Cocos nucifera Linn.

SYNONYM
Palma cocos Mill. COMMON NAME
Coconut, nyog BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Persley (1992) reported that two main groups of coconut trees, the Tall (Typica) and the Dwarf (Nana) types, are
known. Early Spanish explorers called it coco, which means "monkey face" because of the 3 indentations (eyes)
on the hairy nut resemble the head and face of a monkey. Nucifera means "nut-bearing".
Ross (2005) described Cocos nucifera as an unbranched monoecious plant of the Arecaceae family. It grows to
30 m tall, with a crown of 25-35 paripinnate leaves, producing 12-16 new leaves per year. There is a central bud
which if cut off, leads to the death of the tree. The adventitious roots arise from the base of the trunk. The trunk is
straight or gently curved, with marked foliar scars, 3050 cm in diameter, rises from a thickened base and
increases in height at a decreasing rate with age. The leaves are hanging horizontally, 4-8 m in length and
divided. Segments of leaves are numerous, linear-lancelate, 0.5-1 m long and tapering. In the axil of each leaf is
a spathe enclosing a long, stout, straw or an orange-colored spadix. The spadix is composed of up to 40
branches, each bearing up to 300 small, male flowers and a few female, 2 cm long, globose flowers. The male
and female flowers are produced separately in the leaf axils, usually on a long stalk. Approximately one-third of
the female flowers develop into 4-8 ripe fruits in 12-13 months, per inflorescence. The fruit is ovoid, three-angled
drupe, up to 30 cm long, usually with thick, fibrous mesocarp (husk) and a hard, green-brown endocarp (shell)
enclosing one seed. The seeds consists of 10-20 mm-thick white, fleshy endosperm (meat), covered by thin
brown testa, surrounding a cavity party filled wiih a watery, sweet fluid (coconut water) that reduces as the fruit
ripens.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Persley (1992) reported that coconut is the most widely naturally distributed palm tree. It is extensively cultivated
around the world and is considered to be one of the most important tropical species used by man. Southeastern
Asia is believed to be the center of origin of the species due to the great morphological variability, the large
number of popular/local names and plant uses, and the number of associated insects in that region. The major
coconut areas lie between 20N and 20S of the equator. It has been suggested that the spreading of the species
throughout diverse regions of the world occurred naturally, carried by oceanic currents from Southeast Asia to the
Pacific and Indian oceans and by human migration during the colonization of Asia and America. The introduction
of the species from the Atlantic coast of Africa to America occurred after the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope
Purseglove (1975) during the period of extensive mercantile navigation in the 16th century. Quisumbing (1978)
reported that coconut is very extensively cultivated in the Philippines and especially in those regions where the
dry season is not too prolonged, up to 800 m above sea level, on humus-rich and porous soil or pure sand in
coastal region, reported by Ross (2005). It was introduced in the Philippines during prehistoric times.
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL USES
Uses in Philippine traditional medicine
Quintana and Saraos (1982) reported a myriad of uses of coconut based on a nationwide survey of traditional
healers. Parts of the coconut plant used include the roots, bark of tree, leaves, fruits, coconut water, coconut
meat and oil. The uses include itchiness, eczema, burns, wounds, dandruff and falling hair; as well as for urinary
problems, edema, diarrhea, ulcer, dysmenorrhea! and hemorrhoids. The oil is much used in the Philippines as a
vehicle for liniments in skin medicines and for other external applications. It is also used for strengthening the hair
hence used with gogo to make a shampoo.
The tuba, or toddy, when drawn early in the morning and drunk immediately is stimulating and acts as a mild
laxative but excessive use is harmful to the health. A toddy-poultice (fresh toddy and rice flour) is a valuable
application on gangrenous ulcerations, indolent ulcers, and carbuncles.
Uses in other traditional medical systems
The decoction of Cocos nucifera L. husk fiber has been used in northeastern Brazil traditional medicine for
treatment of diarrhea and arthritis.
Quisumbing (1978) mentions different medicinal uses of roots. They are astringent and are used in Java for
dysentery and other intestinal complaints while they are used for cough in Amboina. Malays use a poultice of the
roots in syphilis and gonorrhea and in rheumatism. They are also used for strengthening the gum and a
decoction of ground roots is drunk in cases of smallpox. There are also reports that the roots are antiscorbutic
and diuretic. In India the young roots are employed as an astringent gargle for sore throat and when boiled with
ginger and salt, they are efficacious in fevers. The ash of the bark is used as a dentrifice and an antiseptic and is
also prescribed in scabies. The soft, downy, light brown colored substance found on the lower surface of the
leaves is considered a good styptic. The oil is used as a local application in alopecia. The use of the bark in the
Gold Coast for curing toothache and earache. The flowers are reported as astringent and are chewed in the
immature state for gonorrhea and in Sanskrit are recommended for diabetes, dysentery, leprosy, and urinary
discharges. The cocomilk, which is the product of the expressed juice of the grated endosperm is prescribed in
debility, incipient pthisis and cachetic affections. In large doses it proves aperients and actively purgative. In India
it is useful in allying urinary irritation and in Brazil is applied as a lotion to ulcers of the penis.
PHARMACOGNOSY
The refractive and the FTIR spectra of virgin coconut oil and virgin olive oil were successfully measured at room
temperature. The refractive index was measured in the spectral range of 400-700 nm while the FTIR measurement
was covered in the range of 600-4000 cm?l. All the experimental data were fitted to the Cauchy formula to obtain the
Cauchy constantsand it was found that the refractive index and the Cauchy constants, A, B and C of virgin olive oil are
higher then the one obtained for virgin coconut oil, except for the sample density. The FTIR spectra shows that the
five important peaks explaining the stretchingabsorption due to aldehyde (C = O) and esters (C-O), bending
absorption (methylene (CH2) and methyl (CH3) groups) and double bond absorptions (C = O) are strong in virgin
olive oil than in the virgin coconut oil samples. (Yunus, 2009)
The oxidative stability of virgin coconut oil in deep fat frying at 185+5C for a total of 30 hours was evaluated and
compared with that of similarly-treated palm olein based on changes in the peroxide value, p-anisidine value, total
oxidation value, total polar compound content and color. Results show that there was a significant increase (pms. Acid
and rancid aromas were likewise highly correlated (R2=0.90) as the acidic notes perceived may contribute to the
overall rancid characteristics of the coconut oil samples. (Villarino, 2007)
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
TOXICOLOGY
Coconut oil is listed as Generally Recognized as Safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, is listed on the
Everything Added to Food in the United States list, and has received a Select Committee on Generally
Recognized as Safe Substances Type 1 rating, meaning that there is no evidence in the available information on
coconut oil that demonstrates or suggests reasonable grounds to suspect, a hazard to the public when used at
levels that are now current or might reasonably be expected in the future. Doses are based on those most
commonly used in available trials or in historical practice. However, with natural products it is often not clear what
the optimal doses are to balance efficacy and safety. Preparation of products may vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer, and from batch to batch within one manufacturer. Because it is often not clear what the active
component of a product is, standardization may not be possible, and the clinical effects of different brands may
not be comparable.
Acute toxicity
In an acute toxicity study by Pekson (2007), VCO at a dose of 5000 mg/kg caused neither visible signs of toxicity
nor mortality. All five rats were healthy throughout the experiment and survived until the end of observation
period. The LD50 of virgin coconut oil was determined to be greater than 36.7 g/kg in mice, with no adverse
effect level (NOAEL) at 2.3 g/kg. Reversible acute toxidrome consisted of oily stool and blood-streaked feces.
Sub-acute administration of virgin coconut oil was associated with dose-dependent elevation of serum
triglycerides, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, AST and ALT. Fasting blood sugar was reduced at low to medium
doses of virgin coconut oil, while an increase in fasting blood sugar was observed at high dose (6.3 g/kg). Virgin
coconut oil was potentially hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic at medium (4.14 g/kg) and high doses (6.3 g/kg) in rats.
Sub-chronic toxicity
Pekson (2007) reported in sub-chronic toxicity study, that administration of the virgin coconut oil at 175, 550 and
2000 mg/kg for 28 days did not produce any mortality and there were no significant differences in the general
condition, growth, organ weights, hematological parameters, clinical chemistry values, or gross and microscopic
appearance of the organs from the treatment groups as compared to the control group. The LD50 for the virgin
coconut oil is found to be more than 5000 mg/kg body weight whereas, the observed adverse effect level was
found to be 2000 mg/kg per day for 28 days.
Developmental and reproductive toxicity
Francois (1998) reported that lauric acid from coconut oil has been shown to be excreted in breast milk 6 hours
after consumption of a diet containing the fatty acid and remained elevated in milk for 10-24 hours.
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
Analgesic
The use of virgin coconut oil is relatively safe and well tolerated coupling medium in therapeutic ultrasound. Virgin
coconut oil was shown to be seemingly more effective as mineral oil in terms of the reduction of pain and more
effective in improvement of flexion and extension range of motion of affected joint.
Endocrine/Metabolic
Coconut has been shown to provide adequate nutrition to infants; however, since coconut was not administered
alone in any trial, the effects of coconut cannot be fully elucidated. Therefore, until trials employing coconut oil
alone are conducted, there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of coconut oil for infant
nutrition.
Coconut flour has been shown to decrease the glycemic index of various baked goods and may be helpful in
controlling diabetes. However, until trials with large sample sizes are conducted, there is insufficient evidence to
recommend for or against the use of coconut in treating diabetes mellitus.
Virgin coconut oil significantly increases fasting blood sugar and decreases high density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Virgin coconut oil also increases creatinine and platelet count and decreases white blood cell count. Mild
gastrointestinal complaints were the most commonly reported adverse events. Further studies may be needed in
order to validate the results of this exploratory study and elucidate the metabolic effects of virgin coconut oil.
Virgin coconut oil is a cheap oil source containing high concentration of medium chain fatty acids which had
shown beneficial effect in waist circumference reduction especially in males without any deleterious effect to the
lipid profile.
Gastrointestinal/ Digestive
A milk-free formulation containing coconut has been shown to shorten the average duration of diarrhea in
children with mild symptoms in one randomized study. However, although these results seem promising, until
trials with large sample sizes are conducted, there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of
coconut in treating diarrhea. Adams et al. conducted a clinical trial to determine the effectiveness of coconut
water in children with mild diarrhea. Young coconut water can be used, together with early refeeding, as a home
glucose electrolyte oral rehydration solution in the early stages of mild diarrhea, despite not having a balanced
electrolyte
composition. However, young coconut water should not be used in patients with severe cholera, or in patients
who are dehydrated or in whom renal function is impaired.
Cardiovascular/Circulatory
Coconut has been shown to decrease cholesterol levels in clinical trials. In one randomized, double-blinded
crossover trial, consumption of coconut flakes reduced serum total and LDL cholesterol and serum triglycerides
in subjects with moderately high cholesterol levels. However, since coconut was administered alone in very few
trials, the effects of coconut cannot be fully elucidated. Therefore, until trials employing coconut oil alone are
conducted, there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of coconut for
hypercholesterolemia.
Coconut has been shown to decrease both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a controlled comparative trial.
However, although these results are promising, until randomized trials with large sample sizes are conducted,
there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of coconut in treating hypertension.
Dermatologic
Coconut oil was shown to be a comparable moisturizer to mineral oil in individuals with dry skin in a randomized,
controlled, double-blinded trial. However, until trials with large sample sizes are conducted, there is insufficient
evidence to recommend for or against the use of coconut in treating dry skin.
Coconut oil showed no significant effects as a potential emollient prior to photochemotherapy or narrow band
UVB (311-313 nm) phototherapy for psoriasis. However until more trials with large sample sizes are conducted,
there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of coconut in treating psoriasis.
Topical application of virgin coconut oil had a protective effect on the development of striae gravidarum although
it did not significantly decrease the incidence of development of striae gravidarum.
Pediculicide
A remedy consisting of coconut oil, anise oil and ylang ylang oil was as effective in controlling louse infestation as
a traditional lice treatment. However since coconut oil was used in combination with ether oils, its effects on louse
infestation cannot be fully elucidated. Therefore, until more trials with large sample sizes are conducted, there is
insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of coconut in treating louse infestation.
Antifungal
In vitro research of Ogbolu (2007), shows that virgin coconut oil was effective as an antifungal agent against
some species of Candida, particularly Candida albicans, which had the highest susceptibility to coconut oil
(100%), with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 25% (1:4 dilution).
Virgin coconut oil can be used as beneficial alternative treatment for diaper dermatitis among pediatric patients
as it is efficacious, safe and less expensive.
PHARMACOPHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
PHARMACOKINETICS
CLINICAL STUDIES
Phase 1
Sankaranarayanan (2005) conducted a randomized controlled trial to examine the effects of massage with
coconut oil on growth velocity and neurobehavioral development in full-term and preterm neonates. Preterm
neonates weighing 1,500-2,000 g full-term births weighing more than 2,500 g were randomized to receive
massage with coconut oil, mineral oil or placebo 4 times daily. Outcome measures included weight gain velocity
and neurobehavioral development, as measured by the Brazelton Score. Massage with coconut oil resulted in
significantly greater weight gain velocity when compared to mineral oil and placebo in preterm neonates and
compared to placebo in full-term babies. No statistically significant difference in neurobehavioral development
was observed between any of the groups.
Rey Matias (2011) conducted a randomized controlled double blinded study in an industrial out-patient clinic in Pasig
City. The outcome measures were change in pain scores using the numerical rating scale and change in flexion and
extension range of motion of involved joints using goniometric measurement from baseline to second follow-up and
third follow-up. Repeated measures ANOVA showed that there were reductions in the pain scores by visits. There
were no reported adverse effects from the use of virgin coconut oil and mineral oil, physical therapy program and pain
medications in both groups.
Trinidad (2003) conducted a randomized controlled trial to determine the glycemic index of commonly consumed
bakery products supplemented with increasing levels of coconut flour for proper control and management of diabetes
mellitus (32The authors concluded that the fat content of coconut flour-supplemented food should be considered to
optimize the functionality of coconut fiber in the proper control and management of diabetes mellitus.
Nelson (1998) conducted a randomized crossover trial to compare the absorption of fat and calcium by infants fed a
formula containing a blend of palm olein (53%) and soy oil (47%) with that by infants fed a formula containing a
blend of soy oil (60%) and coconut oil (40%). The authors concluded that fat is less well absorbed from a mixture of
53% palm olein and 47% soy oil than from a mixture of 60% soy oil and 40% coconut oil, and that absorption of
calcium is less from a formula containing palm olein, presumably because of the formation of insoluble calcium soaps
of unabsorbed palmitic acid.
Hayes (1992) conducted a clinical trial to examine the effect of breastfeeding compared with two fat-modified milk
formulas, one of which was a saturated fat formula with coconut oil and soybean oil (8). The presence of cholesterol
in human milk appeared to expand the low density lipoprotein ratio. Thus modulation of infant liporpoteins by
changing dietary fat and cholesterol is feasible and in keeping with the known response in adults.
Antebi (2004) conducted a randomized, double-blinded study to determine the efficacy and safety of an alpha-
tocopherol-enriched emulsion incorporating soybean, coconut, olive and fish oils on measures of liver function. There
was a significant improvement in plasma lipophilic antioxidant vitamins and low density lipoprotein alpha-tocopherol
levels only in the soybean, coconut, olive and fish oil group. The lower increase of plasma liver enzymes and the
phospholipids:apolipoprotein Al ratio in the soybean, coconut, olive and fish oil group suggest a better liver function
than in the soy bean oil based emulsion group.
Sabitha (2009) compared the lipid profile and antioxidant enzymes of normal and diabetic subjects consuming two
different types of oil as cooking medium. Total glutathione and glutathione peroxidase values showed significant
decrease in diabetic subjects as compared to the controls, while superoxide dismutase values showed significant
difference between coconut oil consuming groups. Though lipid profile parameters and oxidative stress were high in
Type 2 diabetic subjects compared to controls, no pronounced changes for these parameters were observed between
the subgroups (coconut oil versus sunflower oil).
Liau (2011) conducted an open-label pilot study on four weeks of virgin coconut oil to investigate its efficacy in weight
reduction and its safety of use in 20 obese but healthy Malay volunteers. There was no change in the lipid profile.
There was a small reduction in creatinine and alanine transferase levels. Virgin coconut oil is efficacious for waist
circumference reduction especially in males and it is safe for use in humans. There were some limitations to this
study. There was no long term follow up on the weight, anthropometric and lipid profile in the subjects and the
duration of the virgin coconut oil intake consumption was too short.
Assuncao (2009) investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with coconut oil on the biochemical and
anthropometric profiles of women presenting waist circumferences >88 cm (abdominal obesity). The randomized,
double-blinded, clinical trial involved 40 women aged 20-40 years. Groups received daily dietary supplements
comprising 30 mL of either soy bean oil (N=20) or coconut oil (N=20) over a 12-week period, during which all
subjects were instructed to follow a balanced hypocaloric diet and to walk for 50 minutes per day. The supplements
group presented an increase (puded evidence of psoriasis clearance. No significant acceleration of psoriasis clearance
was seen in either group.
Cuya conducted a randomized controlled trial to determine the efficacy of topically applied virgin coconut oil in the
prevention of striae gravidarum. Primigravidas with singletons, seen from their first trimester to 16 weeks age
of gestation, with no medical conditions and have not applied any agents over the abdomen, were included in the
study. Subjects were randomized into treatment and non-treatment group. Those in the treatment group were
supplied with virgin coconut oil for application to the whole abdomen at bedtime daily from the start of the study to
time of delivery. Seventy-five primigravidas (41 in control and 40 in the treatment group) were evaluated striae
gravidarum developed earlier in the control group and in the younger age group.
Mumcuoglu (2002) conducted an open trial to examine the pediculicidal efficacy and safety of a natural remedy
containing coconut oil, anise oil, and ylang ylang oil. One hundred nineteen children were treated with the natural
remedy, which contained coconut oil, anise oil and ylang ylang oil, for 15 minutes, three times at five-day intervals or
a spray formulation containing permethrin, malathion, piperonyl butoxide, isododecane and propellant gas, twice for
10 minutes with a 10-day interval between applications. Outcome measures included control of louse infestation.
Louse infestation was controlled in 60 children that received the natural remedy (92.3%) and 59 that received the
control pediculicide (92.2%). There were no significant side effects associated with either formulation.
Svahn (2003) conducted a randomized controlled trial to examine differences in fatty acid content of plasma lipid
fractions and serum lipid concentrations among young children fed different milk diets. Outcome measures included
plasma fatty acids, blood lipids and apolipoproteins at 15 months of age, and dietary intakes at 12, 15 and 18 months.
The authors concluded that children fed milk with 50% or 100% vegetable fat, together with high-vegetable fat and
low-milk fat dairy products have lower percentages of plasma saturated fatty acids and higher percentages of
polyunsaturated fatty acids than children fed standard- or low-fat milk and dairy products.
Fuchs (1994) conducted a randomized trial to determine the effects of feeding regimens of varying fat composition on
dietary intake and serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in older infants. Mean serum total cholesterol was
significantly higher in the infants fed cow milk at age 12 months, whereas mean low density lipoprotein and
apolipoprotein B were lower in the infants fed the follow-up formulas. Infants consuming the infant formula or whole
cow milk demonstrated greater increases in mean serum total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein
B by 12 months of age compared with infants ingesting follow up formula. Growth measurements were equivalent
among all groups.
Alleyne (2005) conducted a controlled comparative trial to examine the effects of regular consumption of two tropical
food drinks, coconut water and mauby (Colubrina arborescens), on the control of hypertension. Significant decreases
in the mean systolic blood pressure were observed for 71%, 40% and 43% for patients receiving the coconut water,
mauby and the combination of coconut and mauby, respectively, (p
RECOMMENDED USES
Adult (age > 18) Oral Dehydration
Coconut water has been used for exercise-induced dehydration.
Diabetes mellitus
Bakery products supplemented with 50-250 g of coconut flour have been studied for the management of diabetes
mellitus.
High cholesterol
Fat supplements with coconut oil delivered in oatmeal-raisin cookies have been used in combination with
lovastatin for six-week periods. Lunches and dinners with 35% fat calories, 60% of which is coconut oil (saturated
fat), were consumed for five weeks (39). Coconut oil with or without psyllium fiber have been used as part of a
controlled diet for seven-day experimental periods.
Hypertension
Coconut water has been studied for its effects controlling hypertension.
Topical Dry skin
Virgin coconut oil has been applied to the legs twice daily for two weeks.
Psoriasis
Pre-irradiation application of coconut oil on half of the body has been studied in patients with chronic plaque
psoriasis.
Children (ageuncontrolled studies have found that coconut can increase cholesterol levels, and that populations
that consume large amounts of coconut fat have higher cholesterol levels than those who do not. However, the
research is not conclusive, as coconut has also been shown to decrease serum cholesterol and low density
lipoprotein cholesterol levels in controlled human trials. Use cautiously in patients using antihypertensives, as
coconut has been shown to decrease mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure in humans and theoretically
may increase the risk of hypotension. Avoid in patients with severe cholera, according to clinical research. Avoid
in patients who are dehydrated or have impaired renal function, according to clinical research.
The set of data presented on RECOMMENDED USES is adapted from the patient monograph of the Natural
Standard.
AGRICULTURAL STUDIES
ECONOMIC STUDIES
Nour (2009) investigated the potential of centrifugation method in demulsification (emulsion breaking) of coconut milk
emulsion. The conventional methods to produce virgin coconut oil by using fermentation and cold pressing need
longer time to break these emulsions. Coconut milk from the local market was used as samples for the study. The
centrifuge speed was varied from 6000 to 12000 rpm and the centrifugation time was varied from 30 to 105 min. The
present research found that, centrifugation method can enhance the demulsification of oil-in-water coconut milk
emulsions in a very short time compared to the conventional methods. Due to its fast and higher quality of virgin
coconut oil, centrifuge can be used as an alternative demulsification method for oil-in-water coconut milk emulsions.
This method provides higher yields, quicker and less expensive.
Hamid (2011) describes the process for virgin coconut oil production through integrated wet process. The novel
features of this process is the production of virgin coconut oil itself which can minimize the time, cost, energy and
man power as well as can minimize the yield and improve the quality of coconut oil. The virgin coconut oil obtained by
this process contributes about 30-40% wt/wt of yield which is 10-20% higher than conventional method. The physical
characteristics of virgin coconut oil along this process shows that the virgin coconut oil is colorless, retain fresh
coconut aroma and sweet coconut taste with the highest content of lauric acid (49.85%). The results also indicates
the presence of vitamin E.
SOCIO-CULTURAL STUDIES
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