for sloping tube banks. The output from program
SUBTUBE must then be entered manually into program BEDEXP8.
The resulting variation of immersed surface area with depth for the
proposed arrangement of this example is shown in Figure 10.15.
10.3.2.1.5 Use of program BEDEXP8 to optimise tube bank location
The program BEDEXP8 can now be used to generate power output
characteristic curves for the proposed tube bank arrangement. The program itself
contains full instructions for data input (10.54). Predicted performance curves
for different static bed depths are shown in Figure 10.16. Program BEDEXP8 can
also be used to simulate the effect of raising or lowering the tube bank in the
bed if the necessary variation of surface area with depth relation for each tube
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 49 of 80
300
C_oDy No.
200
depth
So,.sh zone
100
mm
_ - 177 __
150
50
100
100
Expanded bed
50
Static bed
0 __ _t_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Datum bed depth (defined
as centre line of uppermost
row of holes in standpipes
of distributor)
- Tube HT. surface area
.*- Wall HT. surface area
3.
2.s -. Tube bank 150 mm above
datum
2. c
1.. -
.o> .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Height aloe cdatum (rn)
3.
2.
*02.0 .. 2..' Tube bank 200 mm above
I 2.
datum
. :.-
1. -
.o .2 .4 .6 .8 1.O
Height above datum (m)
Figure 10.15
Bed Levels for MCR Operation and Variation of Tube and Wall
Surface area with Bed Depth
Page 50 of 80
Cony No. --
bank location is input; see Figure 10.15. Figure 10.17 shows the effect of
raising the tube bank by 15 mm to 200 mm above datum level. Further predictions
can be made for using different kinds of bed solids. Figure 10.18 shows the
predicted effect of substituting a bed of coal ash for one of sand.
Program BEDEXP8 carries out a stepwise heat and mass balance through the
bed and splash zone. Equation 10.25 is used for evaluating the splash zone heat
transfer coefficient. Equation 10.14 is used to calculate the heat flux to the
combustor walls. The tube outside metal temperature, T,, is evaluated directly
before equations 10.9 and 10.1 are used to calculate the immersed surface heat
transfer in any step. Because of these refinements the predictions of program
BEDEXP8 are more accurate than those of program FBCDES which are based only on a
simple overall heat balance.
Table 10.5 shows the predicted bed temperatures, read from the power
output characteristic curves of Figure 10.16, for operation at MCR (1.8MW) and
50% MCR loads at a constant excess air level for various static bed depths. If a
tube bank is ideally matched, in geometry, heat transfer area and location, to
the bed level changes brought about by varying the fluidising velocity then a
change from full to half load should occur at both constant excess air level and
constant bed temperature. In practice ideal matching is unlikely and if the
excess air level remains constant during a change from full to half load then the
bed temperature alters. The top part of Table 10.5 shows the bed temperatures
and temperature spread calculated for operation at a constant 30% excess air
level while the bottom portion of the table shows the excess air levels and 50%
MCR bed temperatures calculated for full load operation at the design bed
temperature of 9700C. The final choice of the best operating conditions will
involve a compromise. For example, Table 10.5 shows that a choice of 105 mm for
the static bed will make operation at full load design conditions (bed
temperature - 9700C, excess air level - 30%) achievable but a bed temperature
reduction of 1100C to 8600C would be required for load operation at 30% excess
air level. However, the load bed temperature would be increased if the excess
air level is allowed to rise.
The excess air versus load plots of Figure 10.16 give a quick indication
of whether a bed is under or over cooled by a given tube bank design. If the
constant excess air lines are all crowded into the bottom right hand corner of
Issue 002
Section 10
Paae 51 of 80
Copy No.
the plot, Figure 10.16a, then the bed is overcooled; on the other hand if those
lines are all crowded into the top left hand corner of the plot, Figure 10.16d,
then the bed is undercooled.
Effects of static bed deDth. The static bed depth determines the extent to which
the bed can expand, at a given fluidising velocity. If the static bed depth is
too great the bed will become overcooled and the bed temperatures, at both full
and half load, will decrease to preserve the bed heat balance. The reverse
occurs if the bed depth is too low. Table 10.5 shows that a static bed depth of
around 105 mm will probably give the best compromise operating conditions and
this depth would be the recommended value for a tube bank located 150 mm above
the datum level.
Effects of raising the tube bank. A reduction in tube bank heat transfer can
also be obtained by raising the tube bank since a larger part of the tubes will
then be operating in the splash zone where the heat transfer coefficients are
lower than in the bed proper.. Figure 10.17 and Table 10.5 show the effect of
raising the tube bank by 50 mm to 200 mm above datum level with a 105 mm static
bed depth. The bed is now significantly undercooled and it is no longer possible
to operate at the full load design conditions (bed temperature 970C, excess air
- 30%). Although the bed temperature spread for a reduction to half load is
reduced (Table 10.5), it will be necessary to increase the excess air level at
full load conditions to 55% to operate at the design bed temperature of 970
0
C. A
static bed depth of 105 mm with the tubes 150 ran above the datum level remains,
therefore, the recommended option.
Effects of bed material. With many coals the start-up bed of sand will be
replaced by a bed of coal ash after a short period of operation. The design
implications of such a change are outlined in Section 9.11, Issue 002. Coal ash
is generally lighter than sand. Therefore the smaller ash particles will be
elutriated from the bed leaving the larger ash particles to accumulate there.
Compared with sand the ash particles can have a lower density but larger particle
size. This change in particle characteristics has two main consequences.
Firstly, the bed expansion ratio will decrease so the expanded bed depth will be
lowered. Secondly, the in-bed heat transfer rate will be reduced.
Issu.e 00.2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ eofon1
Page 2 o 80
--- Power contours at 0.8, 1.*0, 1.3, 1.5, .8 2.0 mw
...Bed Temperature
contours at temperatures
specified on individual plots
S- atic bed -enthi mn
.0
70.0
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~975
850 -0
4te
0 875 30' . 0
0
40
075
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 30 a
0 0 7 0
10
Flndsn.veoit
lvs)Prcn
70.0
L 50. 0
to 1 eso ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-202
40.0
l/ 93Q
5 3 0 . 0 1 / ,
S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
4 05 2
m 30. 0
875~~~~~3'
1 .0
2
5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 9. 0
~~40 50 60 70 80Z 90 100 110
Fluntasno elo. bi (vt s
Percent of toa
80.0
1~~ 10 000
70.0
975~~~~~~~~~4' 0 0) 7 8 0 0
70.0
N4
0
.
0 1'S
10.0 825~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
* '~~~400 11 1
90
25 3.
0
40W
7 6 0 lo i
C.0
low'
602,
0
5
W.0 10 1 . .0
(7 ) 800 50 6 0 60 9 0 0
F~j~clxsjn ~,elocity(nv's)
Perent of0toa
Figur i0 90i6
(Height of tube~~~ bank aoE dau4500
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 53 of 80
Copv NO. ,
---- Power contours at 0.8, 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, 1.5, 2.0 MW
.... Bed Temperature contours at temperatures specified on individual plots
Height of lo~west part of Tube Bank above datum mm
70,0
600 80 0950
00 E
1 1 0
20. 1
~
X
X S50 /
C 70825
0330 / 6F 85 9 25 X 7
mLEOi~~~~ t~ ~950 875 0
0d~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 50
. 1.0 .5 2.0 2.5 3.0
40 50 60 70 83 93 100 110
Fluicisino velocity ({M's)
Percent of Load
80 0
700
7
.a0
b
.500o
10
4040
925 000 9
10
830.0
87 5
50
H H
860
0a3.~~~~~~~~~~~ 880~~~~~~~~~~~~~~70
.5 1,0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 40 50 60 70 83 90 100 10
0*' Fluidi sin velocit ..(./s)
Peroent of Load
Figure 10.17
Predicted Variation of Power and Excess Air Contours
with Height of Tube Bank above Bed Datum for 14/25 Grade Sand
(Static bed depth 105 mm )
Issue 002
section 10
Paqe 54 of 80
a
C0opY No. LA'
---- Power contours at 0.8, 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 2.0 Wi
.... Bed Temperature contours at temperatures specified on individual plots
Bed material
14/25 grade Silica Sand
mean size 0.9 mm
70.0
975
^ 0 . 0 $; 1- .1 < /- / - 800 95^
W. 0
530. O
3
.875 9
40. :0 : :| 85 0900 0
E 925 40
in 3.0 ''
9W
0o20. O I 85 0 / 70
3 0.0 m a 8251
-
-. 80^ .....
.S 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 40 50 60 70 8D 90 100 110
Fluidiing velocity (n,s)
Percent of Load
Coal Ash (Bersham)
mean size 1.3 mm
O.0
1. 000
70.0
975
~~~~~~~60.0~.900
92 40
E950 E 0
40.0
Fluicisins; elocitu (m/~) Percent of Lo-~
Figure 10.18
with changes in the Bed Solids composition
(Height of tube bank above datum 150 mm Static bed depth 105 mm)
Page 55 of 80
Copyv No. ;
Issue 002
Table 10.5
Bed Temperatures Predicted by Program BEDEXP8
for Operation st Constant Excess Air Levels
Excess Air - 30I throughout
Static bed Bed temperatures needed for Bed temperature
depth operation at loads of spread
50% 100%
mm C C C
Horizontal tube bank
14/25 grade sand; tubes 150 mm above datum
130 775 902 127
115 818 937 119
105 860 970 110
100 887 981 94
85 967 1002 40
105 j 962 1 1000 j 38
Coal ash; tubes 150 mm above datum
105 j 935 1 1005 70
Slovin
n
tube bank
14/25 grade sand
220 760 915 155
200 780 925 145
180 792 940 148
Bed Temperature for 100 Percent Load - 9700C throughout
Static bed depth Bed temperature Excess air level Bed temperature
needed for 50% load spread
mm 0C % C
Horizontal tube bank
130 820 0 150
115 842 15 128
105 860 30 110
100 870 37 100
85 897 60 73
105 900 1 55 70
Coal ash; tubes 150 mm above datum
105 1 880 58 90
Issue 002 SectiOn 10
page 56 of 80
Cainv No. '2
A correlation for the bed expansion of a typical coal ash, see page 9.15,
Issue 002, is
Lb = L, (1.154 + 0.21 Uf)
For the operating conditions of this example,
Lb = 100 (1.154 + 0.21 x 1.75) = 152 mm
Hence the wall immersed surface area becomes,
(152/1000) x (1.28 x 2 + 1.45 x 2) = 0.83 m
2
The net effect of this change together with the reduction of in-bed heat
transfer rates caused by a larger mean bed particle size is shown in Table 10.4.
The use of only 6 hairpins in the tube bank means that a 105 mm static depth bed
will be somewhat undercooled, which is confirmed by the predictions of program
BEDEXPS shown in Figure 10.18 and Table 10.5.
When the bed solids may change from sand to coal ash, therefore, it is
recommended that provision should be made to increase the bed depth to restore
the tube bank heat transfer. It should also be noted that in applications where
the bed depth is monitored and controlled using a single measurement of pressure
drop across the bed height such instrumentation will allow the bed depth to
increase in proportion with the change in bed density as explained in Section
9.11. Nevertheless it is recommended that provision should always be provided
for "fine tuning" of the combustor performance by altering the static bed depth.
10.3.2.2 Slopinsi Tube Bank
In some applications it may be necessary to use a tube bank with sloping
tubes. Figure 10.19 shows a typical arrangement for a boiler with membrane walls
together with the variation of immersed surface area with bed depth for this type
of design. The power output curves predicted by program BEDEXP8 for a typical
boiler with this type of tube bank design are shown in Figure 10.20 and the bed
Page 57 of 80
Copy No. -
temperatures predicted fbr operation at full and half load and 30% excess air
level are given in Table 10.5.
In comparison with a horizontal tube bank design, Table 10.5 illustrates
that a sloping tube design gives less sensitivity to changes in static bed depth.
Such reduced sensitivity comes about because of the more gradual change in tube
surface area with bed depth and also because, in general, deeper beds are
required. The main disadvantage of a sloping tube bank design is that both sloped
tubes and deeper beds have been found to lead to increased rates of tube erosion.
See Section 19.2.3.3, Issue 001. Also the lower packing density of this
arrangement, especially in the vertical plane, together with the more gradual
change in tube surface area with the bed depth results in a wider bed temperature
spread between full and half load conditions.
'4
10.3.3 Tube bank design when the bed expansion method is not used
When the bed expansion method of turndown is not employed and, in
particular, when the scale of the application is large (>30 MW (1 x 108 Btu/h)
heat output) and the in-bed coal feeding method is used, then the more detailed
procedure set out below is recommended for designing the tube bank.
The steps in the calculation procedure are outlined below. The
calculation values converge rapidly and only a few iterations are needed; one
alone may suffice for preliminary cost estimation. Alternatively a computer
program is available (10.15) which can be used for a fully detailed design. See
also Sections 3.3, Issue 002.
It is usually convenient to calculate the heat transfer surface area for
bed cooling, A,, from equation 10.15 which represents the overall process.
Q, = U A, AT F. *.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10.15
Issue 002
Section 10
Page 58 of 80
Copy No.
LOWER IIEADER
\ '>24\t~ /< IN-BED TUBES
./63 5m O D x 6 35mm THICK)
MEMBRANE WALL TUBE
f63Smm OD.x 4 Sm THICKI
,XMEMBRANE WALL
16mm THICK I
LOWER HEADER
o4. m- Tube & Total HT. surface area
. U4""' Wall HT. surface area
3.0
3.
2.5
1.
.O .2 .4 .6 .8 t.0 1.2
Height above datum (m)
Figure 10.19
Outline of Tube Bank Geometry and Variation of Immersed Surface Area
with Bed Depth for a Typical Boiler with Sloping Tubes
Issue 00 2 Se~ction 1~0
---Power contours at 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, and 22.5 l9AW
...Bed TempDerature contours at temperatures specified on individual plots
Static bed depth mm
70.0 975
14 8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~775 9
LS.0 2625 10
050 925W
40.0 8~~~~~~~~75 220 gw 90WC
9s
0 0
O4
n30.0 o 0~~~~~~~~~92 75W
o 1-~~~~~~~~~~~~950 W6
~~~ C~S
10.0 09254
.000
.5 1.0 1.5 2. 0 2.5 3.0 40o 50 W0 70 W0 W 100 110
00.0 l0w-
* 70~~.0 77 975
8075 0o
~~~W.0 ~ ~ ~ ~~~~,825 925W
~40.0 :675 200 9COo
O :~~~~~~~~~~~~~000E
W30.0 925 e 75 65
0 ~~~~~~~~~1950 O
320.0
10.0. 2
.0- 0
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 30O 40 s0 W0 70 W0 90 100 110
Fluidisins t.'~"y (n'< Percent of Load
90.0 1000
n.o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~975
8275 92
W.0 9W~~~~~~80 r
40.0 825925 W
0 1-9~~~~~~~~~~50
925 75~~~~~~~~~~~~~07
O.0
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 0540 0 60 70 W0 90 100 110
Fluidising Yeloci ty n')Prcn fL
Figure 10. 20
with Bed Depth
Boiler with Water-tube Walls; Bed Solids 14/25 grade Sand
Page 60 of 80
Copy No.
The precise form of subsequent equations used to determine the terms on
the right hand side of equation 10.15 will depend on the cooling surface type, eg
tube bank, membrane wall, etc. In the following outline a horizontal tube bank
of bare tubes is assumed. Analogous equations can be developed for other surface
types.
For a tube bank the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is given by:
1 , DO.SneDi) i r fouling 1016
Ui h^(D:/D
0
) 2k h [allowae j
and the logarithmic mean temperature difference between bed and cooling fluid,
AT, is:
AT (Tb - Tfi)- (Tb - Tfo) . .. ... 10.17
In _Tb Tfl)
(Tb - Tfo)
FT is a correction factor for departure from true counter-current flow.
See standard works on heat transfer, eg ref (10.4). For a bed at a uniform
constant temperature FT equals unity. If Tfj - Tf
0
then AT = Tb - Tf where Tf is
the mean cooling fluid temperature.
Some discolouration of heat transfer tubing immersed in the beds of
fluidised combustors has been observed but very little fouling of the tubes has
occurred. The scouring action of the bed particles tends to keep the surfaces
clean and it is recommended that no allowance should be made for fouling on the
bed side of the tubes as any effect is included in the correlations for h
c
Allowance for fouling on the coolant side will depend on the coolant used and
should be made in accordance with existing practice for conventionally fired
equipment.
10.3.3.1 Stepwise Procedure
1. For a specified coolant system and specified combustor fluidising
velocity and bed temperature draw up a heat balance over the bed and
Paae 61 of 80
Copy No.
freeboard and determine the heat flow, Q , to be transferred to the
cooling surfaces within or surrounding the bed. The terms to be
considered are outlined in Section 3.2.2, Issue 002. When the freeboard
combustion of solid fuels is significant Section 4 should also be
consulted.
2. Decide on the cooling surface characteristics; that is, type, e.g. in-
bed tube bank, membrane wall, etc; tube inside and outside diameters, D,
and D respectively, horizontal and vertical pitch, Ph and p
0
respectively; tube material and thermal conductivity. Guidance on
suitable materials of construction is given in Section 14.
Recommendations for a tube bank geometry to minimise erosion rates are
given in Section 19.3, Issue 001. Table 10.1 shows the ranges of in-bed
tube diameters for which heat transfer data are available.
The equations chosen for calculation of the bed to tube heat transfer
rates differ according to the type of cooling surface specified. For
illustration, an in-bed bank of horizontal plain tubes is assumed in a
refractory combustor.
3. Calculate the coolant outlet temperature, Tf
0
. If sufficiently accurate,
subsequent calculations may be based on a mean fluid temperature, Tf,
given
TI = Tb- AT... ... ... ... .. ... .. . .. ... ... ... 10.18
Alternatively, the cooling surface may be divided into sections and
stepwise calculations made for each section. In this procedure it will
be assumed that the use of a mean cooling fluid temperature will be
sufficiently accurate.
4. The tube wall mean inside and outside temperatures are needed for the
calculation of h and h but calculation of these temperatures implies a
id o
knowledge of the cooling surface required.
Paae 62 of 80
Cony No.
For the first iteration assume a value of U of 250 J/m2soK (45 Btu/ft
2
h
OF) and calculate an approximate value of A from equation 10.15 with F
= 1 thus,
A t = Qt.. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10.19
At = U AT FT
5. Calculate the coolant side film heat transfer coefficient, hi. This
should be obtained from the appropriate standard equation such as
equation 10.5 for water in turbulent flow without change of phase. In
order to calculate the necessary physical properties the tube mean inside
wall temperature, T., is needed which in turn is dependent on hi. For
the first iteration assume T = T
if
6. Recalculate Ti from equation 10.4 in a rearranged form, thus,
T= QtD + Tf *. - ... 10.20
At hi Di
7. Calculate, T , the tube wall mean outside temperature, from a
W
rearrangement of equation 10.3, thus,
Qt Do 1n(D
0
/Di) T.02
Tw = 2t D k I At D + Ti ... ... -. ... .. .. .. ... ... ... ... 10.21
After making allowance for the likely circumferential variation of tube
temperature from the mean value, T , see Section 10.2.7, check that the
maximum estimated tube temperature does not exceed the maximum allowable
working temperature of the tube material specified in step 2. If
necessary alter the specifications in step 2 appropriately and repeat
from step 2. Otherwise cointinue with step 8.
8. As shown in Section 10.2.4 the bed to tube wall heat transfer coefficient
is a function of mean bed particle size dp . An initial value of dp may
be obtained in several ways as -follows:
Page 63 of 80
Copy No.
a. For a start-up bed dp may be estimated from the bed solids
specification; see Table 13.1 of Section 13, Issue 002.
b. When the permanent bed is specified (e.g. an additive or a sand
grade) and is topped up and cleaned to maintain a given
specification dp should be estimated from that specification.
C. When the start-up bed is replaced during operation by one of coal
ash that is topped up and cleaned an estimate based on the start-
up-bed specifications may be used, but slight modification will
be required during operation, see Section 9.11, Issue 002 and
Section 10.3.2.1.5 above.
d. When the ash derived from coal-firing provides a relatively deep
inert bed the value of dp will depend on the coal feed size, ash
abrasion characteristics, the fluidising velocity and whether
fines recycle is used. Figure 9.12, Section 9, Issue 002 gives
an indication of the effect of these parameters and shows the
variation of dp with fluidising velocity for an ash with K A =
250,000 sm/s (230 hft/s) and no recycle. Fines recycle might
reduce dp by 10-30%.
9. Calculate h using equation 10.8.
1~ 10. Calculate h using equation 10.9 for a tube bank. For values of h for
other cooling surface configurations consult Section 10.2.6.
11. Calculate h using equation 10.1 and hence calculate U from equation
0
10.16. Check that the heat flux, U x AT, does not give rise to any
undesirable phenomena such as film boiling in the coolant circuit. If
necessary revise the tube and coolant specifications and repeat from step
2. If U is acceptable go to step 12.
12. Compare the value of U accepted in step 11 with that assumed in step 4.
Repeat with the revised value of U from step 4 until convergence.
Paae 64 of 80
Conv No.. _
13. Calculate the heat transfer surface, A from equation 10.14. Then
calculate the total length of tubing needed and arrange in a suitable
tube bank at the assumed values of Ph and p . The bed depth to
accommodate the tube bank will depend on the method of turndown adopted.
For all turndown methods the bed depth must be sufficient to ensure that
the gas/solids flow between the distributor and the lowest row of tubes
is not impeded. A minimum distance between the air distributor datum
level and the lowest part of the tube bank of 0.lm (4 in.) is
recommended.
When the bed expansion method of turndown is used the tube bank is partly
or wholly uncovered by the expanded bed at low loads and is completely
immersed at full load conditions; see Section 3.10, Issue 002 and Section
10.3.2 above.
For all other methods of turndown the tube bank should be fully immersed
at all load conditions to obtain the maximum heat transfer rates. To
ensure these it is recommended that the expanded bed height should extend
above the top of the top tube by 25 to 150mm (1-6 in.), according to bed
depth, see Figure 10.21.
If the application involves the in-bed feeding of crushed coal to deep
beds and the analytical design procedure is being used to calculate the
bed solids overflow rate, see Section 9.8, Issue 002, then the volume
fraction of the bed occupied by the tube bank, V , and the fraction of
the bed height occupied by the tube bank, Bh, should be calculated.
For preliminary designs the tube bank design thus calculated will
probably be of sufficient accuracy. However, for the more detailed
designs needed for coal firing with in-bed feeding to deep beds it is now
necessary to check that the tube bank design does not affect the
following parameters:
a. the combustion efficiency for coal firing and hence the heat
balance through alterations to the coal mixing parameter, J,
Pacae 65 of 80
Conv No.
given by equation 4.1 of Section 4.3 Issue 002. J is a function
of B
h
b. The assumed mean bed particle size dp . dp is a function of the
bed mean bulk density which is, in turn, a function of V t
C. The value of h calculated by equation 10.9. If the tube bank is
c
deep (tube rows more than 10) the values calculated by equation
10.9 may be reduced. See Section 10.2.4.3.
14. Using the value of B calculated in step 13 check that the combustion
h
efficiency for coal firing and hence the heat balance and value of Q
s. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t
.4 determined in step 1 are not materially altered. If there is a material
alteration repeat from step 1 until convergence of B . At step 10
appropriate allowance for the effect of tube bank depth on h should be
c
made.
15. Using the value of V calculated in step 13, use the procedures of
Section 9.8, Issue 002, to recalculate the mean bed particle size making
due allowance for the effect of the tube bank on elutriation and
abrasion. If a significant difference is found recalculate from step 8
until convergence of V t
16. The final values of A , Bh, V with the assumed values of D , D, P and
S h t o h
P now define the final tube bank design.
NOTE The detailed procedure involving steps 13-16 is only suitable for
computation using a computer program because of its complexity.
10.4 Heat Transfer in the Freeboard
Heat transfer rates from the gas stream to cooling surfaces are important
to fluidised bed combustor operation in two main regions of the freeboard. The
first lies in the splash zone just above the nominal bed surface where in-bed
tubing may be exposed if the bed depth is reduced. The second lies higher up
where cooling surface may be needed for temperature control if freeboard
Page 66 of 80
CopyNo. t
combustion of elutriated combustible material is considerable. Heat transfer
surface will, of course, also be sited in the freeboard in many applications for
the recovery of heat from the combustor gases.
Whether the freeboard heat transfer coefficients will approach values
characteristic of in-bed surfaces or of clean gas to surface heat transfer will
depend on the particle concentration in the gas. As a vertical path is traversed
upwards from the bed through the freeboard the average particle concentration
reduces at an exponential rate until at a certain distance in the freeboard above
the bed the concentration reaches a steady value that is much lower than the mean
bed concentration. This steady value will be determined by the amount of
material fed to, or produced by, the bed that has a terminal free fall velocity
not exceeding the freeboard gas velocity.
These changes in particle concentration are reflected in corresponding
changes in the gas to surface heat transfer rates which are illustrated in Figure
10.21. This Figure shows overall heat transfer coefficients, obtained either
from a single tube probe (10.28, 10.27, 10.47 - 10.49) or from a horizontal tube
cooling circuit lying in a single horizontal place (10.27, 10.29), plotted
against the position of the probe or circuit with respect to the nominal bed
depth. Data for water cooled panels is available in reference (10.57).
Figure 10.21 shows that the value of the heat transfer coefficients
obtained deep within the bed begin to decrease as the position of a cooling tube
approaches the nominal expanded bed surface. The reduction is caused by the
oscillation of the actual bed surface exposing parts of the tubing from time to
time and is more marked in deeper beds than in shallower ones. Compare Figures
10.21a and 10.21b. To ensure that the maximum value of the heat transfer
coefficient is obtained for the whole of a tube bank it is recommended,
therefore, that the minimum expanded bed depth should extend above the top of the
top tube by an amount that increases with increasing bed depth. Suitable amounts
would be 25 mm (1 in.) for beds up to 200 mm (8 in.) expanded depth, rising to
150 mm (6 in.) for beds around 2.5m (8 ft) expanded depth.
Figures 10.21 shows also that the value of the heat transfer coefficient
decreases rapidly once the cooling surface is exposed to the splash zone above
the bed but stabilises again at a lower value characteristic of a 'dusty gas'
Paae 67 of 80
Cornv No. , a
ho
10118 n Snd
,X~ 195 7,7
0
- 231 9.1
274 10.8
317 12.5
-400 -30- 0- -0 000 1 00 300
Height of tube centre line from bed surface, mm
(a) Shallow beds
000
E
3:~ - ~2.4 m deep
0.9 m/s (3 ft/s)
820C (1510F)
2.4 m deep
0.46 m/s (1.5 ft/s)
'ono- 820C (1510F)
_1 .00ooo0 -00 -00 400 200 0 2o00 4 00 o00 00 1 .000, 1.2 00
Distance of tube centre line above bed surface, mm
(b) Deep beds
Figure 10.21
Variation of ho with Distance from Bed Surface
Paae 68 of 80
Copy No.
once the splash zone has been traversed. Although the particle concentration
decreases exponentially with height in the splash zone the change in the heat
transfer coefficient can be assumed to be linear with height, as shown in Figure
10.21, with little loss of accuracy. The 'dusty gas' value of the heat transfer
coefficient from the freeboard gases to a surface, hf, can be estimated by
equations of the same form as those used for the bed to immersed surface heat
transfer, thus:
hfo = hfc + hfr ....... .. ... ... .10.22
where the radiation component, hfr, is calculated using equation 10.8 (or 10.8a
for British Units) but with an emissivity value ch, of 0.2. That is:
hfr = (0.
2
/ Eb) hr ... ... ... . .. ... ... 10.23
The convective component, hf , is calculated using equation 10.24 below,
following the treatment given in reference (10.3):
k ~~~~0.5
hfc = [4 g Pg g ug 1 0.] ...... ... ... ... ... .. . ... ... .... ... ... ...... ... 10.24
zt Do
The height above the distributor datum at which the value of the heat
transfer coefficient falls to the 'dusty gas' value is defined as the splash zone
height. It is generally about 1.5 times the expanded bed depth but may be
somewhat less for deep beds as shown in Figure 10.22.
The rapid reduction of heat transfer coefficient in the splash zone is
the basis of one method of load control when in-bed cooling surfaces are used.
During turndown the in-bed heat transfer rate can be easily reduced by decreasing
the fluidising velocity thereby reducing the expanded bed depth and exposing some
of the in-bed surfaces. This method of load control is termed the bed expansion
method. See also Section 3.10, Issue 002 and Section 10.3.2 above. An
alternative method of exposing some of the in-bed surfaces to the splash zone,
which is more suitable for use with deep beds, is the removal of hot bed solids
to a storage vessel as the load is decreased (10.50, 10.51).
Paae 69 of 80
; ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CoPV No.
Expanded Bed Depth 10 Lb feet
1.9~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
H
2
_
Lb _
1.4
16b . _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _
10 40 -
1.2
Expanded Bed Depth Lb m
Figure 10.22
Ratio of Splash Height / Expanded Bed Depth versus
Expanded Bed Depth
.
Paae 7Q of 80
Copy No. _I
A correlation for the maximum and minimum heights of a fluctuating
fluidised bed has been derived from research sponsored by the British Coal
Corporation into heat transfer in the splash zone (10.30, 10.31, 10.32) but its
application to combustor design is, as yet, untested. However, the bed expansion
method of turndown, which exploits the change of coefficient in the splash zone,
has been applied successfully to nearly 100 commercial combustor designs. For
all of these a linear decrease in heat transfer coefficient has been assumed to
apply in the splash zone as shown in Figure 10.21. Thus a linear decrease in the
heat transfer coefficient in the splash zone is currently recommended with the
splash zone coefficient, U, being obtained by scaling using the following
equation:
U- ho x xs Lb.... 10.25
hfo ho H2 - Lb
where x is any height in the splash zone, that is:
S
Lb S xs S H
2
10.5 Heat transfer in Slumped beds
When a fluidised combustor bed or compartment is slumped during shut-down
or load control it will normally be necessary to continue the coolant flow
through the in-bed cooling surfaces to avoid overheating them. The bed will
therefore be cooled also, although at a much lower rate than when fluidised. In
this section a method is outlined for calculating the temperature change of an
unfluidised bed containing a horizontal tube bank. An important application is
the estimation of the time required for such a slumped bed to cool to the minimum
ignition temperature of the fuel.
The calculation method is given in reference (10.25). The mean bed
temperature at any time after slumping is obtained by numerical integration of
the bed temperature over the radius of influence of a tube, (ie the bed is
assumed to be full of tubes). The heat transfer process follows the Laplace
equation, which in cylindrical co-ordinates is:
Paae 71 of 80
Coovr No. &
aT 2T T I T I2 T 2 T
- = Dt [ 2 + - -
+
2 ... ... 10.26
St S0r r Or r s a
If radial symmetry is assumed and the temperature gradient along the tube
is neglected, equation 10.26 may be simplified to:
aT a2T I aT
= Dt [
+
] ....... 10.27
St r r Sr
The solution of equation 10.27 for short times and when the tubes are
considered to be in an infinite bed, for the following boundary conditions:
T = T at r = D /2 , t = 0
w o
T = T
b
at r > D /2 t = 0
is:
Tb - T Do Do r-Do/2 (r - Do[2) )-Do/2
erfc - +[ierf
Tb - Tw .2 + 4(D r /2 jierf ;J 2 (Dtt
... .. 10.28
where T is the bed temperature at radius r at time t. Curves of the value of the
right hand side of equation 10.28 as a function of 2r/D for various values of
4D t/D 2 are given in reference (10.26). t
t o
t Note: In equation 10.28
erfcy = I - erfy
erfy = 2 'Y exp(-uY )dw
ierfy exp(-y
2
) - yerfcy
Where y and yv are merely dummy variables for the defining equations.
Page 72 of 80
Copy No.
The thermal diffusivity, D , of a bed of particles of bulk density, p,
thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cb, is given by:
Dt = k/ p cb ... 10.29
For beds of coal ash values of the above physical properties are given in
Table 10.6. For other materials the bed bulk density may be taken as
p (1 - emf), the specific heat may also be taken as that of the solid particles,
and the thermal conductivity in a packed bed can be estimated my methods outlined
in reference (10.3).
Table 10.6
Physical Properties of a Packed Bed of Coal Ash
Bulk density, r 1120 kg/rm
3
70 lb/ft
3
Specific heat, cb 1047 J/kgl 0.25 Btu/lb OF
Thermal conductivity, k 0.346 J/(m sK) 0.20 Btu/ft h *F
Thermal diffusivity, D 2.94 x 10-o m
2
/s 0.0114 ft
2
lh
t
Values of bed temperatures in beds of slumped coal ash around a 60 mm
(2.35 in.) outside diameter tube have been calculated using equation 10.28 and
the physical properties of Table 10.6 and are shown in Figure 10.23. For
generality the bed temperatures in Figure 10.23 are expressed as, F , the
fraction of the original bed to tube temperature difference, ie:
Fs T- Tw103
Fs = T- Tw. . . . ... ... ... ... ... 10.30
Tb - Tw
Curves of F versus cooling time are shown in Figure 10.23 for different
S
values of the radius, r, for a tube in an infinite bed. However, in a tube bank
the cooling due to one tube will be augmented by that from others as r increases.
Paae 73 of 80
CopV No. Z
It is convenient, therefore, to define a radius of influence of each tube, K S
as the ratio of the tube spacing to tube outside diameter, ie:
Ks = Ph / Do ... 10.31
The mean bed temperature at any time is thus the mean temperature between
r = D /2 and r = K D /2. In order to simplify the calculation of this for
0 5 0
various values of K , the values of F of Figure 10.23 were re-plotted against r2
S 5~~~~~~~
for various values of time. The mean bed temperature was then obtained by
numerical integration of the curve between (D /2)2 and (K D /2)2. Mean bed
0 5 0
temperatures are plotted in Figure 10.24 for various values of K using the
S
parameter Fs given by:
T -Tw
Fs = T .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. 10.32
Tb-lTW
where FP is the mean bed value of F
S
T is the mean bed temperature within the radius of influence of the
tube.
In the calculation the tubes are considered to be surrounded by an
infinite bed. The effect of this assumption is to under-estimate the rates of
cooling. However reasonable agreement with experiment has been found in
predicting the temperature fall of slumped beds on the Renfrew combustor,
Issue 002 ~~~~~~~~~~Section 10
10.
0.8
0.1
0.8
-
0.4 20
02 =zj-20 2
_ -~~~~~~~~~ie- or
Figure 10.23~ ~~~~~3 1
Vaiain f ontTepraur it Tm i SU-e Bd
Issue
002
Section
10
Page
75
of 80
Coipy
No.
0.8
_ _ __ _ __ _
01
--~~~~~~~~21~~
0.3
---
07 - -
___E W0
--
-
___2Ert~iri7z
2-0
05
-~~~~~~~~~~~im
or
-
.
-
Figur
10.2
O.4 ~
Vrato
f en
e emeatr
it-im
nSlmedBd
Paae 76 of 80
Copy No.
10.6 References
10.1 Yates, JG & Walker, PR "Particle temperatures in a fluidised bed
combustor". Fluidization - Proc 2nd Engng. Foundation Conf,
Cambridge, UK, p
2 41
(1978)
10.2 Kunii D & Levenspeil 0. "Fluidization Engineering". J Wiley &
Sons Inc (1969), Chapter 9.
10.3 Xavier AM & Davidson JF. "Heat transfer to surfaces immersed in
fluidised beds, particularly tube arrays". Fluidization - Proc
2nd Engng Foundation Conf, Cambridge, UK, p 333 (1978).
10.4 Kearn DQ. "Process Heat Transfer", McGray-Hill (1950).
10.5 Geldart D ed. "Gas fluidisation technology", John Wiley, p 226,
(1986).
10.6 Ellis JE. "A correlation for the convective component of the bed
to tube heat transfer coefficient during fluidised bed
combustion". Report to CSL, (Jan 1991).
10.7 Tae-Yong Chung & Welty JR. "Tube array heat transfer in
fluidised beds - a study of particle size and effects". AIChE
Journal 35, No. 7, p 1170 (July 1989).
10.8 Zabrodsky SS et al. "On the dependence of fluidised bed-wall
heat transfer coefficients on the thermal conductivity and
volumetric heat capacity of the particles". Fluidization-Proc
2nd Engng Foundation Conf, Cambridge, UK, p
3 70
(1978).
10.9 Lockett AA & Upchurch GJ. "Fluidised Bed Combustion - Industrial
Applications; Test Work on Crushed Coal at 4, 6 8 ft/s
Fluidising Velocity". Report No 1/77/788A.
10.10 Staub FW & Canada GS. "Effect of tube bank and gas density on
flow behaviour and heat transfer in fluidized beds".
Fluidization - Proc 2nd Engng Found Conf, Cambridge, UK, p343
(1978).
10.11 Subzwari HP, Clift R & Pyle DL. "Bubbling behaviour of fluidized
beds at elevated pressures". Fluidization - Proc 2nd Engng Found
Conf, Cambridge, UK, p50 (1978).
10.12 Varadi U & Grace JR. "High pressure fluidization in a two-
dimensional bed". Proc 2nd Engng Found Conf, Cambridge, UK, p55
(1978).
Page 77 of 80
Copy No.J
10.13 Guedes de Carvalho JRF, King DF & Harrison D. "Fluidisation of
fine particles under pressure". Proc 2nd Engng Found Conf,
Cambridge, UK, p
59
(1978).
10.14 Crowther ME & Whitehead JC. "Fluidisation of fine particles at
elevated pressure". Proc 2nd Engng Found Conf, Cambridge, UK,
p
6 5
(1978).
10.15 Merrick D & Collop DJ. NCB, PADB Memorandum No. 141 (Dec 1977).
10.16 "Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion" R&D Report No 85, Interim
No 1. US Office of Coal Research, Department of the Interior,
Contract No 14-32-0001-1511 (1973).
10.17 Quarterly Technical Progress Report No 39 (April 1977), US Energy
Research and Development Administration, Contract No EX-86-C-01-
1511.
10.18 Ibid, Quarterly Technical Progress Report for April to June 1977
(July 1977).
10.19 Geldart D ed. "Gas fluidisation technology". John Wiley, p 223
(1986).
10.20 Davidson JF & Harrision D ed. "Fluidization" Academic Press
(1971) p 510.
10.21 Cherrington DC & Golan LP. Hydrocarbon Processing (May 1978) p
145-150.
10.22 "Investigation of Corrosion Performance of Boiler and Turbine
Alloys in Fluidised Combustion Systems". Report from CSL to
Electric Power Research Institute of USA, contract RP 388-1 (Dec
1977).
10.23 Davidson JF & Harrison D. ed. "Fluidization" Academic Press
(1971) p 497-506.
10.24 Kondukov NB et alii. Inzh Fiz Sh Akad Nawk Belorussk, SSR 6, 15
(1963).
10.25 Highley J, NCB, CRE, Fluidised Combustion Section Report No 13
(1968)
10.26 Carslaw & Jaeger "Conduction of Heat in Solids" p 334-337.
10.27 Benson RAC, Ellis JE & Highley J. "Tests using a 1.5m diameter
fluidised bed unit at GP Worsley Ltd, St Helens". British Coal,
CRE Combustion Section Report No 236 (January 1983).
Paae_78 of 80
Copy No.
10.28 "Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion - Part 2 Tests on the 3ft x
2ft Combustor". Report to Woodall-Duckham Ltd by CURL under
contract No CC 4070 (May 1978).
10.29 "Heat Transfer Probe Experiments". NCB Report to CSL in course
of preparation.
10.30 Xavier AM & Davidson JF. Proc Conference on Flow Through Porous
Media, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, (1977).
10.31 Xavier Am. "Heat Transfer to Surfaces in the Freeboard Region
above a Fluidised Bed". Report to NCB, CRE (Dec 1977).
10.32 Xavier AM et alii "The Expansion of Bubbling Fluidised Beds",
paper submitted to Trans Inst Chem Engrs (1978).
10.33 Roberts AG, Raven P & Pillai K. "P.F.B. Test on Curtiss-Wright
Heat Exchanger at Leatherhead". Report to CSL (Oct 1977).
10.34 "Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion - Test Run 5". Report to
ERDA under Contract No E(49-18)-1511 (Sept 1975).
10.35 "Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion - Test Runs 8 and 9".
Report in course of preparation.
10.36 Mickley HS & Fairbanks DF. AIChEJ 1, 374 (1955).
10.37 Botterill JSM. "Fluid Bed Heat Transfer" Academic Press (1975).
10.38 Davidson JF. "Fluidisation, the two-phase Theory and its
Applications". CHISA, Prague, Session-Fluidisation 1 (Sept
1975).
10.39 Noack R. Chiemi Ing Techn, 42, 371 (1970).
10.40 Vijayaraghaven MR & Sastri VMK. "Future Energy Production
Systems; Heat and Mass Transfer Processes; vol II, ed Denton JC.
Academic Press (1976) p 571.
10.41 NCB, CURL Document No 072578/CURL (Aug 1978). "Heat Transfer to
a Finned Tube Immersed in the 36in x 24in Pressurised Fluidised
Bed Combustor".
10.42 Wright SJ et al. Brit Chem Eng 15, 1551 (Dec 1970).
10.43 Gauld DW & Chakraborty RK. "Heat transfer tests on horizontal
finned tubes in fluidised beds of sand and bauxite',. British
Coal, CRE Report No PC85 (April 1983).
10.44 Chakraborty RK, Gauld DW & Vickers MA. "Heat transfer tests on a
horizontal tube with short tapered fins". British Coal, CRE
Report No EC 119 (August 1986).
Page 79 of 80
Copy No.
10.45 Fisher NJ, Chakraborty RK & Mudway PW. "Development of a novel
'heat sink' air distributor in the Marden fluid-bed boiler".
British Coal, CRE Report No ID44 (Sep 1987).
10.46 Chakraborty RK, Fisher MJ & Mudway PW. "Further development and
tests of the novel 'heat sink' air distributor at CWS Marden".
British Coal, CRE Report No. ID95 (January 1991).
10.47 Chakraborty RK, Iles AE & Vickers MA. "Heat transfer and bed
expansion characteristics of 12/25 at 14/25 grades of sand using
the water tube test rig". British Coal, CRE Combustion Section
Report No. 258 (April 1984).
expansion characteristics of 10/18 grade of sand using the water
tube test rig". British Coal, CRE Combustion Section Report No.
259 (Nov 1984).
expansion characteristics of a fluidised bed of ash particles
derived from Bersham coal". British Coal, CRE Appliance
Development Branch Report (May 1983).
10.50 BCURA Report No FCP 13, (May 1970).
10.51 BCURA Report No FCP 21, (July 1971).
10.52 Ellis, J.E. "Program FBCDESIGN for IBM PC. A microcomputer
program for the design of an atmospheric fluidised bed
combustor". Combustion Systems Ltd., Report. (1988).
10.53 Stockwell, D.H. "SUBTUBE - A computer program to calculate the
heat transfer surfaces and volumes of immersed tubes in fluidised
bed boilers". Brit.Coal. CRE Report No P373.
10.54 Moodie,J, Stockwell, D.H. Vickers, M.A., & Blenkin, P. "BEDEXP7
- A computer program to aid the design of fluidised bed boilers
using a procedure to predict the effect of in-bed tubing
arrangement on boiler output characteristics". Brit.Coal. CRE
Report No PH8 (Dec 1987). See also version with program listing
CSL Report, (1988),
10.55 Chakraborty, R.K., Iles, A.E. & Vickers, M.A. "Tests on the
water tube rig to determine the variation of bed to tube heat
transfer coefficient with tube spacing". Brit. Coal. CRE Report
No AD 278, (Feb 1987).
Paae 80 of 80
Cony No.
ib ~ 10.56 Vickers, M.A. & les, A.E. "Heat transfer characteristics of
115mm diameter tubes in a fluidised bed of 14/25 grade sand using
the water tube test rig". Brit. Coal. CRE Report No. AD 284,
(Aug 1988).
10.57 Vickers,M.A. "Heat transfer characteristics of plain and finned
(erosion protection) water cooled panels in a fluidised bed test
rig "CSL draft report.
10.58 BEDEXP8 "A procedure to predict the effect of in-bed tubing
design on boiler output". CSL computer program, (Oct 1993).
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Issue 002 Section 10

-section Index {i)

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