ARC Welding

It welding has advantages of less heat loss and less oxidation compared to gas welding.
Large quantities of UV and Infrared radiation are given off by the arc which can burn the
retina or even cause skin burn.
Arc Column Theory:
Anode (positive terminal of DC current)
Cathode (negative terminal of DC current)
Ions pass through air gap from anode to cathode and collide with gas
molecules in the atmosphere which produces thermal ionisation layer.
This ionised gas column acts as high resistance conductor that enables more
ions to flow from the anode to cathode. Heat is generated as the ions strike
the cathode.
Electrons easily detached from negative pole or cathode. This charged mass
(of electron) accelerated away from the cathode and strikes the anode with
high velocity. The path of electrons is generally in the interior of the arc
column which is the hotter portion.
Sources of heat in arc:
Electrostatic charge with electron
Kinetic Energy of striking electron mass.
Due to striking of metallic ions.

Ionic Bombardment Cathode area, Medium Heat

Atomic collision, LOW Heat Plasma Area

Electron impingement (5550 6100
0
C) Anode area, High Heat

In arc column, approximately 2/3
rd
of energy released in arc column is at
anode. This is true in all dc systems.
In AC system, equal amount of heat is liberated at anode and cathode.
So, the plasma area is the medium heat zone.
Power Supplies:
DC generator rectifier. (A rectifier is an electrical device that converts
alternating current AC to direct current DC).
Cathode
Anode
Power
Supply

AC Transformer
An electrode connected to anode will away approximately 50 %
faster than if connected to cathode.
If positive ground is used (work is connected to positive terminal)
penetration will be greater. Also electrode will burn slowly.
If negative ground is used (work is connected to negative terminal)
penetration will be shallow. Also electrode will burn faster.
AC current system combines the deep and shallow penetration and
yield penetration approximately halfway between the two (of DC
system).
Straight polarity: Electrode is negative and work is positive.(DCEN)
Reverse polarity: Electrode is positive and work is negative.(DCEP)
Electrodes:
Bare Electrode:
Difficult to control the arc and also cools faster.
Absorbs oxygen and nitrogen from atmospheres and oxides, nitrides
forms which turns into brittle and weal weld.
Coated Electrode:
Functions of electrode covering:
o Protection from atmospheric gases.
o Deoxidiser: It provides deoxidizers and fluxing agents to
deoxidize and cleanse the weld metal. The solid slag formed
also protects the already solidified but still hot weld metal
from oxidation.
o Arc Stabilisation: It provides arc stabilizers to help maintain a
stable arc. The arc is ionic gas plasma) that conducts the
electric current. Arc stabilizers are compounds that
decompose readily into ions in the arc, such as potassium
oxalate and lithium carbonate. They increase the electrical
conductivity of the arc and help the arc conduct the electric
current more smoothly.
o Metal addition: It provides alloying elements and/or metal
powder to the weld pool. The former helps control the
composition of the weld metal while the latter helps increase
the deposition rate.

Slag: The force of arc column striking the work piece digs in base metal a crater which fills
with molten metal. As the flux melts, part of it mixes with impurities in the molten pool
causing them to float to top of the weld. When this mixture of impurities and fluxes cool, it
forms a SLAG. It protects the bead from the atmosphere and causes the weld to cool
uniformly and thus improves the quality of weld.
Slag also acts as an insulator. When Heat affected Zone is insulated and Heat affected Zone
surrounds the weld bead completely, the slag allows even rather than erratic heat loss thus
helping to control the crystal or grain size of the metal.
Heat affected Zone:
The arc column reaches a temperature of 2750-3900
0
C.
The molten pool reaches a temperature of 1550
0
C.
Heat is radiated outward and changes the crystals surrounding the weld bead.
So, part must be heat treated after welding to change the grain size in the
weld bead and the surrounding.
The extent of Heat affected Zone can be seen by studying the crystallography
of the part. It is generally represented by large grain size. The grains in the
unaffected area are smaller. Because of the protection of flux, the weld bead
itself has medium grains that extend to large grains at deeper penetration.
Peening is used to relieving the locked in stresses or by heat treatment of
entire part.
Magnetic arc Blow:
Magnetic arc blow is generally experienced when DC current is employed
for welding.
If AC current is used for welding, there is approximately 1% chance that
magnetic arc blow will be encountered.
When current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic flux that
circles the conductor in perpendicular planes. The magnetic flux is produced
in the conductor as well as in the gap. The arc column is mainly influenced
by the lines of forces across the gap.
As long as the flux can travel, no serious arc blow will interrupt the weld. As
flux ceases to move, it piles up and a magnetic field of considerable strength
develops.
The build-up of flux causes a deflection of the arc column as it pulls away
from this high concentration magnetic force.
This concentration of flux that pulls the arc from its intended path is called
arc blow.
Areas were lines of forces have a tendency to concentrate are at points of
stopping, starting and in places as the inside corners of boxes or frames.
There are three areas of magnetic field travel.
o By Current passing through the electrode. ( undesirable so need to be
controlled )
o By Base metal by the ground ( it is desirable)
o By arc column. ( undesirable so need to be controlled )
Methods to control Magnetic arc blow:
Set up a magnetic field of sufficient strength to neutralize the force caused by
the flux.
Using run-in and run-out tabs.
Reducing the welding current and electrode size
Reducing the rate of travel of the electrode.
Shortening the arc column length.
Changing the power supply to AC.
Welding towards a heavy tack or portion of the weld already completed.
Effects of Magnetic arc blow:
Incomplete fusion.
Excessive spatter.


Electrodes:
Two types of electrodes namely lightly dusted electrodes and semi coated
electrodes. This classification is based on thickness of the flux covering the
electrodes.
Some Materials used for coatings are:
Titanium oxide, Ferromanganese, Silica flour, Asbestos clay,
Calcium carbonate, Cellulose etc.
Sodium silicate used to hold ingredients together.
Electrode coating increases the quality of weld.
Part of coatings burn and provide gaseous shield around arc that prevent
oxygen, nitrogen and other impurities in the air from combining with the
molten metal to cause poor quality weld.
Another portion of coating mixes with impurities in the metal and floats them
to the top of weld where they cool to form the slag. The slag protects the
weld from the air as it cools and causes the bead to cool more uniformly. The
slag also helps to control the basic shape of weld bead.
In process of arc welding, three variables are controlled to encounter the
primary problems. The weld speed, voltage and amperage. In manual
welding, the welder controls the speed of weld and arc voltage. The current
for manual welding usually lies in the range from 15 to 500 amps while the
voltage ranges from 14 to 24 volts with bare or lightly coated electrodes and
from 20 to 40 volts with semi coated electrodes.
The electrode nomenclature provides information about
o Strength of the weld
o The weld position in which the electrode will give best results
o The current requirement of the electrode.
There are four basic positions in which arc welding can be done:
o Flat, Horizontal, Vertical and Overhead
o Of the four, the flat position is the easiest, most economical and
generally results in the strongest weld joints.
o Flat welding is a welding when two pieces are joined on same plane ,
But in horizontal one its not necessary that pieces should be in same
plane they may be over lapped. (From internet)
o If horizontal welding position is require, a shorter arc length (since it
prevents the molten puddle from sagging) should be used which is
also true for flat position welding.
o In vertical position welding, uphill or downhill direction can be used
but downhill is preferred for thin metal part while uphill is used for
thicker.
o Welding vertical uphill direction is the most difficult.
The electrode works as electrical, physical and a metallurgical control in the
welding operation.
o Electrical work: Ionization agents are added to the coatings to
stabilize the arc. Chemicals commonly used are Na and K.
o Physical work: the electrode coating evolves gases that actually hold
the molten metal pool in position. Thus the viscosity of the molten
pool is controlled, permitting welding in positions other than flat. For
example, a low viscosity slag must be used in order to keep the weld
pool from dripping through the slag when welding overhead.
o Metallurgical work: The slag protects the weld from atmosphere and
yields reducing agents and alloys that are transmitted into molten
pool, improving the mechanical properties of the weld bead.
For example, Manganese which will oxidize is added to the molten
pool in preference to the iron. During heat reaction, MgO forms in the
form of slag and will float to the surface. The parent metal will
remain oxide free. Other fluxing or cleansing agents are
ferromanganese agents. Fluxing agents clean the metal by disposing
the oxides, by restricting further oxidation or by reducing the present
oxides.
Ferrous Electrodes:
The mild steel electrodes are designated with letter E followed by 4 or five
digits.
o Letter E reflects that it is an electrode.
o The first two or three digit (in case of five digit) * 1000 times gives
the tensile strength in psi. ( or The first two or three digit *.69 times
give tensile strength in MPa)
o The third digit or fourth digit (in case of five digit) indicates the
welding position.
1 = all positions
2 = flat and horizontal positions
3 = Flat position only
o The last digit identifies the type of flux used to coat the electrode.
The flux type determines the penetration as well as digging action.
The last digit also determines the power supply that should be used
with electrode.
Last digit Power supply
0 DC, AC, DC
+
1,6,8 AC or DC
+
2,3,4,7 AC or DC
5 DC
+
The most versatile electrode is E6010.
Corrosion resistant electrodes: E308-16
o First three digit- chemical composition (of the base metal not
the filler material)
308- 18% chromium and 8% Nickel
o 1 indicates for all position
o 6 indicate power should be either DCRP or AC.
o Whenever Cr is subjected to high temperatures, an affinity for
carbon is created meaning it is attracted towards carbon which
causes impurity in the weld. Therefore carbon derivatives are
not used as fluxing agents.
Manganese and silicon replaces the carbon providing the
necessary deoxidisers.
Titanium oxides are used to promote arc stabilization and slag
manipulation.
Non Ferrous Electrodes:
Major non-ferrous electrodes are copper (either phosphorous bronze A or
phosphorous bronze B, aluminium, bronze and nickel.
The Al electrode contains 95 % Al and 5 % Si. It can weld all alloys of Al,
both heat treatable and non-heat treatable with power supply either DCRP or
DCSP.
Al Bronze electrode contain 8 % Al, 1% Fe and rest Cu particularly used for
joining dissimilar metals. Also most ductile electrode.
Nickel based electrodes contains at least 50 % Ni and rest other metal such as
copper. These electrodes are capable of welding of Monel, Inconel, Haste
Alloys and Nickel Chromium Alloys.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN ARC WELDING:
Three types of welding power supplies
DC motor generators
o Speed governors are mandatory if IC engines are used to run
the DC generators.
o Provides wide range of current settings to provide nearly a
constant voltage and amperage settings. And also to change
the voltage rapidly to meet the changing requirements.
o Are available in portable, stationary and multiple station units.
o The size and type of electrode, penetration and weld speed
determines the current requirement in welding.
o The maximum current requirement and the weld time
determine the size of generator.
o Duty cycle is defined as length of time the welder will used in
percentage based on 10 minute periods.
o DC generators are designed so that it will compensate for any
change in the arc column voltage, thus insuring a stabilized
arc. In short circuiting during welding operation (during metal
transfer of electrode), the voltage becomes zero and a large
increase in current results which causes metal splatter.
o A decrease in arc current will cause arc flutter (move back and
forth rapidly). Therefore a dc welding must be able to remedy
the fluctuating of current during metal transfer and maintain
an even arc.
o
o Drooping voltage/ amperage characteristics: used in manual
arc welding.
o Drooping arc voltage characteristics: used in semiautomatic
and automatic welding.
o Rising arc voltage characteristics: fully automatic welding
AC transformers
AC transformers with rectifiers