36

Experiment 6

THIN CYLINDER

Objective

1. Dermination of circumferential stress under open condition, and analysis of combined and
circumferential stress.

Theory

a) Complex Stress System

The diagrams in Figure 4.1 represent (a) the stress and (b) the forces acting upon an element of
material under the action of a two-dimensional stress system.

37
Assuming (b) to be a 'wedge' of material of unit depth and the side AB to be of unit length:

Resolving along

will give:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

2 sin 2 cos
2
1
2
1
2 sin
2
2 cos 1
2
1 2 cos
cos sin 2 sin cos
cos sin sin cos sin sin cos cos
2 2
+ + + =
+

+
+
=
+ + =
+ + + =
x y x y
x y
x y
x y


Resolving along

will give:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

2 cos 2 sin
2
1
cos sin
2
2 sin
2
2 sin
cos cos sin sin cos sin sin cos
2 2
=
+ =
+ =
x y
x y
x y


From equation 2 it can be seen that there are values for e for which

is zero and the planes on

which the shear component is zero are called 'Principal Planes'.

For equation 2:

This will give two values of 2 differing by 180
0
and, therefore, two values of differing by 90
0
.
This shows that Principal Planes are two planes at right angles to each other.

( )
( )
( )


2 tan
2
1
2 sin
2
1
2 cos
2 cos 2 sin
2
1
0
x y
x y
x y
=
=
=
(1)

(2)

(3)

38
From the diagram:

( )
) 4 (
4
2
2 sin
2 2

+
=
x y


and
( )
( )
) 5 (
4
2 cos
2 2

=
x y
x y


The stresses on the principal planes are normal to these planes and are called principal stresses.

From equation 1 and substituting the above values:


Principal stresses are the maximum and minimum values of normal stress in the system. The
sign will denote the type of stress.

i.e. Negative sign - Compressive Stress
Positive sign - Tensile Stress

Assuming BC and AC are principal Planes, i.e.

=0, and
1
and
2
are the principal stresses

Now maximum shear stress

will be seen to occur when sin2 = 1, i.e. when =45
0
.
( ) ( ) ) 6 ( 4
2
1
2
1
2 2

+ + =
x y x y
( ) ) 7 ( 2 sin
2
1
1 2

=
39

Therefore the maximum shear stress occurs on planes at 45
0
to the principal planes, and

or (using equation 6)

b) Two Dimensional Stress System


Strain in direction of
1
:
) 10 (
2 1
1
E
v
E

=

Strain in direction of
2
:
) 11 (
1 2
2
E
v
E

=

1
and
2
are the values of the principal strains.
A negative quantity denotes compressive strain.
A positive quantity denotes tensile strain.
These strains can be used to construct a 'Mohr Strain Circle' in the same way as stresses.
( ) ) 8 (
2
1
1 2

=
( ) ) 9 ( 4
2 2

+ =
x y
40


In the usual manner, referring to Figure 4.5:

OR is the maximum principal strain.

OP is the minimum principal strain at right angles to maximum

Q is the center of the strain circle.

From the diagram :

) 12 ( 2 cos
2 2
2 cos
2 2
2 1 1 2
2 1 2 1
2

+
=

+ =
m
m



and

) 13 ( 2 cos
2 2
2 cos
2 2
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
2

+
=

+ =
n
n


41
Theory as Applied to The Thin Cylinder


Because this is a thin cylinder, i.e. the ratio of wall thickness to internal diameter is less than
about 1/20, the value of
H
and
L
may be assumed reasonably constant over the area, i.e.
throughout the wall thickness, and in all subsequent theory the radial stress, which is small, will
be ignored. I symmetry the two principal stresses will be circumferential (hoop) and longitudinal
and these, from elementary theory, will be given by: -
t
pd
H
2
= (14)
and
t
pd
L
4
= (15)

As previously stated, there are two possible conditions of stress obtainable; 'open end' and
'closed ends'


a) Open Ends Condition


The cylinder in this condition has no end constraint and therefore the longitudinal component of
stress
L
will be zero, but there will be some strain in this direction due to the Poisson effect.
Considering an element of material:

H
will cause strains of:-
E
H
H

=
1
(16)

and

E
v
H
L

=
1
(17)
42
and these are the two principal strains. As can be seen from equation 17, in this condition
L
will
be negative quantity, i.e. the cylinder in the longitudinal direction will be in compression.


b) Closed Ends Condition

By constraining the ends, a longitudinal as well as circumferential stress will be imposed upon the
cylinder. Considering an element of material:

H
will cause strains of:-
E
H
H

= (18)
and
E
v
H
L

=
1
(19)

L
will cause strains of:-
E
L
L

= (20)
and
E
v
L
H

= (21)

The principal strains are a combination of these values i.e.

( )
L H
H
v
E
=
1
(22)
and
( )
H L L
v
E
=
1
(23)

The principal strains may be evaluated and a Mohr Strain Circle constructed for each test
condition. From this circle the strain at any position relative to the principal axes may be
determined.


c) To determine a value for Poisson's Ratio

Dividing equations 16 and 17 gives :-

v
H
L
=
1
1

(24)


This equation is only applicable to the open ends condition.
43

Description of the apparatus


Figure 2.1 shows a thin walled cylinder of aluminum containing a freely supported piston. The
piston can be moved in or out to alter end conditions by use of the adjustment screw. A 0-
5.0MN/m
2
pressure gauge is fitted to the cylinder.

The cylinder unit, which is resting on four dowels, is supported in a frame and located axially by
the locking screw and the adjustment screw. When the adjustment screw is screwed out, the
pressurized oil in the cylinder forces the piston against an end plate. When the adjustment screw
is screwed in it forces the piston away from the end plate and all the axial load is taken on the
frame, thus relieving the cylinder of all longitudinal stress. Pure axial load transmission from the
cylinder to frame is ensured by the hardened steel rollers situated at the end of the locking and
adjustment screws.

Six active strain gauges are cemented onto the cylinder in the position shown in Figure 2.2; these
are self-temperature compensation gauges and are selected to match the thermal characteristics
of the thin cylinder. Each gauge forms one arm of a bridge, the other three arms consisting of
close tolerance high stability resistors mounted on a p.c.b. Shunt resistors are used to bring the
44
bridge close to balance in its unstressed condition (this is done on factory test). The effect on
gauge factor of this balancing process is negligible.

Pressure is applied to the cylinder by closing the return valve, situated near the pump outlet, and
operating the pump handle of the self-contained hand pump unit. To release pressure unscrew
the return valve.


Thin cylinder technical information

The pump is fitted with a pressure relief valve, adjacent to the pump handle pivot, which is set to
operate at approximately 4MN/m
2
.
45

A bleed nipple is fitted to the right hand end of the cylinder.

NOTE: All gauges on any one cylinder are chosen to have the same gauge factor
although this factor may vary from cylinder to cylinder. The gauge factor is marked on the front
of the apparatus.


PROCEDURE


a) General

Two conditions of stress may be achieved in the cylinder during test:

(i) a purely circumferential stress system which is the 'open ends' condition
(ii) a biaxial stress system which is the 'closed ends' condition.

To obtain the circumferential condition of stress; - (refer to Figure 2.1)

Ensure that the return valve on the pump is fully unscrewed so that oil can return to the oil
reservoir. Screw in the adjustment screw until it reaches the stop. This moves the piston away
from the left-hand end plate and thus the longitudinal load is transmitted onto the frame. When in
this condition, the value of Young's Modulus for the cylinder material may be determined and also
the value for Poisson's Ratio.

To obtain the biaxial stress system: - (refer to Figure 2.1)

Ensure that the return valve on the pump is fully unscrewed. Unscrew the adjustment screws and
push the crosspiece to the left until it contacts the frame end plate. Now close the return valve
and operate the hand pump to pump oil into the cylinder and push the piston to the end of the
cylinder.

Thus, when the cylinder is pressurized, both longitudinal and circumferential stresses are set up
in the cylinder. Before any test, and at zero pressure, each strain gauge channel should be
46
brought to zero or the initial strain readings recorded as appropriate.

The software assists in the creation of the tables and graphs of data.
During Experiments 1 to 3 the screen appears in a similar form to Figure 7.1 and is the same as
the screen described for the Run option with the addition of a table below the representation of
the Thin Cylinder. The function keys available additional to those for the Run option are as
follows:

F2-Read Copy the pressure and strain readings currently on screen to the data table. Allow
two seconds to let the pressure and strains stabilize after any change in pressure
before taking a reading.

F3-Unread Remove the last reading taken from the data table. Only relevant to Experiment 1.

F6-Graph Create a graph based on the current data table. For Experiment 1 a standard X-Y
graph of stress against strain is shown, for Experiments 2 and 3 a Mohr Strain
Circle is shown. This option only becomes available after the data table is
complete, i.e. seven readings have been taken in Experiment 1 or one reading has
been taken in Experiments 2 and 3.

F7-Print Print the current data table. Ensure that a printer is connected and on-line and
press F7 to print the complete current data table. Normally this option would be
used after the data table has been created and before a graph of the data has been
printed. Printing in this order results in the table and the graph both appearing on
the same page. This option only becomes available after the data table is
complete, i.e. seven readings have been taken in Experiment 1 or one reading has
been taken in Experiments 2 and 3.

F9-Tutor Bring up the section of the tutorial relating to the current experiment. This option
can be used to view the relevant part of the tutorial without leaving the experiment
in progress.


47

b) Determination of Youngs Modulus

Using gauges 1 and 6. (Hoop stress calculated from equation 14):

To determine the value of Young's Modulus when in the circumferential condition of stress:-

Select the Determination of Youngs Modulus option from the Experiment Menu to create Table 1
and determine Young's modulus from a graph of stress against strain. The following steps should
be taken:

Ensure the cylinder is at zero pressure by checking that the pressure relief on the hand
pump is open.
Ensure that the adjustment screw is fully in so that the cylinder is in the 'open ends'
condition.
Close the pressure relief valve on the hand pump by screwing it fully in.
Press F4 to zero the pressure and strain signals.
Press F2 to take a reading at zero pressure and then:
Increase the pressure in 0.5MN/m
2
steps, at each step allowing a couple of seconds for the
pressure and strain readings to stabilize and then pressing F2 to copy the current readings
to the data table. If a mistake is made, F3 can be pressed to remove the last reading from
the table. After 7 readings the pressure should be 3.0MN/m
2
and the data table is full.
Press F7 to print the data table if desired, ensure a printer is connected and on-line.
Press F6 to draw a graph of stress against strain. Lines are drawn connecting the first and
last data points for both strain gauges and these can be adjusted if necessary as described
below.
Press F7 to print the graph if desired.
Finally press Fl0 to return to the main menu.




48
The following function keys become available while the Stress/Strain graph is displayed:

F2-Continue Return to the data acquisition screen to take more readings or return to the main
menu.

F7-Print Print the current data table. Ensure that a printer is connected and on-line and
press F7 to print the complete current data table. Normally this option would be
used after the data table has been created and before a graph of the data has
been printed. Printing in this order results in the table and the graph both
appearing on the same page. This option only becomes available after the data
table is complete, i.e. seven readings have been taken in Experiment 1 or one
reading has been taken in Experiments 2 and 3.

F8-Adjust

Adjust the lines of stress against strain for gauges one and six to get the best fit
with the data points. Gauge 1 data points are shown by a small blue cross and
gauge six data points are shown by a small red X. By default the first and last
data points for each gauge are connected by a straight line. If these lines do not
give the best fit then they can be adjusted by pressing F8. Once F8 has been
pressed the lines can be adjusted one end point at a time using the following
keys:

Tab Press the Tab key to cycle through the four line end points. The
currently active end point is identified by a flashing square around
it.
Cursor
keys

Use the cursor keys to adjust the current line end point. Drag each
end of a line about to give the best fit to the data points for that
gauge.
Enter Press Enter to accept the changes you have made and recalculate
Young's modulus based on the average slope of the two gauge
graphs.
Esc Press Esc to undo any changes that you have made to the fit of
the two gauge graphs.
49
Open Ends Condition
Select this option to create Table 2 and display and print a Mohr strain circle for the open ends
condition. The following steps should be taken:

Ensure the cylinder is at zero pressure by checking that the pressure relief on the hand
pump is open.
Ensure that the adjustment screw is fully in so that the cylinder is in the 'open ends'
condition.
Close the pressure relief valve on the hand pump by screwing it fully in.
Press F4 to zero the pressure and strain signals.
Increase the pressure to 3.0MN/m
2
, allow a couple of seconds for the pressure and strain
readings to stabilize and then press F2 to copy the current readings to the data table. If a
mistake is made press F2 again to retake the readings.
Press F7 to print the data table if desired, ensure a printer is connected and on-line.
Press F6 to draw a Mohr strain circle for the open ends condition.
Press F7 to print the graph if desired.
Finally press Fl0 to return to the main menu.

50
Closed Ends Condition

Select this option to create Table 3 and display and print a Mohr strain circle for the open ends
condition. The following steps should be taken:

Ensure the cylinder is at zero pressure by checking that the pressure relief on the hand
pump is open.
Ensure that the adjustment screw is screwed out so that the cylinder is in the 'closed ends'
condition.
Close the pressure relief valve on the hand pump by screwing it fully in.
Press F4 to zero the pressure and strain signals.
Increase the pressure to 3.0MN/m
2
,
allow a couple of seconds for the pressure and strain
readings to stabilize and then press F2 to copy the current readings to the data table. If a
mistake is made press F2 again to retake the readings.
Press F7 to print the data table if desired, ensure a printer is connected and on-line.
Press F6 to draw a Mohr strain circle for the open ends condition.
Press F7 to print the graph if desired.
Finally press Fl0 to return to the main menu.
51
Experiment 2: Calculation of Poisson's Ratio

Once Table 2 (open ends condition) has been created, the result from it may be used to calculate
Poisson's ratio. The calculation is shown on screen and may be printed by pressing F7. Please
note that this option is not available until data has been entered into Table 2 using the 'Open
ends condition option on the experiment menu.

Experiment 3: Calculation of Principle Strains

Once Tables 1, 2 and 3 have been created the results from them may be used to calculate the
principal strains on the thin cylinder. The calculation is shown on screen and may be printed by
pressing F7. Press F3 to switch between the calculation for open and closed ends conditions.
Please note that this option is not available until data has been entered into Tables 1 to 3 using
the first three options on the experiment menu.