Physics Key Points and Formulae

Physics Key points and formulae
1
Introduction to Physics

Relative Deviation

Mean Deviation
Relative Deviation = 100%
Mean Value

Prefixes

Prefixes Value Standard form Symbol
Tera 1 000 000 000 000 10
12
T
Giga 1 000 000 000 10
9
G
Mega 1 000 000 10
6
M
Kilo 1 000 10
3
k
deci 0.1 10
-1
d
centi 0.01 10
-2
c
milli 0.001 10
-3
m
micro 0.000 001 10
-6

nano 0.000 000 001 10
-9
n
pico 0.000 000 000 001 10
-12
p

Units for Area and Volume

1 m =10
2
cm (100 cm)
1 m
2
=10
4
cm
2
(10,000 cm
2
)
1 m
3
=10
6
cm
3
(1,000,000 cm
3
)

1 cm =10
-2
m (
1
100
m)
1 cm
2
=10
-4
m
2
(
2
1
10,000
m )
1 cm
3
=10
-6
m
3
(
3
1
1,000,000
m )

2
Force and Motion
Average Speed

Total Distance
Average Speed
Total Time
=

Velocity

s
v
t
=

v = velocity (ms
-1
)
s = displacement (m)
t = time (s)

Acceleration

v u
a
t
=

a = acceleration (ms
-2
)
v = final velocity (ms
-1
)
u = initial velocity (ms
-1
)
t =time for the velocity change (s)

Equation of Linear Motion

Linear Motion
Motion with
constant velocity
Motion with
constant
acceleration
Motion with
changing
acceleration

s
v
t
=
at u v + =
t v u s ) (
2
1
+ =
2
2
1
at ut s + =
as u v 2
2 2
+ =
Using Calculus
(In Additional
Mathematics
Syllabus)

-1
)
-1
)
-2
)
t = time (s)

3
Ticker Tape

Finding Velocity:

velocity
number of ticks 0.02s
s
=

1 tick =0.02s

Finding Acceleration:

v u
a
t
=

-2
)
-1
)
-1
)
t = time for the velocity change (s)

Graph of Motion

Gradient of a Graph

The gradient 'm' of a line segment between two
points and is defined as follows:

Change in y coordinate,
Gradient,
Change in x coordinate,
y
m
x
or
y
m
x

4
Displacement-Time Graph Velocity-Time Graph

Gradient =Velocity (ms
-1
) Gradient =Acceleration (ms
-2
)

Area in between the graph and x-axis =
Displacement

Momentum

p m v =

p = momentum (kg ms
-1
)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (ms
-1
)

Principle of Conservation of Momentum

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
mu m u mv m v + = +

m
1
= mass of object 1 (kg)
m
2
= mass of object 2 (kg)
u
1
= initial velocity of object 1 (ms
-1
)
u
2
= initial velocity of object 2 (ms
-1
)
v
1
= final velocity of object 1 (ms
-1
)
v
2
= final velocity of object 2 (ms
-1
)

Newtons Law of Motion
Newtons First Law

In the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues in
motion with a constant velocity (that is, with a constant speed in a straight line).

5
Newtons Second Law

mv mu
F
t

F ma =

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.

F = Net Force (N or kgms
-2
)
m = mass (kg)
-2
)

Implication
When there is resultant force acting on an object, the object will accelerate
(moving faster, moving slower or change direction).

Newtons Third Law

Newton's third law of motion states that for every force, there is a reaction force with the same magnitude
but in the opposite direction.

Impulse

Impulse Ft =

Impulse mv mu =

F = force (N)
t = time (s)

m = mass (kg)
-1
)
-1
)

Impulsive Force

mv mu
F
t
=

F = Force (N or kgms
-2
)
t = time (s)
m = mass (kg)
-1
)
-1
)

Gravitational Field Strength

F
g
m
=

g = gravitational field strength (N kg
-1
)
F = gravitational force (N or kgms
-2
)
m = mass (kg)

Weight

W mg =

W = Weight (N or kgms
-2
)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational field strength/gravitational acceleration (ms
-2
)

6
Vertical Motion

If an object is release from a high position:
The initial velocity, u =0.
The acceleration of the object = gravitational
acceleration =10ms
-2
(or 9.81 ms
-2
).
The displacement of the object when it reach the
ground =the height of the original position, h.
If an object is launched vertically upward:
The velocity at the maximum height, v =0.
The deceleration of the object =-gravitational
acceleration =-10ms
-2
(or -9.81 ms
-2
).
The displacement of the object when it reach the
ground =the height of the original position, h.

Lift
In Stationary

R mg =

When a man standing inside an elevator, there
are two forces acting on him.
(a) His weight which acting downward.
(b) Normal reaction (R), acting in the opposite
direction of weight.

The reading of the balance is equal to the normal
reaction.

7
Moving Upward with positive acceleration Moving downward with positive acceleration

R mg ma = +

R mg ma =

Moving Upward with constant velocity Moving downward with constant velocity.

R mg =

R mg =

Moving Upward with negative acceleration Moving downward with negative acceleration

R mg ma =

R mg ma = +

8
Smooth Pulley

With 1 Load
T
1
=T
2

Moving with uniform speed:

T
1
=mg

Stationary:

T
1
=mg
Accelerating:

T
1
mg =ma

With 2 Loads
Finding Acceleration:
(If m
2
>m
1
)
m
2
g m
1
g =(m
1
+m
2
)a

Finding Tension:
(If m
2
>m
1
)
T
1
=T
2

T
1
m
1
g =ma
m
2
g T
2
=ma

Vector

Vector Addition (Perpendicular Vector)

Magnitude =
2 2
x y +

Direction =
1
| |
tan
| |
y
x

Vector Resolution

| | | |sin x p =
| | | |cos y p =

9
Inclined Plane

Component parallel to the plane = mgsin

Component perpendicular to the plane = mgcos

Forces In Equilibrium

3
T mg =
2
sin T mg =
2 1
cos T T =
1
tan T mg =
3
T mg =
2 1
cos cos T T =
2 1
sin sin T T mg + =

Work Done

cos W Fx =

W = Work Done (J or Nm)
-2
)
x = displacement (m)
= angle between the force and the direction of motion (
o
)

When the force and motion are in the same direction.

W Fs =
W = Work Done (J or Nm)
-2
)

10
Energy

Kinetic Energy
2
1
2
K
E mv =
E
K
= Kinetic Energy (J)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (ms
-1
)

Gravitational Potential Energy
P
E mgh =
E
P
= Potential Energy (J)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (ms
-2
)
h = height (m)

Elastic Potential Energy
2
1
2
P
E kx =
1
2
P
E Fx =
E
P
= Potential Energy (J)
k = spring constant (N m
-1
)
x = extension of spring (m)

F = Force (N)

Power and Efficiency

Power
W
P
t
=
E
P
t
=
P = power (W or Js
-1
)
W = work done (J or Nm)
E = energy change (J or Nm)
t = time (s)

Efficiency
Useful Energy
Efficiency = 100%
Energy

Or

Power Output
Efficiency = 100%
Power Input

Hookes Law

F kx =

-2
)
k = spring constant (N m
-1
)
x = extension or compression of spring (m)

11
Force and Pressure

Density

m
V
=

= density (kg m
-3
)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m
3
)
Pressure

F
P
A
=
P = Pressure (Pa or N m
-2
)
A = Area of the surface (m
2
)
F = Force acting normally to the surface (N or kgms
-2
)

Liquid Pressure
P h g =
h = depth (m)
= density (kg m
-3
)
g = gravitational Field Strength (N kg
-1
)

Pressure in Liquid
atm
P P h g = +
h = depth (m)
= density (kg m
-3
)
g = gravitational Field Strength (N kg
-1
)
P
atm
= atmospheric Pressure (Pa or N m
-2
)

Gas Pressure

Manometer

atm
P P h g = +

P
gas
= Pressure (Pa or N m
-2
)

P
atm
= Atmospheric Pressure (Pa or N m
-2
)

-1
)

12
U=tube

1 1 2 2
h h =

Pressure in a Capillary Tube

P
gas
= gas pressure in the capillary tube (Pa or N m
-2
)
P
atm
= atmospheric pressure (Pa or N m
-2
)
h = length of the captured mercury (m)
= density of mercury (kg m
-3
)
-1
)

Barometer

Pressure in unit cmHg Pressure in unit Pa
P
a
=0 P
a
=0
P
b
=26 P
b
=0.261360010
P
c
=76 P
c
=0.761360010
P
d
=76 P
d
=0.761360010
P
e
=76 P
e
=0.761360010

P
f
=84 P
f
=0.841360010
(Density of mercury =13600kgm
-3
)

13
Pascals Principle

1 2
1 2
F F
A A
=

F
1
= Force exerted on the small piston
A
1
= area of the small piston
F
2
= Force exerted on the big piston
A
2
= area of the big piston

Archimedes Principle

Weight of the object,
1 1
W V g =

Upthrust,
2 2
F V g =

1
= density of wooden block
V
1
= volume of the wooden block
2
= density of water
V
2
= volume of the displaced water
g = gravitational field strength

Density of water >Density of wood

F =T +W
Vg T mg = +
Density of Iron >Density of water

T +F =W
Vg T mg + =

14
Heat

Heat Change
Q mc =

m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (J kg
-1

o
C
-1
)
= temperature change (
o
)

Electric Heater Mixing 2 Liquid

Energy Supply, E Pt =
Energy Receive, Q mc =

Energy Supply, E =Energy Receive, Q

Pt mc =

E = electrical Energy (J or Nm)
P = Power of the electric heater (W)
t = time (in second) (s)

Q = Heat Change (J or Nm)
m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (J kg
-1

o
C
-1
)
= temperature change (
o
)

Heat Gain by Liquid 1 =Heat Loss by Liquid 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
m c m c =

m
1
= mass of liquid 1
c
1
= specific heat capacity of liquid 1
1
= temperature change of liquid 1

m
2
= mass of liquid 2
c
2
= specific heat capacity of liquid 2
2
= temperature change of liquid 2

Specific Latent Heat

Q mL =

Q = Heat Change (J or Nm)
m = mass (kg)
L = specific latent heat (J kg
-1
)

Boyles Law

1 1 2 2
PV PV =

(Requirement: Temperature in constant)
Pressure Law

1 2
1 2
P P
T T
=

(Requirement: Volume is constant)

15
Charless Law

1 2
1 2
V V
T T
=

(Requirement: Pressure is constant)
Universal Gas Law
1 1 2 2
1 2
PV PV
T T
=
P = Pressure (Pa or cmHg .)
V = Volume (m
3
or cm
3
)
T = Temperature (MUST be in K(Kelvin))
Light
Refractive Index

Snells Law
Real depth/Apparent Depth

sin
sin
i
n
r
=

n = refractive index (No unit)
i = angle of incident (
o
)
r = angle of reflection (
o
)

D
n
d
=
D = real depth (m or cm)
d = apparent depth (m or cm)

Speed of light
c
n
v
=
c = speed of light in vacuum (ms
-1
)
v = speed of light in a medium (like water,
glass ) (ms
-1
)
Total Internal Reflection
1
sin
n
c
=

c = critical angle (
o
)

16
Lens

Power
1
P
f
=
P = Power (D(Diopter))
f = focal length (m)

Linear Magnification
i
o
h
m
h
=
v
m
u
=
i
o
h v
h u
=

m = linear magnification (No unit)
u = distance of object (m or cm)
v = distance of image (m or cm)
h
i
= heigth of image (m or cm)
h
o
= heigth of object (m or cm)

Lens Equation

1 1 1
u v f
+ =
Conventional symbol
positive negative
u Real object Virtual object
v Real image Virtual image
f Convex lens Concave lens

17
Astronomical Telescope

Magnification,
e
o
P
m
P
=

o
e
f
m
f
=

m = linear magnification
P
e
= Power of the eyepiece
P
o
= Power of the objective lens
f
e
= focal length of the eyepiece
f
o
= focal length of the objective lens

Distance between eye lens and objective lens

d =f
o
+ f
e

d = Distance between eye lens and objective lens
f
e
f
o

Compound Microscope

Magnification
1 2
1 2
1
2
1
Height of first image , Height of secondimage,

Height of object Height of first image ,
Height of second image,

Height of object,
m m m
I I
I
I
I
=
=
=

m = Magnification of the microscope
m
1
= Linear magnification of the object lens
m
2
= Linear magnification of the eyepiece

Distance in between the two lens
d >f
o
+ f
e

d = Distance between eye lens and objective lens
f
e
f
o

1

Wave
Oscillation

T
f
1
=

Displacement-Time Graph

f = frequency (Hz or s
-1
)
T = Period (s)

Amplitude, Period and Frequency can be found from a Displacement-Time Graph

Wave

v f =

Displacement-Distance Graph

v = velocity (ms
-1
)
f = frequency (Hz or s
-1
)
= wavelength (m)

= Wavelength

2
Interference

Summary
D
ax
=

=Wavelength
a =Distance between the two wave sources
x =Distance between two successive anti-node lines or node lines
D =Distance from the wave sources to the plane where x is
measured.

Electricity
Sum of charge

Q ne =

Current

Q = Charge
n = number of charge particles
e = charge of 1 particle

Q
I
t
=

Q = Charge
I = Current
t = time

3
Potential Difference

W
V
Q
=

Ohms Law and Resistance

V = potential difference, (V or JC
-1
)
W = energy (J)
Q = charge (C)

V IR =

-1
)
I = Current (A or Cs
-1
)
R = Resistance ()

Resistance

1 2
R R R = +

1
1 2 3
1 1 1
( ) R
R R R
= + +

Current
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

The current flow into a resistor =the current flow
inside the resistor =the current flows out from the
resistor
I
A
=I
B
=I
C

In a series circuit, the current at any points of the
circuit is the same.

The current flow into a parallel circuit is equal to the
sum of the current in each branches of the circuit.

I =I
1
+I
2
Example

If the resistance of the 2 resistors is the same, current
will be divided equally to both of the resistor.

4
Potential and Potential Difference
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

The sum of the potential difference across individual
resistor in between 2 points in a series circuit is equal
to the potential difference across the two point.

V =V
1
+V
2

Example

The potential difference across all the resistor in a
parallel circuit is the same.

V =V
1
=V
2

Example

Potential Difference and Electromotive Force

If we assume that there is no internal resistance in the cell, the potential difference across the cell is equal to
the e.m.f. of the cell.

5
Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance

( ) E I R r = +
or
E V Ir = +

E = Electromotive Force (V)
r = internal resistance ()
-1
)
I = Current (A or Cs
-1
)
R = Resistance ()

2 methods to find the internal resistance and electromotive force
a. Open Circuit Close Circuit method
Open Circuit Close Circuit

In open circuit ( when the switch is off), the
voltmeter shows the reading of the e.m.f.
In close circuit ( when the switch is on), the
voltmeter shows the reading of the potential
difference across the cell.
With the presence of internal resistance, the potential difference across the cell is always
less than the e.m.f..

b. Linear Graph method

From the equation,

E = V + Ir
Therefore
V = -rI + E

Gradient od the grapf, m
=-internal resistance

Y intercept of the graph, c
=electromotive force

Electrical Energy

E QV =

E = Electrical Energy (J)
Q = charge (C)
V = potential difference (V or JC
-1
)

6
Electrical Power

W
P
t
=

P IV =

2
P I R =

2
V
P
R
=

P = Power (W or Js
-1
)
W = Work done/Energy change (J)
t = Time (s)
I = Current (A)
V = Potential difference (V)
R = Resistance ()

Efficiency

output power
Electrical efficiency = 100%
input power

Electromagnetism

Root mean Square Value

2
p
rms
V
V =

V
rms
= root mean square voltage (V)
V
p
= peak voltage (V)

2
p
rms
I
I =

I
rms
= root mean square current (A)
I
p
= peak current (A)

7
Transformer

Input And Output Of A Transformer

p
s
p
s
N
N
V
V
=

V
p
= input (primary) potential difference (V)
V
s
= output (secondary) potential difference (V)
N
p
= number of turns in primary coil
N
s
= number of turns in secondary coil

Power In A Transformer

Ideal Transformer
s s p p
I V I V =

Non-ideal transformer
% 100 =
p p
s s
I V
I V
Efficiency

V
p
= input (primary) potential difference (V)
V
s
= output (secondary) potential difference (V)
I
p
= input (primary) current (A)
I
s
= output (secondary) current (A)

Power Transmission

2Steps to find the energy/power loss in the cable
a. Find the current in the cable by the equation P=IV
b. Find the Power lost in the cable by the equation P=I
2
R.

Electronic

Energy change of electron in an electron gun

Kinetic energy
gain
=
electrical potential
energy

2
1
2
2
mv eV
eV
v
m
=
=

v = speed of electron (m
s-1
)
V = potential difference across the electron gun (V)
e = charge of 1 electron (C)
m = mass of 1 electron (kg)

8
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Vertical scale =Y-gain control

Horizontal scale =Time base

Period =Time for 1 complete Oscillation

Frequency,
1
f
T
=

Transistor - Potential Divider

Potential difference across resistor R
1

=
1
1 2
R
V
R R

+

Potential difference across resistor R
2

=
2
1 2
R
V
R R

+

9
Radioactivity

Alpha decay

X
A
Z

He Y
A
Z
4
2
4
2
+

Beta decay

X
A
Z

0
1 1
A
Z
Y e
+
+
e p n
0
1
1
1
1
0
+

Gamma emission

X
A
Z

A
Z
X +

A = nucleon number
Z = proton number

Half-life

0
1
( )
2
n
N N =

N = Amount of radioisotope particles after nth half life.
N
0
= Initial amount of radioisotope particles.
n = number of half life

Nuclear Energy - Einstein Formula

2
E mc =

m =mass change (kg)
c =speed of light (m s
-1
)
E =energy changed (J )

More Concepts and Formulae
Electron = -1.602 19 10
-19
C = 9.11 10
-31
kg
Proton = 1.602 19 10
-19
C = 1.67 10
-27
kg
Neutron = 0 C = 1.67 10
-27
kg
6.022 10
23
atoms in one atomic mass unit
e is the elementary charge: 1.602 19 10
-19
C
Potential Energy, velocity of electron: PE = eV = mv
2
1V = 1J/C 1N/C = 1V/m 1J = 1 Nm = 1 CV
1 amp = 6.21 10
18
electrons/second = 1 Coulomb/second
1 hp = 0.756 kW 1 N = 1 TAm 1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
Power = Joules/second = I
2
R = IV [watts W]
Quadratic
Equation: x
b b ac
a
=

2
4
2
Kinetic Energy [J]
KE mv =
1
2
2
[Natural Log: when e
b
= x, ln x = b ]
m: 10
-3
: 10
-6
n: 10
-9
p: 10
-12
f: 10
-15
a: 10
-18
Addition of Multiple Vectors:
r r r r
R A B C = + + Resultant = Sum of the vectors
r r r r
R A B C
x x x x
= + + x-component A A
x
= cos
r r r r
R A B C
y y y y
= + + y-component A A
y
= sin
R R R
x y
= +
2 2
Magnitude (length) of R
R
y
x
R
R
=

tan
1
or tan
R
y
x
R
R
= Angle of the resultant
Multiplication of Vectors:
Cross Product or Vector Product:
i j k = j i k =
i i = 0
Positive direction:
i
j k
Dot Product or Scalar Product:
i j = 0 i i = 1
a b = abcos
k
i
j
Derivative of Vectors:
Velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time:
v k i j k = + + = + +
d
dt
x y z
dx
dt
dy
dt
dz
dt
( ) i j
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to
time:
a k i j k = + + = + +
d
dt
v v v
dv
dt
dv
dt
dv
dt
x y z
x
y
z
( ) i j
Rectangular Notation: Z R jX = where +j represents
inductive reactance and -j represents capacitive reactance.
For example, Z j = + 8 6 means that a resistor of 8 is
in series with an inductive reactance of 6.
Polar Notation: Z = M , where M is the magnitude of the
reactance and is the direction with respect to the
horizontal (pure resistance) axis. For example, a resistor of
4 in series with a capacitor with a reactance of 3 would
be expressed as 5 -36.9 .
In the descriptions above, impedance is used as an example.
Rectangular and Polar Notation can also be used to
express amperage, voltage, and power.
To convert from rectangular to polar notation:
Given: X - jY (careful with the sign before the j)
Magnitude: X Y M
2 2
+ =
Angle:
tan =
Y
X
(negative sign carried over
from rectangular notation
in this example)
Note: Due to the way the calculator works, if X is negative,
you must add 180 after taking the inverse tangent. If the
result is greater than 180, you may optionally subtract
360 to obtain the value closest to the reference angle.
To convert from polar to rectangular (j) notation:
Given: M
X Value: Mcos
Y (j) Value: Msin
In conversions, the j value will have the
same sign as the value for angles
having a magnitude < 180.
Use rectangular notation when adding
and subtracting.
Use polar notation for multiplication and division. Multiply in
polar notation by multiplying the magnitudes and adding
the angles. Divide in polar notation by dividing the
magnitudes and subtracting the denominator angle from
the numerator angle.
X
M
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
Y
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
Coulomb's Law: [Newtons N]
F k
q q
r
=
1 2
2
where:
F = force on one charge by
the other[N]
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
q
1
= charge [C]
q
2
= charge [C]
r = distance [m]
Electric Field: [Newtons/Coulomb or Volts/Meter]
E k
q
r
F
q
= =
2
where:
E = electric field [N/C or V/m]
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
q = charge [C]
r = distance [m]
F = force
Electric field lines radiate outward from
positive charges. The electric field
is zero inside a conductor.
+
-
Relationship of k to
0
:
k =
1
4
0
where:
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
0
= permittivity of free space
8.85 10
-12
[C
2
/Nm
2
]
Electric Field due to an Infinite Line of Charge: [N/C]
E
r
k
r
=
2
2
0
E = electric field [N/C]
= charge per unit length [C/m}
0
8.85 10
-12
[C
2
/Nm
2
]
r = distance [m]
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
Electric Field due to ring of Charge: [N/C]
E
kqz
z R
=
+ ( )
/ 2 2 3 2
or if z >> R, E
kq
z
=
2
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
q = charge [C]
z = distance to the charge [m]
R = radius of the ring [m]
Electric Field due to a disk Charge: [N/C]
E
z
z R
=
2
1
0
2 2
= charge per unit area
[C/m
2
}
0
= 8.85 10
-12
[C
2
/Nm
2
]
z = distance to charge [m]
R = radius of the ring [m]
Electric Field due to an infinite sheet: [N/C]
E =
2
0
= charge per unit area [C/m
2
}
0
= 8.85 10
-12
[C
2
/Nm
2
]
Electric Field inside a spherical shell: [N/C]
E
kqr
R
=
3
q = charge [C]
r = distance from center of sphere to
the charge [m]
R = radius of the sphere [m]
Electric Field outside a spherical shell: [N/C]
E
kq
r
=
2
q = charge [C]
r = distance from center of sphere to
the charge [m]
Average Power per unit area of an electric or
magnetic field:
W m
E
c
B c
m m
/
2
2
0
2
0
2 2
= =

W = watts
Em = max. electric field [N/C]
0 = 4 10
-7
c = 2.99792 10
8
[m/s]
Bm = max. magnetic field [T]
A positive charge moving in the same direction as the electric
field direction loses potential energy since the potential of
the electric field diminishes in this direction.
Equipotential lines cross EF lines at right angles.
Electric Dipole: Two charges of equal magnitude and
opposite polarity separated by a distance d.
z
-Q
p
d
+Q
E
k
z
=
2
3
p
E
z
=
1
2
0
3
p
when z d
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
0
= permittivity of free space 8.85
10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
p = qd [Cm] "electric dipole moment"
in the direction negative to
positive
z = distance [m] from the dipole
center to the point along the
dipole axis where the electric field
is to be measured
Deflection of a Particle in an Electric Field:
2
2 2
ymv qEL =
y = deflection [m]
m = mass of the particle [kg]
d = plate separation [m]
v = speed [m/s]
q = charge [C]
E = electric field [N/C or V/m
L = length of plates [m]
Potential Difference between two Points: [volts V]

V V V
PE
q
Ed
B A
= = =
PE = work to move a charge
from A to B [Nm or J]
q = charge [C]
V
B
= potential at B [V]
V
A
= potential at A [V]
E = electric field [N/C or V/m
d = plate separation [m]
Electric Potential due to a Point Charge: [volts V]
V k
q
r
=
V = potential [volts V]
k = 8.99 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
q = charge [C]
r = distance [m]
Potential Energy of a Pair of Charges: [J, Nm or
CV]
PE q V k
q q
r
= =
2 1
1 2
V
1
is the electric potential due to
q
1
at a point P
q
2
V
1
is the work required to bring
q
2
from infinity to point P
Work and Potential:
U U U W
f i
= =
U W =

W Fd = = F d cos
W q d
i
f
=
E s
V V V
W
q
f i
= =
V d
i
f
=
E s
U = electric potential energy [J]
W = work done on a particle by
a field [J]
W
= work done on a particle

brought from infinity (zero
potential) to its present
location [J]
F = is the force vector [N]
d = is the distance vector over
which the force is
applied[m]
F = is the force scalar [N]
d = is the distance scalar [m]
= is the angle between the
force and distance vectors
ds = differential displacement of
the charge [m]
V = volts [V]
q = charge [C]
Flux: the rate of flow (of an electric field) [Nm
2
/C]
=
E A d
=
E dA (cos )
is the rate of flow of an electric
field [Nm
2
/C]
integral over a closed surface

E is the electric field vector [N/C]
A is the area vector [m
2
] pointing
outward normal to the surface.
Gauss' Law:
=
0
q
enc
=
0
E A d q
enc
0
= 8.85 10
-12
[C
2
/Nm
2
]
is the rate of flow of an electric
field [Nm
2
/C]
q
enc
= charge within the gaussian
surface [C]
integral over a closed surface

E is the electric field vector [J]
A is the area vector [m
2
] pointing
outward normal to the surface.
CAPACITANCE
Parallel-Plate Capacitor:
C
A
d
=
0
C = capacitance [farads F]
= the dielectric constant (1)
0
8.85 10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
A = area of one plate [m
2
]
d = separation between plates [m]
Cylindrical Capacitor:
C
L
b a
= 2
0
ln( / )
= dielectric constant (1)
0
= 8.85 10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
L = length [m]
b = radius of the outer
conductor [m]
a = radius of the inner
conductor [m]
Spherical Capacitor:
C
ab
b a
=
4
0
= dielectric constant (1)
0
= 8.85 10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
b = radius, outer conductor
[m]
a = radius, inner conductor [m]
Maximum Charge on a Capacitor: [Coulombs C]
Q VC = Q = Coulombs [C]
V = volts [V]
C = capacitance in farads [F]
For capacitors connected in series, the charge Q is equal for
each capacitor as well as for the total equivalent. If the
dielectric constant is changed, the capacitance is
multiplied by , the voltage is divided by , and Q is
unchanged. In a vacuum = 1, When dielectrics are
used, replace
0
with
0
.
Electrical Energy Stored in a Capacitor: [Joules J]
U
QV CV Q
C
E
= = =
2 2 2
2 2 U = Potential Energy [J]
Q = Coulombs [C]
V = volts [V]
Charge per unit Area: [C/m
2
]
=
q
A
= charge per unit area [C/m
2
]
q = charge [C]
A = area [m
2
]
Energy Density: (in a vacuum) [J/m
3
]
u E =
1
2 0
2 u = energy per unit volume [J/m
3
]
0
8.85 10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
E = energy [J]
Capacitors in Series:
1 1 1
1 2
C C C
eff
= + ...
Capacitors in Parallel:
C C C
eff
= +
1 2
...
Capacitors connected in series all have the same charge q.
For parallel capacitors the total q is equal to the sum of the
charge on each capacitor.
Time Constant: [seconds]
= RC
= time it takes the capacitor to reach 63.2%
of its maximum charge [seconds]
R = series resistance [ohms ]
Charge or Voltage after t Seconds: [coulombs C]
charging:
( ) q Q e
t
=

1
/
( ) V V e
S
t
=

1
/
discharging:
q Qe
t
=
/
V V e
S
t
=
/
q = charge after t seconds
[coulombs C]
Q = maximum charge [coulombs
C] Q = CV
e = natural log
t = time [seconds]
= time constant RC [seconds]
V = volts [V]
VS = supply volts [V]
[Natural Log: when e
b
= x, ln x = b ]
Drift Speed:
( ) I
Q
t
nqv A
d
= =
Q = # of carriers charge/carrier
t = time in seconds
n = # of carriers
q = charge on each carrier
vd = drift speed in meters/second
A = cross-sectional area in meters
2
RESISTANCE
Emf: A voltage source which can provide continuous current
[volts]
= + IR Ir = emf open-circuit voltage of the battery
I = current [amps]
R = load resistance [ohms]
r = internal battery resistance [ohms]
Resistivity: [Ohm Meters]
=
E
J
=
RA
L
= resistivity [ m]
J = current density [A/m
2
]
R = resistance [ ohms]
A = area [m
2
]
L = length of conductor [m]
Variation of Resistance with Temperature:
=
0 0 0
( ) T T = resistivity [ m]
0
= reference resistivity [ m]
= temperature coefficient of
resistivity [K
-1
]
T
0
= reference temperature
T - T
0
= temperature difference
[K or C]
CURRENT
Current Density: [A/m
2
]
i d =
J A
if current is uniform
and parallel to dA,
then: i JA =
J ne V
d
= ( )
i = current [A]
J = current density [A/m
2
]
A = area [m
2
]
L = length of conductor [m]
e = charge per carrier
ne = carrier charge density [C/m
3
]
V
d
= drift speed [m/s]
Rate of Change of Chemical Energy in a Battery:
P i = P = power [W]
i = current [A]
= emf potential [V]
Kirchhoffs Rules
1. The sum of the currents entering a junctions is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
2. The sum of the potential differences across all the
elements around a closed loop must be zero.
Evaluating Circuits Using Kirchhoffs Rules
1. Assign current variables and direction of flow to all
branches of the circuit. If your choice of direction is
incorrect, the result will be a negative number. Derive
equation(s) for these currents based on the rule that
currents entering a junction equal currents exiting the
junction.
2. Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule in creating equations for
different current paths in the circuit. For a current path
beginning and ending at the same point, the sum of
voltage drops/gains is zero. When evaluating a loop in the
direction of current flow, resistances will cause drops
(negatives); voltage sources will cause rises (positives)
provided they are crossed negative to positiveotherwise
they will be drops as well.
3. The number of equations should equal the number of
variables. Solve the equations simultaneously.
MAGNETISM
Andr-Marie Ampre is credited with the discovery of
electromagnetism, the relationship between electric
currents and magnetic fields.
Heinrich Hertz was the first to generate and detect
electromagnetic waves in the laboratory.
Magnetic Force acting on a charge q: [Newtons N]
F qvB = sin
F q = v B
F = force [N]
q = charge [C]
v = velocity [m/s]
B = magnetic field [T]
= angle between v and B
Right-Hand Rule: Fingers represent the direction of the
magnetic force B, thumb represents the direction of v (at
any angle to B), and the force F on a positive charge
emanates from the palm. The direction of a magnetic field
is from north to south. Use the left hand for a negative
charge.
Also, if a wire is grasped in the right hand with the thumb in
the direction of current flow, the fingers will curl in the
direction of the magnetic field.
In a solenoid with current flowing in the direction of curled
fingers, the magnetic field is in the direction of the thumb.
When applied to electrical flow caused by a changing
magnetic field, things get more complicated. Consider the
north pole of a magnet moving toward a loop of wire
(magnetic field increasing). The thumb represents the
north pole of the magnet, the fingers suggest current flow in
the loop. However, electrical activity will serve to balance
the change in the magnetic field, so that current will
actually flow in the opposite direction. If the magnet was
being withdrawn, then the suggested current flow would be
decreasing so that the actual current flow would be in the
direction of the fingers in this case to oppose the decrease.
Now consider a cylindrical area of magnetic field going into
a page. With the thumb pointing into the page, this would
suggest an electric field orbiting in a clockwise direction. If
the magnetic field was increasing, the actual electric field
would be CCW in opposition to the increase. An electron in
the field would travel opposite the field direction (CW) and
would experience a negative change in potential.
Force on a Wire in a Magnetic Field: [Newtons N]
F BI = lsin
F I B = l
F = force [N]
I = amperage [A]
l = length [m]
= angle between B and the
direction of the current
Torque on a Rectangular Loop: [Newtonmeters Nm]
= NBIAsin
N = number of turns
I = amperage [A]
A = area [m
2
]
plane of the loop
Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field:
r
mv
qB
=
r = radius of rotational path
m = mass [kg]
v = velocity [m/s]
q = charge [C]
Magnetic Field Around a Wire: [T]
B
I
r
=

0
2
0
= the permeability of free
space 410
-7
Tm/A
I = current [A]
r = distance from the center of
the conductor
Magnetic Field at the center of an Arc: [T]
B
i
r
=

0
4
0
space 410
-7
Tm/A
i = current [A]
= the arc in radians
r = distance from the center of
the conductor
Hall Effect: Voltage across the width of a
conducting ribbon due to a Magnetic Field:
( ) ne V h Bi
w
=
v Bw V
d w
=
ne = carrier charge density [C/m
3
]
Vw = voltage across the width [V]
h = thickness of the conductor [m]
i = current [A]
vd = drift velocity [m/s]
w = width [m]
Force Between Two Conductors: The force is
attractive if the currents are in the same direction.
F I I
d
1 0 1 2
2 l
=

F = force [N]
l = length [m]
0
space 410
-7
Tm/A
I = current [A]
d = distance center to center [m]
Magnetic Field Inside of a Solenoid: [Teslas T]
B nI =
0
0
space 410
-7
Tm/A
n = number of turns of wire per
unit length [#/m]
I = current [A]
Magnetic Dipole Moment: [J/T]
= NiA
= the magnetic dipole moment [J/T]
N = number of turns of wire
i = current [A]
A = area [m
2
]
Magnetic Flux through a closed loop: [TM
2
or Webers]
= BAcos
A = area of loop [m
2
]
perpen-dicular to the plane of
the loop
Magnetic Flux for a changing magnetic field: [TM
2
or
Webers]
=
B A d
A = area of loop [m
2
]
A Cylindrical Changing Magnetic Field
E s = =
d E r
d
dt
B
2

B
BA B r = =
2
d
dt
A
dB
dt
=
= N
d
dt

r = radius [m]
t = time [s]
= magnetic flux [Tm
2
or
Webers]
A = area of magnetic field
[m
2
]
dB/dt = rate of change of
the magnetic field [T/s]
= potential [V]
N = number of orbits
Faradays Law of Induction states that the instan-
taneous emf induced in a circuit equals the rate of
change of magnetic flux through the circuit. Michael
Faraday made fundamental discoveries in
magnetism, electricity, and light.
= N
t
N = number of turns
= magnetic flux [Tm
2
]
t = time [s]
Lenzs Law states that the polarity of the induced emf is
such that it produces a current whose magnetic field
opposes the change in magnetic flux through a circuit
Motional emf is induced when a conducting bar moves
through a perpendicular magnetic field.
= B v l
l = length of the bar [m]
v = speed of the bar [m/s]
emf Induced in a Rotating Coil:
= NAB t sin
N = number of turns
A = area of loop [m
2
]
= angular velocity [rad/s]
t = time [s]
Self-Induced emf in a Coil due to changing current:
= L
I
t
L = inductance [H]
I = current [A]
t = time [s]
Inductance per unit length near the center of a solenoid:
L
n A
l
=
0
2
L = inductance [H]
l = length of the solenoid [m]
0
= the permeability of free space
410
-7
Tm/A
n = number of turns of wire per unit
length [#/m]
A = area [m
2
]
Amperes' Law:
B s =
d i
enc
0
0
= the permeability of free space
410
-7
Tm/A
ienc = current encircled by the
loop[A]
Joseph Henry, American physicist, made improvements
to the electromagnet.
James Clerk Maxwell provided a theory showing the
close relationship between electric and magnetic
phenomena and predicted that electric and magnetic
fields could move through space as waves.
J. J. Thompson is credited with the discovery of the
electron in 1897.
INDUCTIVE & RCL CIRCUITS
Inductance of a Coil: [H]
L
N
I
=

N = number of turns
= magnetic flux [Tm
2
]
I = current [A]
In an RL Circuit, after one time constant ( = L/R) the
current in the circuit is 63.2% of its final value, /R.
RL Circuit:
current rise:
( ) I
V
R
e
t
L
=

1
/
current decay:
I
V
R
e
t
L
=
/
UB = Potential Energy [J]
V = volts [V]
R = resistance []
e = natural log
t = time [seconds]
L = inductive time constant L/R
[s]
I = current [A]
Magnetic Energy Stored in an Inductor:
U LI
B
=
1
2
2 UB = Potential Energy [J]
L = inductance [H]
I = current [A]
Electrical Energy Stored in a Capacitor: [Joules J]
U
QV CV Q
C
E
= = =
2 2 2
2 2 UE = Potential Energy [J]
Q = Coulombs [C]
V = volts [V]
Resonant Frequency: : The frequency at which XL = XC.
In a series-resonant circuit, the impedance is at its
minimum and the current is at its maximum. For a
parallel-resonant circuit, the opposite is true.
f
LC
R
=
1
2
=
1
LC
fR = Resonant Frequency [Hz]
L = inductance [H]
= angular frequency [rad/s]
Voltage, series circuits: [V]
V
q
C
C
= V IR
R
=
V
X
V
R
I
X R
= =
V V V
R X
2 2 2
= +
VC = voltage across capacitor [V]
q = charge on capacitor [C]
fR = Resonant Frequency [Hz]
L = inductance [H]
R = resistance []
I = current [A]
V = supply voltage [V]
VX = voltage across reactance [V]
VR = voltage across resistor [V]
Phase Angle of a series RL or RC circuit: [degrees]
tan = =
X
R
V
V
X
R
cos = =
V
V
R
Z
R
( would be negative
in a capacitive circuit)
= Phase Angle [degrees]
X = reactance []
R = resistance []
VR = voltage across resistor [V]
Z = impedance []
Impedance of a series RL or RC circuit: []
Z R X
2 2 2
= +
E I Z =
Z
V
X
V
R
V
C
C R
= =
Z R X = j
= Phase Angle [degrees]
X = reactance []
R = resistance []
VX = voltage across resistor [V]
Z = impedance []
Series RCL Circuits:
The Resultant Phasor X X X
L C
= is
in the direction of the larger reactance
and determines whether the circuit is
inductive or capacitive. If XL is larger
than XC, then the circuit is inductive
and X is a vector in the upward
direction.
In series circuits, the amperage is the
reference (horizontal) vector. This is
observed on the oscilloscope by
looking at the voltage across the
resistor. The two vector diagrams at
right illustrate the phase relationship
between voltage, resistance, reactance,
and amperage.
X
C
X
L
I
R
V
L
C
V
I
R
V
Series RCL
Impedance
Z R X X
L C
2 2 2
= + ( )
Z
R
=
cos
Impedance may be found by adding the components using
vector algebra. By converting the result to polar notation,
the phase angle is also found.
For multielement circuits, total each resistance and reactance
before using the above formula.
Damped Oscillations in an RCL Series Circuit:
q Qe t
Rt L
= +
/
cos( )
2

where
=
2 2
2 ( / ) R L
= 1/ LC
When R is small and :
U
Q
C
e
Rt L
=

2
2
/

q = charge on capacitor [C]
Q = maximum charge [C]
e = natural log
R = resistance []
L = inductance [H]
= angular frequency of the
undamped oscillations
[rad/s]
= angular frequency of the
damped oscillations
[rad/s]
U = Potential Energy of the
capacitor [J]
Parallel RCL Circuits:
I I I I
T R C L
= +
2 2
( )
tan =
I I
I
C L
R
V
I
L
I
R
C
I
To find total current and phase angle in multielement circuits,
find I for each path and add vectorally. Note that when
converting between current and resistance, a division will
take place requiring the use of polar notation and resulting
in a change of sign for the angle since it will be divided into
(subtracted from) an angle of zero.
Equivalent Series Circuit: Given the Z in polar notation of a
parallel circuit, the resistance and reactance of the
equivalent series circuit is as follows:
R Z
T
= cos X Z
T
= sin
AC CIRCUITS
Instantaneous Voltage of a Sine Wave:
V V ft =
max
sin2
V = voltage [V]
f = frequency [Hz]
t = time [s]
Maximum and rms Values:
I
I
m
=
2
V
V
m
=
2
I = current [A]
V = voltage [V]
RLC Circuits:
V V V V
R L C
= +
2 2
( ) Z R X X
L C
= +
2 2
( )
tan =
X X
R
L C
P IV
avg
= cos
PF = cos
Conductance (G): The
reciprocal of resistance in
siemens (S).
Susceptance (B, BL, BC): The
reciprocal of reactance in
siemens (S).
Admittance (Y): The reciprocal
of impedance in siemens (S).
Y B
S
u
s
c
e
p
t
a
n
c
e
Conductance
A
d
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
G
ELECTROMAGNETICS
WAVELENGTH
f c =
B E c / =
1 = 10
-10
m
c = speed of light 2.998 10
8
m/s
= wavelength [m]
f = frequency [Hz]
= (angstrom) unit of wavelength
equal to 10
-10
m
m = (meters)
WAVELENGTH SPECTRUM
BAND METERS ANGSTROMS
Longwave radio
1 - 100 km 10
13
- 10
15
Standard Broadcast
100 - 1000 m 10
12
- 10
13
Shortwave radio
10 - 100 m 10
11
- 10
12
TV, FM
0.1 - 10 m 10
9
- 10
11
Microwave
1 - 100 mm 10
7
- 10
9
Infrared light
0.8 - 1000 m 8000 - 10
7
Visible light
360 - 690 nm 3600 - 6900
violet
360 nm 3600
blue
430 nm 4300
green
490 nm 4900
yellow
560 nm 5600
orange
600 nm 6000
red
690 nm 6900
Ultraviolet light
10 - 390 nm 100 - 3900
X-rays
5 - 10,000 pm 0.05 - 100
Gamma rays
100 - 5000 fm 0.001 - 0.05
Cosmic rays
< 100 fm < 0.001
Intensity of Electromagnetic Radiation [watts/m
2
]:
I
P
r
s
=
4
2
I = intensity [w/m
2
]
Ps = power of source [watts]
r = distance [m]
4r
2
= surface area of sphere
Force and Radiation Pressure on an object:
a) if the light is totally
absorbed:
F
IA
c
= P
I
c
r
=
b) if the light is totally
reflected back along the
path:
F
IA
c
=
2
P
I
c
r
=
2
F = force [N]
I = intensity [w/m
2
]
A = area [m
2
]
Pr = radiation pressure [N/m
2
]
c = 2.99792 10
8
[m/s]
Poynting Vector [watts/m
2
]:
S EB E = =
1 1
0 0
2

cB E =
0
space 410
-7
Tm/A
E = electric field [N/C or V/M]
c = 2.99792 10
8
[m/s]
LIGHT
Indices of Refraction:
Quartz: 1.458
Glass, crown 1.52
Glass, flint 1.66
Water 1.333
Air 1.000 293
Angle of Incidence: The angle measured from the
perpendicular to the face or from the perpendicular to the
tangent to the face
Index of Refraction: Materials of greater density have
a higher index of refraction.
n
c
v
n = index of refraction
c = speed of light in a vacuum 3 10
8
m/s
v = speed of light in the material [m/s]
n
n
=

0
0 = wavelength of the light in a vacuum [m]
= its wavelength in the material [m]
Law of Refraction: Snells Law
n n
1 1 2 2
sin sin = n = index of refraction
= angle of incidence
traveling to a region of
lesser density:
2 1
>
refracted
Source
n
n
1
n
1
2
1
2
traveling to a region of
greater density:

2 1
<
refracted
Source
n
n
1
n
1
2
1
2
Critical Angle: The maximum
angle of incidence for which light
can move from n
1
to n
2
sin
c
n
n
=
2
1
for n1 > n2
Sign Conventions: When M is
negative, the image is inverted. p is positive when the
object is in front of the mirror, surface, or lens. Q is
positive when the image is in front of the mirror or in back
of the surface or lens. f and r are positive if the center of
curvature is in front of the mirror or in back of the surface
or lens.
Magnification by spherical mirror or thin lens. A
negative m means that the image is inverted.
M
h
h
i
p
=

=
h = image height [m]
h = object height [m]
i = image distance [m]
p = object distance [m]
reflected
refracted
Source
n
1
n
1
n
2
Plane Refracting Surface:
plane refracting surface:
n
p
n
i
1 2
=
p = object distance
Lensmakers Equation for a thin lens in air:
( )
1 1 1
1
1 1
1 2
f p i
n
r r
= + =
r1 = radius of surface nearest the

object[m]
r2 = radius of surface nearest the
image [m]
f = focal length [m]
p = object distance [m]
Virtual Image
C
2
r
2
F
1
r
1
F
2
C
1
C2
F
1
p
F2
i
C1
Real Image
Thin Lens when the thickest part is thin compared to p.
i is negative on the left, positive on the right
f
r
=
2
f = focal length [m]
r = radius [m]
Converging Lens
f is positive (left)
r1 and r2 are positive in
this example
Diverging Lens
f is negative (right)
r1 and r2 are negative in
this example
Two-Lens System Perform the calculation in steps.
Calculate the image produced by the first lens, ignoring the
presence of the second. Then use the image position
relative to the second lens as the object for the second
calculation ignoring the first lens.
Spherical Refracting Surface This refers to two
materials with a single refracting surface.
n
p
n
i
n n
r
1 2 2 1
+ =

M
h
h
n i
n p
=

=
1
2
p = object distance
i = image distance [m] (positive for real
images)
f = focal point [m]
r = radius [m] (positive when facing a
convex surface, unlike with mirrors)
M = magnification
h' = image height [m]
h = object height [m]
Constructive and Destructive Interference by Single
and Double Slit Defraction and Circular Aperture
Youngs double-slit experiment (bright fringes/dark fringes):
Double Slit
Constructive:
L d m = = sin
Destructive:
L d m = = + sin ( )
1
2
d = distance between the slits [m]
= the angle between a normal
line extending from midway
between the slits and a line
extending from the midway
point to the point of ray
Intensity:
I I
m
=

(cos )
sin
2
2
=
d
sin
=
a
sin
Single-Slit
Destructive:
a m sin =
Circular Aperture
1
st
Minimum:
sin .
.

=122
dia
intersection.
m = fringe order number [integer]
= wavelength of the light [m]
a = width of the single-slit [m]
L = the difference between the
distance traveled of the two
rays [m]
I = intensity @ [W/m
2
]
Im = intensity @ = 0 [W/m
2
]
d = distance between the slits [m]
In a circular aperture, the 1
st
minimum is the point at which
an image can no longer be
resolved.
A reflected ray undergoes a phase shift of 180
when the reflecting material has a greater index of
refraction n than the ambient medium. Relative to the
same ray without phase shift, this constitutes a path
difference of /2.
Interference between Reflected and Refracted rays
from a thin material surrounded by another medium:
Constructive:
2
1
2
nt m = + ( )
Destructive:
2nt m =
t = thickness of the material [m]
m = fringe order number [integer]
= wavelength of the light [m]
If the thin material is between two different media, one with a
higher n and the other lower, then the above constructive
and destructive formulas are reversed.
Wavelength within a medium:

n
n
=
c n f
n
=
= wavelength in free space [m]
n = wavelength in the medium [m]
c = the speed of light 3.00 10
8
[m/s]
f = frequency [Hz]
Polarizing Angle: by Brewsters Law, the angle of
incidence that produces complete polarization in the
reflected light from an amorphous material such as glass.
tan
B
n
n
=
2
1

r B
+ = 90
B = angle of incidence
producing a 90 angle
between reflected and
refracted rays.
r = angle of incidence of the
refracted ray.
partially polarized
r
n
2
1
nn
b
non-polarized
Source
polarized
Intensity of light passing through a polarizing lense:
[Watts/m
2
]
initially unpolarized: I I =
1
2 0
initially polarized:
I I =
0
2
cos
I = intensity [W/m
2
]
I0 = intensity of source [W/m
2
]
= angle between the polarity
of the source and the lens.

Physics Key Points and Formulae

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Physics Key Points and Formulae

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Physics Key points and formulae

= work done on a particle

integral over a closed surface

integral over a closed surface

E = electric field [N/C]

r1 = radius of surface nearest the

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