Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management

Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003

5. Anaerobic digestion
Production of biogas is facilitated by biological processes that occur under anaerobic conditions.
The process is also called anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic microorganisms convert biodegradable
organic materials into methane (CH
4
) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
). The process is typically
operated in closed reactors at elevated temperatures, however, it does also occur naturally in
soils or old landfills at ambient temperatures. This chapter gives an introduction to the microbial
processes responsible for gas production, and presents the most important design and operational
parameters. The chapter also includes a discussion of different approaches for plant and process
design as well as design considerations for digesters.

5.1. Biological processes
The conversion of biodegradable organic material to CH
4
and CO
2
is facilitated by three major
groups of bacteria (Fig. 5.1). The fermenting bacteria (group I) converts the organic material to
short-chain fatty acids (especially acetic acid) through hydrolysis by extracellular enzymes and
subsequent fermentation of the hydrolyzed products. Other products of the fermentation process
are alcohols CO
2
and H
2
. The short-chain fatty acids that are longer than acetate are oxidized by
the hydrogen producing, acidogenic bacteria (group II) under production of H
2
, formic acid,
acetic acid and CO
2
. The end products from the fermenting and the acidogenic bacteria (formic
acid, acetic acid, and H
2
) are converted to CH
4
and CO
2
by the methane producing bacteria
(group III).















100%
11%
51%
30%
70%
30%
Fermentation
Group IV
Fermentation
Group IV
O
x
i
d
a
t
i
o
n

G
r
o
u
p

V

Fermentation
Group I
19%
Acidogenesis
Group II
19%
F
e
r
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n

G
r
o
u
p

I
V

Fermentation
Group I Methanogenesis
Group III
Hydrolysis
Group I
Fermentation
Group I
Acidogenesis
Group II
Methanogenesis
Group III
CH
4
CO
2
Organic
molecules
Alcohols
Acids
Acetic
acid
H
2
CO
2

Organic
material
Figure 5.1. Schematic of the processes and microorganisms responsible for conversion of
complex organic material to CH
4
and CO
2
under anaerobic conditions. Percentages indicate
relative quantity of organic matter converted by the different processes.

Two additional groups of microorganisms are active in the conversion processes. One is the
homoacetogens (group IV) who ferments a broad range of components under production of
acetic acid. Acetic acid oxidizers (group V) oxidize acetic acid to H
2
and CO
2
if the H
2
is
removed at the same time by other processes. The homoactogens can reverse their action and
produce other types of fatty acids than acetate if the concentration of acetate, hydrogen or
ethanol is high.


93
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


The hydrolysis step (group I) converts the organic material into components that are useful for
the bacteria. Therefore hydrolysis can become potentially limiting. This is the case if the organic
material contains high amounts of cellulose that are hydrolyzed slowly.
Most of the hydrolyzed organic material is converted to acetic acid and subsequently to methane
and carbon dioxide (Figure 5.1), the concentration of acetic acid therefore plays an important
role in anaerobic conversion of organic matter. Under normal conditions most of the hydrolyzed
matter will be converted by group I organisms into materials that are directly usable for methane
production (CO
2
, H
2
, acetic and formic acid). If the process is out of balance and the hydrogen is
not consumed fast enough the quantity of alcohols and other types of fatty acids produced will
increase.
Oxidation of fatty acids and alcohols into hydrogen, carbon dioxide and acetic acid by group II
only yields very limited amounts of energy (Table 5.1) it is therefore important that the partial
pressure of hydrogen and the concentration of hydrogen ions is low (Christensen 1998), this will
help drive the process with a net energy output.

Table 5.1. Energy yield from anaerobic reactions at standard state involved in the conversion
of organic matter into methane and carbon dioxide. Data from Dolfing (1988) and Vogels et
al. (1988). Note: Negative values of G
o
indicating that energy is produced from the reaction
whereas positive values means that energy is consumed.
Reaction G
o
(kJ/mole)
CH
3
CH
2
OH + H
2
O CH
3
COO
-
+ H
+
+ 2H
2
+9.6
CH
3
CH
2
COO
-
+ 3H
2
O CH
3
COO
-
+ H
+
+ 3H
2
+ HCO3
-
+76.1
CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COO
-
+ 2H
2
O 2CH
3
COO
-
+ H
+
+ 2H
2
+48.1
C
7
H
5
O
2
+ 7H
2
O 3CH
3
COO
-
+ 3H
+
+ 3H
2
+ HCO3
-
+53
4H
2
+ CO
2
CH
4
+ 2H
2
O -130.4
4HCOO
-
+ 4H
+
CH
4
+ 3CO
2
+ 2H
2
O -119.5
4CO + 2H
2
O CH
4
+ 3CO
2
-185.5
4CH
3
OH 3CH
4
+ CO
2
+ 2H
2
O -103
4CH
3
NH
3
+
+ 2H
2
O 3CH
4
+ CO
2
+ 4NH
4
+
-74
2(CH
3
)
2
NH
2
+
+ 2H
2
O 3CH
4
+ CO
2
+ 2NH
4
+
-74
4(CH
3
)
2
NH
2
+
+ 6H
2
O 9CH
4
+ 3CO
2
+ 4NH
4
+
-74
CH
3
COO
-
+ H
+
CH
4
+ CO
2
-32.5

The methanogens (group III) gain much more energy from their metabolism (Table 5.1)
converting acetic acid, H
2
and CO
2
into CH
4
. These bacteria gain most energy at high hydrogen
concentrations. For the two groups of bacteria to function together it is therefore necessary that
the concentration of dissolved hydrogen be within a very narrow interval as illustrated in Fig.
5.2. The reason it is possible to maintain such specific dissolved hydrogen concentration is that
most of the hydrogen converted under well functioning anaerobic conditions never comes into
solution. Instead hydrogen is transferred directly from the hydrogen producing bacteria to the
hydrogen consuming bacteria by a mechanism called inter species hydrogen transfer. In methane
producing ecosystems the bacteria are active in flocs or consortia consisting of the different
types of bacteria presented above. Within the flocs the bacteria are in close contact. This means
that hydrogen can be transferred directly between different species without ever coming into


94
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


solution. The quantity of dissolved hydrogen present in the system is generally much smaller
than the pool of hydrogen transferred directly between bacteria.

5.2. Process parameters
The biological processes in an anaerobic,
methane-producing environment are influenced
by an array of factors. Some of the most
important factors are temperature, pH, nutrient
and substrate concentrations, but also the
retention time in the system and the solids content
have influence on the process performance. The
following section briefly describes the most
important factors and their influence upon the
methane production. The factors have been
divided into two sub-groups, one related to the
concentration of substrate and other compounds
in the anaerobic environment and one related to
the design of the system in which the processes
take place.

5.2.1. Factors related to substrate concen-
tration
The microbial population needs a range of macro
and micronutrients for cell growth and methane
production. The macronutrients carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen are the main constituents of microbial cell tissue. Sulfur and
phosphorous are required for amino acid synthesis and for synthesis of energy transporting
compounds (ATP). In addition potassium, magnesium and iron are required as cofactors for
enzyme activity. Sulfide (S
-
) and ammonia/ammonium (NH
3
/NH
4
+
) are the normal sources of S
and N in anaerobic environments but other sources such as urea and organic matter are also of
importance. The above nutrients must be available in concentrations of at least 10
-4
M. In
addition a range of micronutrients are required (concentration < 10
-4
M). These are Ni and Co
important for cofactors and enzymes. The presence of phosphate (PO
4
3-
) can lower the metal
concentration due to precipitation reactions. Sulfide can also react with metals forming sparingly
soluble compounds. Excessive concentrations of S
-
and PO
4
3-
can therefore inhibit microbial
growth and result in poor gas production. Calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium can also
reduce microbial activity if they are present in high concentrations. They can, however, stimulate
the degradation and growth processes if they are added in low concentrations (0.01M for Na and
K and 0.005M for Ca and Mg). In general it is not necessary to add macro or micronutrients to
reactors treating manure or municipal biodegradable wastes as these materials contain all
nutrients necessary for methane production.
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
0 3 6 9
G
0

k
J
/
m
o
l
e
pH
2

Figure 5.2. Energy yield from acid
degradation and methane production
(after Christensen 1998)
CH
4
H
2
S
Ethanol
Propionate
Benzoate
Butyrate
In addition to specific toxic substances in the input organic material, the presence of certain
readily degradable organic compounds can inhibit the microbial process. An increase in the
concentrations of lipids (long-chain organic molecules found in cell membranes) can result in an
overproduction of long-chain fatty acids, as the hydrolysis process is usually faster than the


95
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


subsequent reactions. The fatty acids will further inhibit the acid degrading and methane
producing reactions resulting in a sour process (see later under pH). In a reactor adapted to high
lipid loading the addition of lipids will result in a very high gas production because of the high
energy content of the lipids. High concentrations of proteins can result in the formation of high
concentrations of NH
3
that is also a strong inhibitor for the anaerobic process. To avoid the
problems connected with proteins a long startup period should be used for systems treating
materials with high protein content. The concentrations of both lipids and proteins should
therefore be monitored continuously. The composition of the input material should in general be
kept as constant as possible.
It is well known that ammonia/ammonium (NH
3
/NH
4
+
) can inhibit the anaerobic processes. This
can especially become a problem during treatment of animal manure that contains high
concentrations of urea. There are at present no guidelines for maximum concentrations of
NH
3
/NH
4
+
. Often the anaerobic process can be adapted to high concentrations. It is especially the
methane producing bacteria that are sensitive to high NH
3
/NH
4
+
concentrations. The bacteria are
more sensitive to NH
3
/NH
4
+
at high temperatures. This is because the inhibiting component is
NH
3
and the equilibrium H
+
+ NH
3
NH
4
+
will be shifted toward the left at increasing
temperatures. Also an increase in pH will result in increased NH
3
concentrations. This will cause
increased inhibition of the methane production and an increase in the concentration of organic
acids, which in turn cause the pH to drop again. This will reduce the NH
3
concentration and the
degree of inhibition and will result in the phenomenon inhibited steady state.
The methane producing processes are as illustrated in Fig. 5.2 restricted to a narrow interval in
hydrogen concentration. The same is the case with respect to pH. Most methane producers have
optimum between pH 7 and 8 whereas the acid producers have lower optima. In addition to
microbial growth pH can also influence the dissociation and solubility of important compounds
such as sulfide. The optimum pH for a biogas reactor operating at 30-40
o
C is 6.7 7.4. The
reactor will not function well if pH is less than 6 or more than 8. Because the solubility of CO
2

decreases with increasing temperatures the pH in reactors operating at higher temperatures is a
bit higher than the interval specified above. The pH is generally controlled by the carbonate
system and will therefore depend on the amount of CO
2
in the produced biogas. Production of
large amounts of ammonia from proteins in the input material can, however, increase pH as this
buffer system becomes controlling.

5.2.2. Factors related to system design and operation
The choice and control of temperature is of major importance for the course of the digestion
processes. Most of the experience with anaerobic digestion is related to mesophillic processes
(30 40
o
C) but in recent years the use of thermophillic systems (50 60
o
C) has become more
common. In rare cases biogas reactors have been operated at ambient (psychrophillic)
temperatures (5 25
o
C). The thermophillic process has certain advantages over processes run at
lower temperatures:
The retention time in the system is shorter due to faster degradation of input organics
The destruction of pathogens is better
The digested product has better separation properties
The degradation of long-chain fatty acids is better
Less biomass compared to quantity of methane produced is required



96
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


The most important disadvantages are:
More energy is required to run the process
The risk of inhibition by ammonia is greater

The optimum temperature interval for a thermophillic reactor treating animal manure or
biodegradable wastes is 55 58
o
C. The temperature should not drop below 50
o
C as the risk of
washing the thermophillic bacteria out of the reactor increases. At higher temperatures there is
the risk of inhibition by ammonia and the washout of the methane producing bacteria due to low
growth rates compared to retention time. A well functioning thermophillic reactor can either be
operated at lower retention time or have a greater organic loading than reactors operated at lower
temperatures. Thermophillic processes therefore yield more gas per reactor volume than meso-
or psycrophillic reactors. Of more than 1500 European biogas plants only 5% are psychrophillic,
8% are thermophillic whereas 87% are mesophillic. Denmark is the only European country
having more thermophillic than mesophillic biogas plants (in 2001). Italy and Switzerland are
the only countries operating psycrophillic plants (Braun and Steffen 1999)
The hydraulic retention time (HRT, defined as the input volumetric flow rate divided by the
reactor volume) controls the degree of digestion.
If the HRT is too short the organic material will
not be fully degraded resulting in low gas yields
and possible inhibition of the process. Short
retention time can also result in washout of the
methanogenic bacteria if the retention time is
shorter than their rate of multiplication.
Accumulation of sludge or sand in the reactor or
poor mixing efficiency can reduce the active
reactor volume and thereby lower the HRT in an
otherwise well-designed system. The optimum
choice of HRT is mostly dependent on the
temperature and to some degree the type of
material being digested. The amount of data
available for characterizing HRT as a function of
temperature is at present limited. A general trend
for the HRT-temperature relationship for reactors
treating animal manure or biodegradable
municipal waste is shown in Fig. 5.3 (solid line).
Measured HRT for 20 biogas plants in operation
(mainly Danish plants) treating various mixtures
of animal manure and organic wastes from
industry and households are shown for
comparison. In general HRT decreases with
increasing temperature up to about 60
o
C.
Increasing the temperature above 60
o
C results in
an increase in optimum HRT It is noted that the
HRT-temperature relationship is still not well
understood and in most cases the optimum HRT
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 25 50 75 100
Retention time (d)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)
Figure 5.3. Relationship between
hydraulic retention time and temperature
in anaerobic digestors treating animal
manure and biodegradable wastes,
general trend (solid curve, Danish energy
agency, 1996) and data for 20 plants in
operation (open symbols: 19 Danish
plants, Danish institute of agricultural
and fisheries economics, 1999; 1
Nepalese plant, Pokharel and Yadu
1991).


97
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


is found by fine-tuning the system during the initial stages of the operation. The lowest HRTs
are associated with the thermophillic region. The thermophillic choice therefore appears to be the
most efficient type of digestion process.
The digestion process can be optimized to handle input material with a wide range of dry matter
contents (3 - 25%). The majority of existing biogas plants treating organic wastes and animal
manure are, however, operating at dry matter concentrations of 3 12 %. The reason is that this
material can be directly pumped without any special equipment and it is easier to ensure proper
mixing in the reactor. Other reactor designs capable of treating high-solids materials exist and
will be discussed in more detail later. Even though the process can be optimized to a specific
solids content it is important to maintain a constant solids content in the input material because
variations in solids content is likely to result in fouling of the degradation process due to
overproduction of organic acids. If a change in input solids content is desired it is best done by
slowly changing the input over a longer period of time to acclimatize the process.

5.2.3. Indicators of process performance
Several parameters have been used as indicators for process imbalance. An ideal indicator should
be easy to measure, should detect the imbalance at an early stage and should reflect the
metabolic state of the digester. It is also important that the relative change in the indicator is
significant compared to measurement uncertainty and background fluctuations. Some of the most
widely used indicators (Table 5.2) are described in the following sections.
Gas production and gas composition. If the reactor is overloaded the gas production will
initially increase and then suddenly decrease after a period of time due to accumulation of
inhibiting products (acids). Depending on the degree of imbalance can the gas production
decrease while the relative amount of CO
2
increases because it is not consumed by the H
2

utilizing methanogens (strong imbalance). Variations in gas composition have been observed in
connection with process imbalance. Gas production and composition cannot solely be used as
indicators for process imbalance as changes can simply be a result of changes in the substrate
composition. It is therefore necessary to combine gas production and composition with data for
substrate composition and loading. In situations where there have been no changes in substrate
composition and loading a change in gas production and composition can indicate process
imbalance. The actual gas production can also be compared to the expected gas yield to assess
process imbalance.
pH. Process imbalance in an anaerobic digester will normally lead to accumulation of volatile
fatty acids (VFA) resulting in a decrease in pH. The increase in acid concentration may not
register as a drop in pH immediately if the buffer capacity of the material in the reactor is high.
Most organic wastes have often a high content of weak acids and bases resulting in high buffer
capacity. The organic acid accumulation therefore has to reach a high level before it is detected
as a drop in pH. At that point the organic acids already significantly inhibit the process. pH is
therefore difficult to use as it only reacts slowly to process imbalance. It is mentioned that pH is
easy and inexpensive to measure and it is therefore an effective indicator in systems with low
buffer capacity.
Alkalinity. For materials with high buffer capacity such as animal manure it is as mentioned
above not possible detect increasing acid concentrations based on measurements of pH.
Measurements of total alkalinity is a better detection method as alkalinity is consumed by the
acids before a drop in pH can be detected. Alkalinity is the capacity of a solution to neutralize


98
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


acids and is often expressed as milliequivalents (meq) or mg of CaCO
3
per liter. Similarly the
capacity for a solution to neutralize bases is called acidity. The alkalinity in an anaerobic system
originates primarily from bicarbonate (HCO
3
-
) and from fatty acids. Alkalinity is not an absolute
value but depends upon the choice of pH endpoint for the titration. pH values often used are 4.2,
4.3, and 5.8. It is not possible to use alkalinity as a single indicator for process imbalance
because alkalinity may vary due to variations in input material composition. Measurements of
alkalinity should therefore be combined with measurements of VFA concentrations in the
reactor. Rapid variations in alkalinity that cannot be related to variations in input material
composition could indicate process imbalance.

Table 5.2. Indicators for process imbalance in anaerobic digestion (after Christensen 1998)
Indicator Principle
Gas production Changes in pecific gas production
Gas composition Changes in the CH4/CO2 concentration ratio
PH Drop in pH due to VFA accumulation
Alkalinity Detects changes in buffer capacity
Total volatile fatty acids (VFA) Changes in total concentration of VFA
Individual VFA Accumulation of individual VFA
COD or volatile solids reduction Changes in degradation rate

Volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration. As discussed earlier the production and consumption
of hydrogen must correspond in order to ensure degradation of the complex organic material into
acetate and hydrogen. The hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria have lower growth rate than
the fermenters and cannot change their metabolism depending on the conditions, as can the
fermenters. The methanogens are also a sensitive group and without their activity the hydrogen
consuming acetogens (group IV in Fig. 5.1) cannot metabolize. The result is an accumulation of
organic acids, alcohols, etc. due to either lack of degradation of these compounds or lack of
degradation of their degradation products (hydrogen). This means that an accumulation of acids
and alcohols indicate process imbalance but measurements at biogas facilities suggest that this
accumulations is by itself not the cause of the imbalance. The most applied method to assess the
status of the process is measurement of the total VFA concentration in the reactor. This method
does not yield information about the concentrations of individual acids but is simple to carry out
since it is simply a titration. Several different levels of VFA concentration is observed depending
on the type of reactor, input material and process. It is therefore not possible to define specific
concentration intervals for normal process behavior. The relative change in VFA
concentrations with time appears to be a valuable parameter for evaluation of process status.
Volatile solids. The reduction in volatile solids (VS) from input to output of the reactor does not
directly yield any information about the state of the biological processes but can be used as an
indicator of process efficiency. A drop in VS reduction from inlet to outlet indicates a failing
process. This drop, however, is seen only after the process is strongly out of balance.

5.3. Biogas and methane potential.
One of the most important issues in anaerobic waste treatment is the quantity and composition of
gas produced. Often the economy of the treatment facilities depends on the sales of gas or energy
(heat, electricity) derived from the biogas. The biogas potential (the amount of gas that can be


99
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


produced from a given quantity of organic waste) is therefore an essential parameter. The
following section discusses biogas potential and gas composition as related to the design and
operation of the digester as well as composition of the organic material digested. Because biogas
typically is a mixture of different gases and methane is the compound that is of interest (seen
from an energy perspective at least) the term methane potential will be used rather than the more
diffuse term biogas potential.

5.3.1. The composition of biogas
Untreated biogas fresh from the reactor is a mixture of several different gases (Table 5.3). When
organic matter is degraded anaerobically the result is carbon in its most oxidized form (CO
2
) and
its most reduced form (CH
4
). The CH
4
/CO
2
ratio depends on the oxidation state of the organic
material. The more reduced the carbon in the organic
material is the more CH
4
will be produced relative to
CO
2
. The composition of the biogas exiting the
reactor also depends upon the pH in the reactor
because part of the CO
2
will dissolve (CO
2(aq)
) or be
present as HCO
3-
in solution. Almost all of the
methane generated will be present as gas due to the
low solubility of methane. This means that the
methane content in the gas phase always will be
larger than predicted based on the stoichiometry of
degradation. In addition to CH
4
and CO
2
trace amounts of other gases are generated. Hydrogen
sulfide (H
2
S) is of most interest because this gas usually needs to be removed before the biogas
can be used for energy production due to highly corrosive acids generated by oxidation of H
2
S.
Compound Volumetric percentage
CH
4
40 70
CO
2
30 60
H
2
0 1
H
2
S 0 3
Other (NH
3
) 0 2
Table 5.3. Typical composition of fresh
biogas (water vapour not included)

5.3.2. Ultimate methane potential
If the chemical composition of the input organic matter is known the ultimate quantity of
methane that can be produced may be estimated based upon the stoichiometry of the degradation
reaction using Buswells formula.

C
a
H
b
O
c
N
d
+

4a-b-2c+3d
4
H
2
O

4a+b-2c-3d
8
CH
4
+

4a-b+2c+3d
8
CO
2
+dNH
3
(5.1)

The specific theoretical methane yield (B
th
) in terms of normal cubic meters, Nm
3
CH
4
per ton
volatile solids (VS defined as ignition loss at 550
o
C) under standard conditions (0
o
C 1 atm) can
be calculated from

B
th
= 22400

4a+b-2c-3d
8
12a+b+16c+14d
(5.2)

5.3.3. Actual methane potential
The theoretical methane potential calculated from Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) gives the maximum of
methane that can possibly be generated from the given organic matter. It can therefore only be


100
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


used as an estimate of the possible methane production that can be achieved in a full-scale
digester. The actual methane yield from digesters is always lower due to the following factors:
Part of the organic input (substrate) will be used for generation of new biomass (bacteria). This
fraction is typically on the order of 5-10 % of the input VS. Part of the organic matter will exit
the reactor without being degraded. This fraction is typically on the order of 10%. The lignin
containing part of the organic matter cannot be
degraded under anaerobic conditions. For lignin
containing materials the biodegradable fraction
(BF) can be estimated as

BF = 0.83-0.028LC (5.3)

Where LC is the lignin content as a percentage
of VS (Table 5.4)
Part of the organic matter is bound to inorganic
particles and will not be available for microbial
degradation. The degradation of the organic
matter may be restricted due to lack of sufficient
nutrients for microbial growth. It is therefore in
general advisable to use actual measured
methane potentials under the conditions that one
wishes to run the digester. Such measurements
can be difficult to carry out in practice as many full-scale biogas plants are using mixtures of
different organic materials as substrates. Table 5.5 presents measured values of methane
potential for a thermophillic digester for a range of different organic materials from various
sources.
Component Lignin content % of VS
Food wastes 0.4
Newspaper 21.9
Office paper 0.4
Cardboard 12.9
Yard wastes 4.1
Chicken manure 3.4
Pig manure 2.2
Cow manure 8
Wheat straw 13
Whey acid 0
Pine wood 28
Table 5.4. Lignin content of selected
organic materials. (Richard 2000)

Table 5.5. Methane potentials for selected biodegradable wastes from industry, farming and
households. Source: Studsgrd biogas plant (Denmark) (Jensen 1998, personal
communication)
Source Type of waste % dry matter VS (% of dry) Nm
3
CH
4
per ton VS
Cosmetic prod. Fat-alcohol 95 100 685
Chewing gum prod. Talc-sugar dust mixture 95 100 137
Alcohol production Alcohol 95 100 618
Sausage production Flotation sludge 7.6 100 512
Dairy production Whey 7.5 100 694
Oil mills Bleaching soil 95 45 342
Communities Residential organic waste 35 100 279
Animal feed prod. Feed residue (grain, fat etc.) 80 100 81
Heparin prod. Mucosa 17 100 229
Restaurants etc. Fat from fat separator 50 - 52 100 124 130
Brewery Yeast solution 12 100 426
Dairy production Sewage sludge 2.0 100 1649
Slaughter houses Intestants 15 100 260
Bakery Bread etc. 60 100 108
Farms Manure (pigs cattle) 6.0 100 239
Oil mills Fat sludge 31 60 100 488 527



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In general about 50-70% of the biodegradable materials will be converted into biogas in an
average biogas reactor depending on process conditions. This interval is applicable to manure,
sewage sludge, restaurant waste and household waste. Special industrial wastes consisting of
easily degradable materials such as sugars, fats and proteins will normally show an even higher
rate of turnover.
Methane production rates from various mixtures of organic materials may be estimated using the
data in Table 5.5. It is noted that the data in Table 5.5 corresponds to thermophillic treatment and
they should therefore be used for
evaluation of thermophillic systems
only. For mesophillic and
psychrophilic systems the methane
yields can be significantly lower. This
is especially the case for psychrophilic
systems. Temperature effects are
illustrated in Figure 5.4. that shows
methane yield as a function of reactor
volume for 20 Danish thermophillic
and mesophillic full-scale digestors.
The yields are quite variable but do
with some approximation follow a
linear trend. The slope (the methane
yield pr m
3
of reactor) is clearly
higher for the thermophillic systems.
The methane yield can also be
estimated if the reactor design and the
biodegradation properties of the
organic material being digested is
known. Hashimoto et al. (1979)
proposed the following model for
methane yield (B) per mass of COD
or VS input as a function of design
parameters and type of organic material.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Reactor volume (m
3
)
A
n
n
u
a
l

m
e
t
h
a
n
e

y
i
e
l
d

(
1
0
0
0

N
m
3
)
Figure 5.4. Methane yield as a function of
digester volume for 20 Danish thermophillic
(open symbols) and mesophillic (closed symbols)
biogas plants. Danish Institute of agricultural
and fisheries economics (1999)

B =
B
0
S
0
HRT

1-
K
HRT
m
-1 +K
(5.4)

where B
0
is the ultimate methane yield, S
0
is the input biodegradable substrate concentration in
terms of COD or VS concentration,
m
is the maximum specific growth rate of the
microorganisms in the reactor (a lumped parameter) and K is a dimensionless kinetic parameter.
B
0
can be found by plotting the steady-state methane production against 1/HRT for different
levels of HRT for a given constant temperature and extend the plot to infinity (1/HRT = 0). For
beef cattle manure B
0
is approximately 0.32 Nm
3
per kg VS. The maximum specific growth rate
for the anaerobic microorganisms in terms of d
-1
can be estimated as
m
= 0.013T-0.129 where T
is temperature. The expression is valid in the temperature interval 20 60
o
C. The constant K
can be found by plotting the HRT vs (S
0
S
e
)/S
e
where S
e
is the effluent COD or VS


102
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concentration. The slope is equal to K/
m
and the intercept is 1/
m
(Chen and Hashimoto 1978).
For cattle manure K can be estimated as K = 0.8 + 0.0016exp(0.06S
0
) for influent VS
concentrations between 40 and 100 kg pr m
3
. For swine manure K = 0.6 + 0.00206exp(0.051S
0
).
Even if the organic matter is biodegradable under anaerobic conditions part of it will still not be
degraded due to the finite hydraulic retention time. If 100% of the degradable matter was to be
converted into biogas it would require an infinite HRT. Under normal circumstances about 50
70% of the degradable matter will be converted into biogas.

5.4. Digester design and operation
Reactors for anaerobic digestion can be both complete mixed or plug flow reactors. Here we will
focus on complete mixed reactors, as they are the most widely used for biogas production. This
section will discuss reactor analysis, reactor sizing and mode of operation.

5.4.1. Reactor analysis
If it is assumed that the growth of the bacteria in the reactor is limited only by substrate
availability (well functioning reactor) a mass balance for the complete mixed reactor of volume
V can be set up as shown in Fig 5.5 where S
0
is the input biodegradable substrate concentration,
S
e
is the exit biodegradable substrate concentration (and the substrate concentration in the
reactor) and Q is the volumetric flow through the system.

S
e
V
Q, S
e
Q, S
0





Figure 5.5. Schematic of mass balance for a complete mix reactor system

Assuming that the degradation of substrate follows first order kinetics, the rate of change with
time of substrate mass within the reactor can be calculated as follows.

V
dS
e
dt
= QS
0
- QS
e
- KVS
e
(5.5)

where K is the first-order degradation constant. Dividing through with volume V yields

dS
e
dt
=
S
0

HRT
-
S
e

HRT
- KS
e
(5.6)

At steady state conditions the rate of change in substrate concentration within the reactor is zero
and we get

S
e
S
0
=
1
1 + K HRT
(5.6)



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This can be rearranged into a linear form.

S
0
- S
e
= K S
e
HRT (5.7)

Running a series of tests using the organic substrate that is to be digested for varying HRT and
plotting S
0
S
e
versus S
e
HRT will yield a straight line with slope K if the assumption of first-
order kinetics is valid. If K is known Eq. (5.7) can be used to estimate the required HRT to
obtain a desired substrate removal rate in the reactor.

5.4.2. Design approach based on reactor analysis
An anaerobic digester can very well be designed based on reactor analysis using a laboratory
bench scale reactor digesting the organic material in question. The first step is to determine the
degradation constant K based on experimental data from the lab reactor. The second step is to
choose the desired substrate removal efficiency i.e. (S
0
- S
e
)/S
0
. Given S
0
the design HRT can be
computed from Eq. (5.7). The required reactor volume can then be calculated if the volumetric
flow rate Q is known as V = HRT*Q. Given the chemical composition of the biodegradable
matter, the methane yield can be estimated using Eqs. (5.2) in combination with Table 5.4 and
Eq. (5.3).
Example: Designing a complete mixed digester for municipal food wastes.

Parameters:
Digester temperature is 55
o
C
Input 5000 tons (wet weight) of food waste per year
Inert solids (sand) 5% of dry weight
Chemical composition 52% C, 8% H, 37% O, 3% N by weight (neglecting other species)
Water content 75%
Design dry matter content 10% by weight
Design biodegradable VS reduction efficiency 80%
First-order degradation constant K = 0.25 d
-1


Calculate the necessary quantity of dilution water
The dry matter mass is 0.25*5000 = 1250 tons corresponding to 10% of the total input mass
including dilution water. The total amount of water necessary is then 1250/10%*90% = 11250
tons water. The amount of dilution water necessary is then 11250 tons water total - (5000 tons
wet waste 1250 tons dry matter) = 7500 tons water. The total input mass/volume is then 12500
tons/m
3
.

Calculate the biodegradable fraction of the input material
Lignin content from Table 5.4: LC = 0.4
Biodegradable fraction from Eq. (5.3): BF = 0.83-0.028*0.4 = 0.82

Calculate the input biodegradable substrate concentration S
0
and design effluent biodegradable
substrate concentration S
e
.
S
0
=
1250 tons dry matter*(1-0.05)
12500 m
3
input volume
0.82 biodegradable fraction = 78kg/m
3



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S
e
= (1-80%) * 78kg/m
3
= 15.6 kg/m
3


Calculate the annual loading of biodegradable volatile solids
M
0
= 78kg/m
3
*12500tons*1000m
3
/ton = 973.75 tons/yr

Calculate the design HRT using Eq. (5.7)
HRT =
S
0
- S
e
K S
e
=
78 - 15.6
0.25*15.6
= 16d

If K is not known HRT can be selected from Fig. 5.3 yielding 13-16d.

Calculate the reactor design volume
V = HRT*Q =
16d*12500m
3
/yr
365d/yr
= 548 m
3


Calculate an approximate molecular formula for the input material.
For every gram of food waste (dry matter) we have 0.45g C, 0.07g H, 0.32g O, and 0.03g N.
This means that we have 0.45/12 moles of C, 0.07 moles of H, 0.32/16 moles of O, and 0.03/14
moles of N. An approximate chemical formula can therefore be expressed as
C
0.043
H
0.08
O
0.023
N
0.0021


Calculate the theoretical methane yield per ton of biodegradable volatile solids degraded in the
reactor using Eq. (5.2)

B
th
= 22400

4a+b-2c-3d
8
12a+b+16c+14d
= 22400

4*0.043+0.08-2*0.023-3*0.0021
8
12*0.043+0.08+16*0.023+14*0.0021
= 563 Nm
3


Annual methane yield = 973.75*563 = 548221 Nm
3
/yr

Calculate the methane yield per ton of total solids entered into reactor

B =
548221Nm
3
/yr
1250tons/yr
= 438.5 Nm
3
/ton

The methane yield could alternatively have been calculated using Eq.(5.4) if the parameters K
and
m
are known. At present the knowledge about the biodegradation parameters used in the
different models is scarce. Often digester design is based on experiences from existing plants.
Here we could for instance have selected the HRT based on the data in Fig 5.3. In this case we
could only have obtained an estimate of the theoretical methane potential from Eq. (5.2).

5.5. Plant design and operation
Biogas plants are usually equipped with reception facilities for the incoming organic materials.
At plants treating different types of wastes there may be several receiving tanks assigned to the


105
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different wastes. The purpose of the tanks is to provide a constant stream of materials to the
digester and provide proper mixing of different wastes before the mixture is injected into the
digester.
Depending on legislation and waste type wastes may be treated in a pre-hygienization tank
before entering the reactor. This is used for instance in connection with household and industrial
food wastes at certain plants in Denmark. After treatment in the digester, the digested materials
usually enter a final hygienization tank where they are treated at a high temperature for a
predetermined amount of time usually specified by legislation (70
o
C, 1h). The organic matter is
finally placed in a storage tank before being shipped back to farmers or other users.
The main quantity of biogas is produced in the digester but smaller amounts are usually also
recovered from hygienization and final storage tanks. The gas is placed in a gas storage tank and
used to produce heat and electricity when required. At advanced biogas plants the energy
conversion takes place in a combined heat and power plant (CHP plant) to maximize the energy
utilization. Heat is used at the plant for digester heating and sold to nearby consumers. Electricity
is sold to the grid.

5.5.1. Reactor designs
Reactor design and mode of operation typically vary depending on the type and properties of the
organic waste treated as well as upon requirements for hygienization of the digested materials.
This section briefly describes the most widely used reactor types and options for management of
the flows of water and organic material through the digester. Possibilities for gas cleaning and
hygienization of the digested materials are also discussed.
The most widely used reactor design is the completely mixed reactor (CMR). Out of more than
1500 European biogas plants the CMR approach is used in at least 50% of the cases (AD-Nett
1999). The main reason is the simplicity of these systems both with respect to construction and
operation of the plant. The plug flow reactor design is only used in about 16% of the plants. The
advantage of the CMR is that it is easier to maintain well-defined substrate concentrations in the
reactor and to monitor the process parameters compared to the plugged flow reactor where the
parameters depend upon the location within the reactor. It is also easier to prevent sedimentation
of the suspended organic matter. Reactors are typically constructed using steel or concrete (for at
least 90% of the reactors). Reactors with volumes up to 3-4000 m
3
are typically constructed as
welded steel tanks using coated or rust-free steel (Christensen et al. 1998). Digesters with
volumes larger than about 4000 m
3
are rarely found at biogas plants but are seen at large waste-
water treatment plants where they are used for sludge digestion. The large tanks are normally
constructed using concrete elements. Steel tanks are normally completely gas tight and are
therefore typically operated at high pressures (2 3 kPa) whereas concrete tanks are difficult to
make completely airtight. The gas pressure in concrete reactors must therefore be maintained at a
minimum (0.1 0.5 kPa) to minimize the gas loss. The reactor should have an inspection hatch
so it is possible to enter, inspect and maintain the interior surface and installations in the reactor
when necessary.
Mixing in the reactor is normally achieved using submerged mixing devices that are mounted
through the top of the reactor with an external motor, or by blowing gas into the reactor via the
bottom. In smaller reactors the usual approach is to use submerged mixing devices. Rectors with
volumes of 1000 4000 m
3
are often fitted with devices mounted through the top of the reactor.


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In large reactors the mixing is often done using a combination of mechanical mixing devices and
gas injection.
Heating of the digester is usually done using heat exchangers (steel pipes) mounted on the walls
of the reactor. It is important that mixing of the reactor contents near the heat exchangers is good
to prevent the materials from burning onto the surfaces of the heat exchangers.
Because the digester is the primary component of biogas plants it is important to ensure an
effective control of the conditions within the reactor. This normally includes monitoring of
several factors including:

Incoming quantity of waste
Exiting quantity of waste
Concentration of VFA in the tank
Temperature and temperature
distribution in the tank
Gas production
pH in the tank
Volume of solid/liquid in the tank
Gas pressure at the top of the tank

The level of automatic control is individual
for each plant and there are no general
rules for systems for monitoring and
control of the digestion process. There is a
tendency in industrialized countries where
hourly wages are high to make the level of
automatic control as high as possible to
minimize expenses for workers salaries and ensure stable process conditions (Christensen 1998).
10% Dry
matter
79%
25-40%
Dry matter
2%
10-25%
Dry matter
19%
Figure 5.6. Distribution of biogas plants in
Europe based on dry matter content in digester.
(AD-Nett 1999)

5.5.2. Input material dry matter content
Biogas production based on materials with a dry matter content of 10% or less has been used for
several decades. The advantage of using materials with a high water content is that it can be
directly pumped and that mixing of the digester contents is simple and easy. The main
disadvantage is that the digested material has a high water content and therefore is more
expensive to transport. It is normal that the material is de-watered to a dry matter content of 50
55% before it is transported to final disposition. In some cases for instance in connection with
digestion of food waste it is necessary to add water to achieve the necessary water content before
digestion. Digestion of materials with solids contents of 10% or less is normally referred to as a
wet process. The wet process is the most widely used approach for biogas production throughout
the world as most experiences are related to this approach. In Europe approximately 79% of the
biogas plants in operation are based on the wet process (Fig. 5.6).
A smaller number of plants are operated at semi-dry conditions with dry matter contents ranging
between 10 and 25%. In Europe about 19% of the existing plants are operated in this mode. At
these dry matter contents it is not possible to use conventional mechanical mixing devices (they
are not feasible for dry matter contents above 12%) and mixing therefore heavily relies on
injection of gas at the bottom of the tank. In one type of semi-dry process, the VALORGA


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process is the incoming organic material also forced along interior walls or baffles inside the
digester to facilitate mixing.
The only dry process is the DRANCO process. This process is often used to treat source
separated organic biodegradable municipal wastes. This process must be operated at high dry
matter contents typically between 30 and 40% in order to function well. Only few plants based
on this technology is in operation. In Europe approximately 2% of the plants are operated with
the dry process.

5.5.3. Flow management options
The flow of water and organic materials through the digester is normally managed in three
different ways: Continuous, semi-continuous and batch mode. During operation of a continuous
flow reactor the material flows in and out of the reactor are not interrupted, only the flow rates
are controlled. For CMR based systems this means that materials can theoretically pass un-
degraded through the system. In cases where a certain holding time in the reactor is required for
instance for hygienization this combination cannot be used directly, a special hygienization
reactor is normally required. For plug flow reactors there is not a problem as long as the HRT is
at least as long as the required holding time.
This problem can be circumvented if the digester is operated in a semi-continuous mode. Here a
smaller fraction of the digester contents is released without any material entering the reactor
during the release time. After the desired quantity of digested material has been removed from
the reactor fresh material is added and the process is allowed to run for a while before the next
release. This way it is not possible that fresh material can pass the digester without a certain
minimum holding time. The minimum holding time is equal to the time between completion of
injection and initiation of release of materials.
The third option of flow management is fed-batch operation. In this mode of operation the
digester is emptied entirely for digested material when treatment is finished and re-filled with
fresh material. This is then allowed to
remain in the reactor until digested.
The process typically involves two or
more digesters in parallel. The reactors
are typically operated in a sequencing
mode such that a constant input to the
plant can be maintained.

5.5.4. Input material for digestion
Unlike aerobic composting that can be
used to treat a wide range of
biodegradable material the anaerobic
microorganisms are not capable of
degrading materials with high lignin
contents. Anaerobic digestion is
therefore best suited for food wastes,
pig, cattle and poultry manure from
farming and certain easily degradable
materials from industrial production
Other
4%
Pig
manure
47%
Poultry
manure
11%
Cattle
manure
38%
Figure 5.7. Distribution of biogas plants in Europe
based predominant source (<50%) of input organic
matter. (AD-Nett 1999)


108
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such as fats, oils or alcohols. Materials such as straw, park/garden wastes, paper and wood waste
(sawdust) cannot be easily degraded anaerobically.
When it comes to agricultural wastes such as pig, cattle manure digestion is often done using
only a single type of waste. Pig and cattle manure are especially suitable for this type of
treatment also pig and cattle manure constitute the main source of organic material in many
regions of the world (Fig. 5.7).
Digestion of other types of wastes with higher contents of dry matter such as food wastes and
certain industrial wastes is often done as co-digestion where these wastes are mixed with low
solids wastes such as manures. This is often done because it is difficult to get satisfactory
conditions using pure wastes other than pig and cattle manure. Especially pig manure is well
suited for co-digestion due to its high buffer capacity. In many cases co-digestion with manure
can be the solution to a malfunctioning digestion process.
In special cases such as the DRANCO process where a high solids content is required thickening
materials such as straw or garden waste is often added to increase the solids content. These
materials will not be significantly degraded through the process under normal conditions and can
be recovered from the materials exiting the digester.

5.5.5. Biogas cleaning
Raw biogas is a wet gas containing a range of compounds (Table 5.3). The gas must be cooled to
condense the water vapor before the gas can be used. It is important that the gas transmission
pipes can be drained, as they will otherwise be flooded with condensed water. Carbon dioxide is
normally not removed apart from a small quantity that is dissolved in the condensation water.
If the biogas is to be used in a boiler and there are no restrictions on SO
2
emissions the gas can
be used directly after the water vapor has been removed. In case there are restrictions on SO
2

emissions the H
2
S must be removed from the biogas. If the gas is to be used in a gas motor H
2
S
must also be removed to prevent corrosion of the motor.
Removal of H
2
S is in general accomplished in two different ways: I) chemically, and II)
biologically. The chemical process is based on addition of a solution containing dissolved iron to
the feedstock. The iron reacts with H
2
S forming the insoluble mineral FeS. Removal of H
2
S and
precipitation of FeS can also be achieved if the input material contains wastes with a high natural
iron content. In such cases the amount of iron solution required can be reduced. Addition of iron
is a relatively expensive solution and is therefore not widely used. Biological removal of H
2
S is
achieved by adding a small amount of atmospheric air (2 8 volume %) to the biogas. Bacteria
will then oxidize H
2
S to elementary sulfur, H
2
SO
3
or H
2
SO
4
depending on the oxygen
concentration. The reaction takes place spontaneously on the walls of the reactor or on the
surface of the liquid phase in the reactor. Because the oxidation products contain acids there is a
risk of corrosion and the biological oxidation process is therefore often done in a separate reactor
containing special porous material where the bacteria grow (typically plastic cubes or cylinders).
The media is irrigated from the top to wash away the acids and accumulated elementary sulfur.
The irrigation also supply nutrients for the bacteria. The liquid used for irrigation must have high
alkalinity to neutralize the acids. The liquid fraction of digested pig manure is well suited for this
purpose due to its high alkalinity. Typical quantity of gas treated is 10 m
3
biogas per hour and m
3

of reactor. The typical process temperature is 35
o
C (Christensen 1998). The biological oxidation
process will be effective if the amount of air injected is slightly higher than the stoichiometric
amount required.


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5.6. Economy and energy production
The financial income of most biogas
facilities in general comes from three
sources. The most important source is
sales of energy and to some degree the
digested organic materials. In some
countries additional income comes from
subsidies from public sources often in
the form of higher prices on the heat and
electricity produced at biogas plants.
Finally centralized plants treating
municipal and industrial biodegradable
wastes in some cases generate income
from fees on the materials received at the
plants.

5.6.1. Energy conversion
Conversion of biogas to heat and power
is a clean and environmentally friendly
process. Only water and carbon dioxide
is produced. The energy conversion itself
does not contribute to the global loading
of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
because the energy source is organic
matter, which is CO
2
neutral (the same
amount of CO
2
is released during
degradation and gas combustion as was
taken up during growth of plant tissue).
The energy content of methane is 27.5 MJ/kg which is approximately twice that of food wastes.
Biogas with 65% methane has an energy content of 6.5 kWh per Nm
3
.
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Reactor volume (m
3
)
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

c
o
s
t

(
1
0
0
0

D
K
K
)
Figure 5.8. Construction cost (in DKK, year 2000
prices) vs. reactor volume for 19 selected Danish
and one Swedish biogas (black square) plants in
operation. Closed symbols: thermophillic plants,
open symbols: mesophillic plants. Construction
costs include construction of biogas production
unit including pre- and post storage tanks at the
plant, gas pipeline and CHP plant. Danish
Institute of agricultural and fisheries economics
(1999)
In modern high-tech biogas plants conversion of the energy contained in the methane is done in
combined heat and power (CHP) plants. The energy conversion unit is often located at the biogas
plant to save costs for construction of transmission pipes and because some of the heat produced
at the CHP unit is used for heating the digester. The biogas is normally used to drive a gas motor
connected to a power generator. The system produces electricity that is sold to the grid. Cooling
of the gas engine produces heat that is used to produce hot water. The water is then used for
remote heating of nearby residential homes and businesses via a piping system and for heating
the digester and hygienization tanks at the biogas plant.
The CHP technology provides very high energy utilization efficiency and it is therefore optimal
for utilization of the biogas. Up to 90% of the energy contained in the biogas can be converted to
either heat or electricity in a CHP plant.


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Smaller quantities of methane is usually lost from the biogas plants and the CHP plant due to
leaks in piping and pumps etc. These losses are typically on the order of 2% for the biogas plant
and 3% for the CHP plant (Koch 2000). Greater losses may be encountered if the gas is
transported over long distances for energy
utilization away from the biogas plant. In modern
plants approximately 36 - 40% of the energy
contained in the biogas can be converted to
electricity and about 50% to useful heat (hot
water) yielding an energy utilization efficiency of
86 - 90%. Part of the power and heat generated is
used to run the biogas plant this normally
amounts to 10% of the heat and power generated.

5.6.2. Economy
The cost of biogas production and organic waste
treatment consists of capital costs (construction
costs) and costs related to the operation and
maintenance of the plant (O&M costs). The
capital costs depend mostly upon the size of the
plant and on whether energy conversion
technology is included in the plant facilities.
There is, however, no impact of the process
temperature as shown in Fig. 5.8. The empirical
relation between construction costs and reactor
volume for the plants in Fig. 5.8 is: Cost in 1000
DKK= 5.6 + 8100.
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Digester volume (m3)
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
o
s
t

(
1
0
0
0

D
K
K
)
O&M costs are related to both the quantities
(volume) of organic materials treated and on the digester volume. The reason being that digester
volume and quantity of materials treated are strongly related. For a set of advanced Danish
central biogas plants O&M costs had a stronger relation to digester volume than to quantity of
organic matter treated. The relationship between O&M costs and digester volume is shown in
Fig. 5.9.
Figure 5.9. Operation and maintenance
cost (in DKK, year 2000 prices) vs.
reactor volume for 16 Danish biogas
plants. Costs include biogas production
and CHP plant. Danish Institute of
agricultural and fisheries economics
(1999)
Both construction and O&M costs will of course depend upon the region in which the plant is
constructed as costs of construction materials and labor vary widely around the globe. In
industrialized countries the most significant costs are related to labor, as salaries are high in these
regions. In developing countries where salaries are lower labor costs are often insignificant
compared to the costs of construction materials. Both construction and O&M costs are of course
strongly related to the technological level of the plant. Non heated systems based on anaerobic
lagoons are significantly cheaper to construct and operate than the more advanced systems with
concrete or steel digesters with advanced process control.
If fees on incoming organic materials are not imposed the income generated from energy sales is
directly proportional to the quantity of methane gas produced and on the prices of heat and
electricity. Currently only very insignificant income is generated from sales of the treated
materials. Materials are usually returned to the farmers at no cost after they have been digested.



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5.7. Example biogas plants
In the following section two high technology centralized biogas plants are presented. Both are
thermophollic plants. One plant is treating both manure and municipal wastes from nearby cities
the other is treating primary and secondary sewage sludge from a municipal wastewater
treatment plant.

5.7.1. Example 1, Studsgaard biogas plant, Herning, Denmark.
The Studsgaard biogas plant is owned by the community of Herning and run using public funds.
Income generated from sales of energy is used for public service in the community of Herning.
The plant treats both pig and cattle manure from nearby farms, industrial waste from food
industries, and municipal biodegradable wastes from Herning city and nearby towns. A
schematic of the biogas plant is shown in Fig. 5.10. Source separated municipal organic wastes
in plastic bags, approximately 7000 tons per year, is received at the Knudsmose incineration
plant near Herning city where the plastic bags are separated from the biodegradable fraction. The
bags are incinerated and the organic wastes are transported 10 km to the Studsgaard biogas plant.
The biogas plant also receives approximately 13000 tons per year industrial wastes from food
producing industries in several Northern European countries. In addition 113000 tons of pig and
cattle manure from 54 pig and dairy farms in the area are received at the biogas plant.
At the plant the three different types of wastes are deposited in separate receiving tanks. The
plant has two separate digestion lines so that the municipal wastes can be kept separated from the
industrial wastes during digestion. The industrial wastes are mixed with manure to a solids
content of 8% and pumped to the digestion tank of line 1. The municipal wastes are initially
transferred to a hygienization tank where it is hygienized at 70
o
C for 1 hour before being mixed
with the remainder of the manure to a solids content of approximately 8% and pumped to the
digester of line 2.


5.8 mio Nm
3

biogas to CHP
plant for heat
and electricity
generation
Holding time for
digested
material 129000
tons per year
Hygienization
tank. Holding
time 1 hour at
70
o
C
Hygienization
tank. Holding
time 1 hour at
70
o
C
Digester 2
Averae digestion
time 14 days at
53.5
o
C
Digester 1
Averae digestion
time 14 days at
53.5
o
C
Receiving tank
for liquid and
solid pig and
cattle manure
113000 tons per
year
Receiving tank
for industrial
waste from food
producing
industry 13000
tons per year
Liquid
separation
device
Incineration
in chip boilse
for heat
generation
Hygienization
tank. Holding
time 1 hour at
70
o
C
Receiving tank
for municipal
organic
household
waste 7000 tons
per year















Figure 5.11. Schematic of the Studsgaard centralized biogas generation plant constructed
1996 at Herning city, Denmark.



112
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


The volume of both digesters is 3300 m
3
and they are operated at a temperature of 53.5
o
C. The
HRT of both tanks is 14 days on average. After digestion the digested materials are pumped to
separate hygienization tanks where it is hygienized for 4 hours at 62
o
C. The digested material
from line 1 is pumped directly to a holding tank from which it is distributed to nearby farmers.
The digested material from line 2 containing the municipal wastes is pumped to a separator
where the liquid (approximately 2% solids) is separated and pumped to the holding tank for
materials from line 1. The dewatered material contains approximately 40% solids and is
incinerated in a wood chip boiler at the plant. The heat from the boiler is used to heat the
digesters and hygienization tanks. The reason that the solids from line 2 is incinerated is that it
contains pieces of plastic and other foreign material originating from the municipal wastes due
primarily to faulty source separation. The total amount of material returned to farms is
approximately 129000 tons per year.
Biogas is generated in the digesters, the final hygienization tanks and in the holding tank for
digested material and equals approximately 5.8 million Nm
3
of gas per year with a methane
content of 65%. The gas is pumped to a CHP plant where power and heat is generated.

5.7.2. Aalborg west wastewater treatment plant
The Aalborg west wastewater treatment plant is operated by Aalborg community and treats
primary and secondary sewage sludge from treatment of 25 mio m
3
municipal wastewater per
year. The plant generates a total of 3226 tons sewage sludge (dry matter, 13446 tons wet weight)
per year. The sludge is digested in two digesters (Fig. 5.12) operated at thermophillic conditions
50 55
o
C with a HRT of approximately 13 d. The annual biogas production is 2.3 mio Nm
3

(65% methane) per year. The biogas is converted to electricity and heat in four gas engines
located at the wastewater treatment plant. The total energy production is 3.7 mio kWh per year
of electricity and 5816 Gcal of heat per year. The wastewater treatment plant uses 6.6 mio kWh
of electricity per year and produces 56% of its own electricity requirement. The digested sludge
is currently used in cement production.















Figure 5.12. Schematic of sludge treatment and biogas production at Aalborg west wastewater
treatment plant.
Sludge
disposition
Incoming
wastewater

2.3 mio Nm
3

biogas for heat
and electricity
generation
Final settling
tanks
Sludge
dewatering
Sludge
storage tank
Digesters
digestion time
13 days at 50 -
55
o
C

Activated
sludge tanks


Primary settling
tanks
Screening



113
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


5.8. References
AD-Nett 2000. The anaerobic digestion network. http://www.ad-nett.org.

Chen, Y. R. and A. G. Hashimoto. 1978. Kinetics of methane fermentation. Biotechnology and
bioengineering Symp. No. 8, pp 269-268. John Wiley & Sons 1978.

Christensen, T. H. 1998. Affaldsteknologi (in Danish). Teknisk Forlag Copenhagen

Danish Institute of agricultural and fisheries economics. 1999. Centralized biogas plants. Danish
Institute of agricultural and fisheries economics.

Dolfing, J. 1988. Acetogenesis. In: Zehnder A. J. B. (ed). Biology of anaerobic microorganisms.
John Wiley & Sons.

Hashimoto, A. G., V. H. Varel and Y. R. Chen. 1979. Factors affecting methane yield and
production rate. ASAE paper No. 79-4583, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085.

Jensen, A. 1998. Personal communication and visit to the Studsgaard biogas plant.

Koch, T. 2000. Personal communication and visit to Thomas Koch Energy Consulting Inc.

Pokharel, R. K. and R. P. Yadu 1991. Application for biogas technology in Nepal: Problems and
prospects. MIT (Mountain Infrastructure and Technology) discussion paper II. Kathmandu:
International centre for integrated mountain development 1991, 27pp.

Richard, T. 2000. The effect of lignin on biodegradability.
http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/compost/calc/lignin.html

Vogels, G. D., J. T. Keltjens, and C. van der Drift. 1988. Biochemistry of methane production.
In: Zehnder A. J. B. (ed). Biology of anaerobic microorganisms. John Wiley & Sons.




114
Chapter 5 Anaerobic digestion Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003


Waste management, problem 5
The city of Aalborg has 160.000 citizens. The average amount of food wastes generated per
citizen is 92 kg per year (average for Denmark). The chemical composition of the solid fraction
of the food waste is 52% C, 8% H, 37% O, 3% N of dry matter by weight with a water content of
70% by weight. This waste is to be digested under thermophilic conditions. The waste is diluted
with pig manure to a solids content of 10%. Assume that the composition of the solid fraction of
the pig manure is the same as the food waste and has a water content of 96%. Assume that the
dry matter fractions of waste and manure are 100% organic. Food waste has a lignin content of
0.4% whereas pig manure has 2.2% lignin as weight % of the dry matter content.

Calculate the amount of pig manure required for dilution to 10% dry matter

Calculate a chemical formula for the final waste mixture (dry matter).

Calculate the biodegradable fraction of the waste dry matter mixture.

Estimate the required HRT for digestion.

Calculate the digester design volume and the methane yield based on your previous assumptions.
Assume that the density of the organic matter is 1 g/cm
3


Calculate the theoretical methane potential, assume that 70% of the biodegradable material is
converted to gas.

Estimate the amount of electricity and heat that can be generated from the biogas and the amount
of digested product (dry matter) produced.























0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 25 50 75 100
Retention time (d)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)


115