Course Title

IEQ-05 Earthquake Geology and Geoinformatics

by
Dr. J. D. Das
(Dept. of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee)
Remote Sensing Studies
. Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the Earth's
surface without actually being in contact with it.

. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing, and applying that information.

. Remote sensing process involves an interaction between incident
radiation and the targets of interest.

. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the following
seven elements are involved.

With the advent and tremendous technological progress in the field of remote
sensing technique it has now become possible to study several things happening
on the earth surface. Earth observing satellites have the capability of producin
g
synoptic view of the earth and can generate wealth of information. Remote
sensing offers this perspective and allows a researcher to examine other referen
ce
ancillary data simultaneously and synergistically. Nature and pattern of deforma
tion
that the earth has undergone are beautifully displayed by the satellite images
enabling us to study these in details.
Deformation mapping is the identification and characterization of structural exp
ression.
Structures include faults, folds, synclines and anticlines and lineaments. Under
standing
structures is the key to interpreting crustal movements that have shaped the pre
sent
terrain. Structures can indicate potential locations of oil and gas reserves by
characterizing both the underlying subsurface geometry of rock units and the amo
unt of
crustal deformation and stress experienced in a certain locale. Structures are a
lso
examined for clues to crustal movement and potential hazards, such as earthquake
s,
landslides, and volcanic activity. Identification of fault lines can facilitate
land use
planning by limiting construction over potentially dangerous zones of seismic ac
tivity.
Certain remote sensing devices offer unique information regarding structures, su
ch as in
the relief expression offered by radar sensors. A benefit of side looking radar
is that the
illumination conditions can be controlled, and the most appropriate geometry use
d for
type of terrain being examined.


1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) the first requirement for remote sensing is
to
have an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to th
e
target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) as the energy travels from its source to the

target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes
through.
This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the tar
get to
the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target
through
the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both
the target
and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered b
y, or
emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the t
arget) to
collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sens
or
has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing s
tation
where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visuall
y and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was i
lluminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved
when
we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the
target
in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solv
ing a
particular problem.
Electromagnetic Radiation : The first requirement for remote sensing is to
have an energy source to illuminate the target (unless the sensed energy is
being emitted by the target).
All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental properties and behaves in
predictable ways according to the basics of wave theory. Two characteristics of
electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for understanding remote
sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) which varies in
magnitude in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation i
s
traveling, and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical f
ield.
Both these fields travel at the speed of light (c).
Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some factor of metres such as
nanometres (nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (m, 10-6 metres) (m, 10-6
metres) or centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres).
Electromagnetic Spectrum:

For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the spectrum has the
shortest wavelengths. The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can
detect is part of the visible spectrum. The visible wavelengths cover a range
from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 m. The longest visible wavelength is red and the
shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colours

from the visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It is important to no
te
that this is the only portion of the spectrum we can associate with the concept
of
colours.
Violet: 0.400 - 0.446 m
Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 m
Green: 0.500 - 0.578 m
Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 m
Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 m
Red: 0.620 - 0.700 m
The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which c
an
be divided into two categories based on their radiation properties - the reflect
ed
IR, and the emitted or thermal IR. Radiation in the reflected IR region is used
for
remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible portion
.
The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is the
microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the longest
wavelengths used for remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths have properties
similar to the thermal infrared region while the longer wavelengths approach the

wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
Interactions with the Atmosphere : Before radiation (used for remote sensing)
reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through some distance of the Earth'
s
atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect the incoming light
and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering and
absorption.
Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the
wavelength of the radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of
dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter
wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengths.
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper
atmosphere.
Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the
wavelength of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common
causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those
affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower
portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and
dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.
Nonselective scattering The final scattering mechanism of importance is called
nonselective scattering. This occurs when the particles are much larger than
the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can
cause this type of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fa
ct
that all wavelengths are scattered about equally.
Absorption is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic
radiation interacts with the atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this
phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various
wavelengths. Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three main
atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation. Carbon dioxide referred to as
a greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the f
ar
infrared portion of the spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating -
which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere. Water vapour in the
atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming longwave infrared and shortwave
microwave radiation (between 22m and 1m).
Atmospheric Window
Those areas of the spectrum which are not severely influenced by atmospheric
absorption are useful to remote sensors, are called atmospheric windows.

The visible portion of the spectrum, to which our eyes are most sensitive,
corresponds to both an atmospheric window and the peak energy level of the
sun. Energy emitted by the Earth corresponds to a window around 10 m in the
thermal IR portion of the spectrum. The large window at wavelengths beyond 1
mm is associated with the microwave region.
Radiation - Target Interactions
There are three (3) forms of interaction that can take place when energy strikes
,
or is incident (I) upon the surface. These are:
Absorption (A) Transmission (T) Reflection (R)
The total incident energy will interact with the surface in one or more of these

three ways. The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength of the energy
and the material and condition of the feature.
In remote sensing, we are most interested in measuring the radiation reflected
from targets. We refer to two types of reflection, which represent the two extre
me
ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a target:
Specular reflection and Diffuse reflection.
When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or

almost all) of the energy is directed away from the surface in a single directio
n.
Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected
almost uniformly in all directions.
If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or the particle
sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will dominate. Most earth
surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse
reflectors.
Leaves strongly absorb radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects
green wavelengths producing green appearance. Water absorbs more longer
wavelength radiation than shorter visible wavelengths thus water typically looks

blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths.
Passive vs. Active Sensing
Passive Sensors : Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is
naturally available are called passive sensors. For all reflected energy, this c
an
only take place during the time when the sun is illuminating the Earth. Energy
that is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or nigh
t,
as long as the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.
Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own energy source for
illumination. Some examples of active sensors are a laser and a synthetic
aperture radar (SAR).
Satellites Orbits and Swaths
Geostationary Orbits : The orbit of a satellite is elliptical in shape, but remo
te
sensing satellites are usually put in orbits that are very close to approximatio
ns to
a circle. Satellites at very high altitudes, which view the same portion of the
Earth's surface at all times have geostationary orbits. These geostationary
satellites, at altitudes of approximately 36,000 kilometres, revolve at speeds
which match the rotation of the Earth so they seem stationary, relative to the
Earth's surface. This allows the satellites to observe and collect information
continuously over specific areas. Weather and communications satellites
commonly have these types of orbits.

Geostationary Satellite
Nearpolar Orbits : Many remote sensing platforms are designed to follow an
orbit (basically north-south) which, in conjunction with the Earth's rotation (w
est-
east), allows them to cover most of the Earth's surface over a certain period of

time. These are nearpolar orbits, so named for the inclination of the orbit rela
tive
to a line running between the North and South poles.

Sun-synchronous orbits: Many of these satellite orbits are also sun-
synchronous such that they cover each area of the world at a constant local time

of day called local sun time. At any given latitude, the position of the sun in
the
sky as the satellite passes overhead will be the same within the same season.

Swath : As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the
sensor "sees" a certain portion of the Earth's surface.
The area imaged on the surface, is referred to as the
swath. Imaging swaths for spaceborne sensors
generally vary between tens and hundreds of
kilometers wide.

Sensor Technology
Most remote sensing instruments (sensors) are designed to measure photons.
The fundamental principle underlying sensor operation centers on the concept of
the photoelectric effect. The magnitude of the electric current produced (number

of photoelectrons per unit time) is directly proportional to the light intensity
. Thus,
changes in the electric current can be used to measure changes in the photons
(numbers; intensity) that strike the detector during a given time interval.
CCD Detector
An individual CCD is an extremely small silicon (micro) detector, which is light
-
sensitive. Many individual detectors are placed on a chip side by side either in
a
single row as a linear array or in stacked rows of linear arrays in X-Y (two
dimensional) space. When photons strike a CCD detector, electronic charges
develop whose magnitudes are proportional to the intensity of the impinging
radiation during a short time interval (exposure time). The number of elements
per unit length, along with the optics, determine the spatial resolution of the
instrument. Using integrated circuits each linear array is sampled very rapidly
in
sequence, producing an electrical signal that varies with the radiation striking
the
array. Each individual CCD corresponds to the "pixel". The size of the CCD is
one factor in setting spatial resolution (smaller sizes represent smaller areas
on
the target surface); another factor is the height of the observing platform (sat
ellite
or aircraft); a third factor can be the use of a telescopic lens.
Resolution
Spatial Resolution
Spectral Resolution
Radiometric Resolution
Temporal Resolution
Spatial Resolution :Spatial resolution, the capability of distinguishing closely

spaced objects on an image or a photograph. Image resolution is determined by
the size and number of picture elements or pixels used to form an image. The
smaller the pixel size, the greater the resolution. In photography, resolution i
s
limited primarily by the film grain size, but lenses and other technical
considerations play important roles.

Spatial resolution of passive sensors depends
primarily on their Instantaneous Field of View
(IFOV). The IFOV is the angular cone of visibility of
the sensor (A) and determines the area on the
Earth's surface which is "seen" from a given altitude
at one particular moment in time (B).
The size of the area viewed is determined by
multiplying the IFOV by the distance from the ground
to the sensor (C). This area on the ground is called
the resolution cell and determines a sensor's
maximum spatial resolution.
Spectral Resolution : Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to
define fine wavelength intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrowe
r
the wavelength range for a particular channel or band. Black and white film
records wavelengths extending over much, or all of the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Colour film has higher spectral resolution, as it is
individually sensitive to the reflected energy at the blue, green, and red
wavelengths of the spectrum. Many remote sensing systems record energy over
several separate wavelength ranges at various spectral resolutions.
Radiometric Resolution :Radiometric characteristics describe the actual
information content in an image. Every time an image is acquired on film or by a

sensor, its sensitivity to the magnitude of the electromagnetic energy determine
s
the radiometric resolution. The radiometric resolution of an imaging system
describes its ability to discriminate very slight differences in energy. The fin
er the
radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more sensitive it is to detecting small
differences in reflected or emitted energy. Imagery data are represented by
positive digital numbers which vary from 0 to (one less than) a selected power o
f
2. This range corresponds to the number of bits used for coding numbers in
binary format. Each bit records an exponent of power 2 (e.g. 1 bit=21=2). The
maximum number of brightness levels available depends on the number of bits
used in representing the energy recorded. Thus, if a sensor used 8 bits to recor
d
the data, there would be 28=256 digital values available, ranging from 0 to 255.

Temporal Resolution: Temporal resolution is also important to consider in a
remote sensing system which refers to the length of time it takes for a satellit
e to
complete one entire orbit cycle. The revisit period of a satellite sensor is usu
ally
several days. Therefore the absolute temporal resolution of a remote sensing
system to image the exact same area at the same viewing angle a second time is
equal to this period.
Thermal Imaging
All matter of the earth radiates energy at Thermal Infrared wavelength (3 m to
15 m) both day and night. Thermal sensors use photo detectors sensitive to
the direct contact of photons on their surface, to detect emitted thermal radiat
ion.
The detectors are cooled to temperatures close to absolute zero (0K) in order to

limit their own thermal emissions.
Thermal sensors essentially measure the surface temperature and thermal
properties of targets. Thermal IR images generally record broad spectral bands,
typically 8.0 m to 14.0 m for images from aircraft and 10.5 m to 12.5 m for
images from satellites. To interpret thermal IR images, one must understand the
basic physical processes that control the interactions between thermal energy
and matter, as well as the thermal properties of matter that determine the rate
and intensity of the interactions.
Heat, Temperature & Radiant Flux
Kinetic Heat is the energy of particles of matter in a random motion. The random

motion causes particles to collide, resulting in change of energy state and the
emission of electromagnetic radiation from the surface of materials. The interna
l,
or kinetic, heat energy of matter is thus converted into radiant energy. The
amount of heat is measured in calories.
Temperature is a measure of the concentration of heat (in centigrade). On the
Kelvin, or absolute, temperature scale, 0oK is absolute zero, the point at which
all
molecular motion ceases. The Kelvin and Celsius scales correlate as follows: 0oC

= 273K, and 100oC = 373K.
Heat energy is transferred from one place to another by three means:
Conduction transfers heat through a material by molecular contact. Say heat
transfer from pan to vegetables during cooking.
Convection transfers heat through the physical movement of heated matter. The
circulation of heated water and air are examples of convection.
Radiation transfers heat in the form of electromagnetic waves. Heat from the
sun reaches the earth by radiation. Radiation can transfer heat through vacuum.
Materials at the surface of the earth receive thermal energy primarily in the fo
rm
of radiation from the sun. To a much lesser extent, heat is also conducted from
the interior of the earth. Energy from the interior of the earth reaches the sur
face
primarily by conduction.
The atmosphere does not transmit all wavelengths of thermal IR radiation
uniformly. Carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor absorb energy in certain
wavelength regions, called absorption bands.
The atmosphere transmits wavelengths of 3 to 5 m and 8 to 14 m. These
bands are called atmospheric windows.
Radiant Energy

For an object at a constant kinetic
temperature, the radiant energy, or flux, varies
as a function of wavelength.
As temperature increases, the total amount of
radiant energy increases and the radiant
energy peak shifts to shorter wavelengths.
This shift, or displacement, to shorter
wavelengths with increasing temperature is
described by Wiens displacement law states
that
.max = 2897 m. oK / Trad
Where Trad is radiant temperature in
degrees Kelvin and 2897 m. oK is a physical
constant. The wavelength of the radiant peak
of an object may be determined by substituting
the value of Trad.

. On most thermal IR images, the brightest tones represent the warmest
radiant temperatures, and the darkest tones represent the coolest ones.

. Clouds typically show the patchy warm-and-cool pattern.

. The thermal inertia of water is similar to that of soils and rocks, but in
daytime, water bodies have a cooler surface temperature than soils and
rocks. At night the relative surface temperatures are reversed, so that
water is warmer than soils and rocks.

. If water bodies have warm signatures relative to the adjacent terrain, the
image was acquired at night. Whereas, relatively cool water bodies
indicate daytime imagery. Damp soil is cooler than dry soil, both day and
night.

. Green deciduous vegetation has a cool signature on daytime images and
a warm signature on nighttime images. During the day, transpiration of
water vapor lowers leaf temperature, causing vegetation to have a cool
signature relative to the surrounding soil. At night the insulating effect of
leafy foliage and the high water content retain heat, which results in warm
nighttime temperatures.

Applications of Thermal IR Sensing
Land cover classification and mapping
. Estimate sea surface temperatures
. Estimate soil moisture
. Monitor plant stress
. Detect ground water and geological
Structures and materials
. Detect and map thermal discharges
. Measure heat loss of buildings
. Assess urban heat island effects
. Map forest fires
. Monitor volcanic activity

Microwave Remote Sensing
Microwave sensing encompasses both active and passive forms of remote
sensing. The microwave portion of the spectrum covers the range from
approximately 1cm to 1m in wavelength. Because of their long wavelengths,
compared to the visible and infrared, microwaves have special properties that ar
e
important for remote sensing. Longer wavelength microwave radiation can
penetrate through cloud cover, haze, dust, and all but the heaviest rainfall
as the longer wavelengths are not susceptible to atmospheric scattering which
affects shorter optical wavelengths. This property allows detection of microwave

energy under almost all weather and environmental conditions so that data can
be collected at any time.
A passive microwave sensor detects the naturally emitted microwave energy
related to the temperature and moisture properties of the emitting object or
surface within its field of view.
Active microwave sensors provide their own source of microwave radiation to
illuminate the target.
The most common form of imaging active microwave sensors is RADAR.
RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging, which essentially
characterizes the function and operation of a radar sensor.
RADAR Basics
A radar is essentially a ranging or distance measuring device. It consists
fundamentally of a transmitter, a receiver, an antenna, and an electronics syste
m
to process and record the data. The transmitter generates successive short
bursts (or pulses of microwave (A) at regular intervals which are focused by the

antenna into a beam (B). The radar beam illuminates the surface obliquely at a
right angle to the motion of the platform.
The antenna receives a portion of the transmitted energy reflected (or
backscattered) from various objects within the illuminated beam (C). By
measuring the time delay between the transmission of a pulse and the reception
of the backscattered "echo" from different targets, their distance from the rada
r
and thus their location can be determined. As the sensor platform moves
forward, recording and processing of the backscattered signals builds up a two-
dimensional image of the surface.
The microwave region of the spectrum is quite large, relative to the visible and

infrared, and there are several wavelength ranges or bands commonly used.
Irrespective of wavelength, radar signals can transmit horizontal (H) or vertica
l
(V) electric- field vectors, and receive either horizontal (H) or vertical (V) r
eturn
signals, or both. There can be four combinations of both transmit and receive
polarizations as follows:

HH - for horizontal transmit and horizontal
receive,
VV - for vertical transmit and vertical receive,
HV - for horizontal transmit and vertical
receive, and
VH - for vertical transmit and horizontal
receive.

Viewing Geometry and Spatial Resolution

While ground range is the horizontal distance between the emitter and its targe
t
and its calculation requires knowledge of the target's elevation. Since the wave
s
travel to a target and back, the round trip time is divide by two in order to ob
tain
the time the wave took to reach the target.
Spatial resolution in both the range (look) direction and azimuth (flight) direc
tion
is determined by the engineering characteristics of the radar system. Depression

angle defined as the angle between a horizontal plane and a beam from the
antenna to a target on the ground. The depression angle is steeper at the near
range side of an image strip and shallower at the far-range side. The average
depression angle is measured for a beam to the midline of an image strip.
Incidence angle is defined as the angle between a radar beam and a line
perpendicular to the surface.
Spatial Resolution
The spatial resolution of a radar image is determined by the dimension of ground

resolution cell, which are controlled by the combination of range resolution and

azimuth resolution.
Range Resolution

Range Resolution (Rr) or resolution in the
radar look direction is determined by the
depression angle and by the pulse length.
Pulse length (t) is the duration of the
transmitted pulse and is measured in
microseconds.
It is converted from time into distance by
multiplying by the speed of electromagnetic
radiation.

Range Resolution is determined by the relationship
. Rr = t . c / 2 cos . (c = speed of electromagnetic radiation)

Target A and B, spaced 20 m apart, are imaged with a depression angle of 50o
and a pulse length of 0.1 sec. For these targets range resolution is 23.4m.
Targets A and B are not resolved because they are closer together (20m) than
the range resolution distance. They are within a single ground resolution cell a
nd
cannot be separated of the image.
Targets C and D are also spaced 20m apart but are imaged with a depression
angle of 35o. For this depression angle, range resolution is calculated as 18m.
Targets C and D are resolved because they are more widely spaced than the
ground resolution cell. One method of improving range resolution is to shorten
the pulse length, but this reduces the total amount of energy in each transmitte
d
pulse.
Azimuth Resolution

Azimuth resolution (Ra), or resolution in the
azimuth direction, is determined by the width
of the terrain strip illuminated by the radar
beam.
To be resolved, targets must be separated
in the azimuth direction by a distance
greater than the beam width as measured
on the ground.
The fan-shaped beam is narrower in the
near range than in the far range, causing
azimuth resolution to be smaller in the near-
range portion of the image.
The equation of azimuth resolution (Ra) is
Ra = 0.7 . S . . / D
S = Slant-range distance
D = Antenna length.
For a typical X-band system (. = 3.0 cm; D = 500 cm) with a slant-range distance

of 8 km, Ra is calculated to be 33.6 m. Therefore, targets in the near range, su
ch
as A and B must be separated by approximately 35 m to be resolved. At the far
range position the slant range distance is 20 km, and Ra is calculated as 84 m,
thus targets C and D, also separated by 35m, are not resolved.
Slant Range Distortion

The slant-range distortion occurs because the
radar is measuring the distance to features in
slant-range rather than the true horizontal
distance along the ground. This results in a
varying image scale, moving from near to far
range.

Foreshortening
Foreshortening occurs when the radar beam
reaches the base of a tall feature tilted towards
the radar (e.g. a mountain) before it reaches the
top.
Because the radar measures distance in slant-
range, the slope (a to b) will appear
compressed and the length of the slope will be
represented incorrectly (a' to b') at the image
plane.


Layover
Layover occurs when the radar beam reaches
the top of a tall feature (b) before it reaches the
base (a).
The return signal from the top of the feature will
be received before the signal from the bottom.
As a result, the top of the feature is displaced
towards the radar from its true position on the
ground, and lays over the base of the feature
(b' to a').


Shadowing
The shadowing effect increases with greater
incident angle ., just as our shadows lengthen
as the sun sets.

SAR Image
A digital SAR image can be seen as a mosaic (i.e. a two-dimensional array
formed by columns and rows) of small picture elements (pixels). Each pixel is
associated with a small area of the Earths surface (called a resolution cell).
Each pixel gives a complex number that carries amplitude and phase information
about the microwave field backscattered by all the scatterers (rocks, vegetation
,
buildings etc.) within the corresponding resolution cell projected on the ground
.
Different rows of the image are associated with different azimuth locations,
whereas different columns indicate different slant range locations.
The radiation transmitted from the radar has to reach the scatterers on the
ground and then come back to the radar in order to form the SAR image (two-
way travel). Scatterers at different distances from the radar (different slant
ranges) introduce different delays between transmission and reception of the
radiation.
Due to the almost purely sinusoidal nature of the transmitted signal, this delay
t
is equivalent to a phase change f between transmitted and received signals.
The phase change is thus proportional to the two-way travel distance 2R of the
radiation divided by the transmitted wavelength ..
In other words the phase of the SAR signal is a measure of just the last fractio
n
of the two-way travel distance that is smaller than the transmitted wavelength.
Real-Aperture and Synthetic-Aperture
Real-Aperture Radar uses an antenna of the maximum practical length to
produce a narrow angular beam width in the azimuth direction.
A Sythetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a coherent sidelooking airborne system
which utilizes the flight path of the aircraft to simulate an extremely large an
tenna
or aperture electronically and that generates high-resolution remote sensing
imagery.
The signal processing uses magnitude and phase of the received signals over
successive pulses from elements of a synthetic aperture. After a given number of

cycles, the stored data is recombined (taking into account the Doppler effects
inherent in the different transmitter to target geometry in each succeeding cycl
e)
to create a high resolution image of the terrain being over flown.
Interferometry
Interferometric SAR or InSAR, allows accurate measurements of the radiation
travel path because it is coherent.
Measurements of travel path variations as a function of the satellite position a
nd
time of acquisition allow generation of Digital Elevation Models (DEM) and
measurement of centimetric surface deformations of the terrain.
A satellite SAR can observe the same area from slightly different look angles.
This can be done either simultaneously (with two radars mounted on the same
platform) or at different times by exploiting repeated orbits of the same satell
ite.
. The distance between the two satellites (or orbits) in the plane
perpendicular to the orbit is called the interferometer baseline and its
projection perpendicular to the slant range is the perpendicular baseline.

. The SAR interferogram is generated by cross-multiplying, pixel by pixel,
the first SAR image with the complex conjugate of the second.

. Thus, the interferogram amplitude is the amplitude of the first image
multiplied by that of the second one, whereas its phase (the
interferometric phase) is the phase difference between the images.

Geological applications of remote sensing include the following:
Surficial deposit / bedrock mapping, Lithological mapping Structural mapping,
Sand and gravel (aggregate) exploration/ exploitation, Mineral exploration
Hydrocarbon exploration, Environmental geology, Geobotany, Baseline infrastructu
re
Sedimentation mapping and monitoring
Event mapping and monitoring
Geo-hazard mapping
Planetary mapping