g BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS

GENERAL
Through many years of experience gained in the operation of turbine-generators, it has become very
evident that all components of these units should operate at the loest possible vibration levels! "nits
that operate at high vibration levels for long periods of time are li#ely to incur increased maintenance
costs and loss of revenue due to the inherent dontime! The ever increasing costs of maintenance
outages and the importance of vibration free operation ma#e it necessary that $%&E engineers ac'uire
s#ills to effectively execute accurate balance programs! (efore ac'uiring these s#ills, the field engineer
must understand vibration characteristics, critical speeds, and high spot theory! $n addition, he must be
able to or# ith the tools that are necessary to accurately measure vibration levels in all components of
any particular unit! This section ill discuss these basic items!
)E*T+R ANAL,&$& AN- .+LAR *++R-$NATE&
.roper use of vector analysis is an important tool hen evaluating vibration data! )ibration data is
analy/ed by using vectors because they accurately indicate the magnitude and direction of the
unbalanced condition! A set of vectors as used in vibration analysis is defined as a set of arros that
have a given length, point in a given direction, and combine by addition using the parallelogram la!
$f a vector A

is immediately folloed, tip to tail, by a second vector (

, the arro hich runs from the

beginning of A

to the end of (

is the sum of A

0 (

! *onversely, if A

+ 1

2 (

, then 1

2 (

-
A

! The mathematical las of vector addition and subtraction are the same as in ordinary algebra! Let
1 and , be the rectangular coordinates and 3r, 4 the polar coordinates of a given .oint, .! 3&ee 5igure
6!4 Then,
1 2 r *os
, = r &in
2 arc tan ,71
r
8
21
8
0,
8
Example9
)ectorially add the folloing set of vectors
A

= : units at ;<=
(

= 8!> units at 6<=

*

= ; units at ?<=
5igure 8 illustrates the results of the vector addition!
-

= A

0

(

0 *

= 6<!@ units at ;;=

- 6 -
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
5igure 6
5igure 8
- 8 - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
The preceding example can also be resolved by using trigonometric functions! Each vector is resolved
into its 1 and , components!
-1 2 A10(10*1
2 : cos ;<= 0 8!> cos 6<= 0 ; cos ?<=
= :3!><<4 + 8!>3!?@:@4 0 ;3<4
= 8!< + 8!:;8 + <
= :!:;8
-, 2 A, 0(, 0*,
= : 3sin ;<
<
408!>sin 6<= + ; sin ?<=
= : 3<! @;;4 + 8!> 3!6BC;4 + ; 36!<4
= C!:;:0 !:C:0 ;!<
2 ?!@?@
- 2 3-1
8
0 -,
8
4
D
2 6<!@>B
2 arctan 3-,7-14 2 ;>!BC=
Therefore, -

2 6<!@>B units at ;>!BC=
The ability to properly utili/e vector analysis on .olar *oordinate paper is extremely important in the
implementation of successful balance programs!
*EARA*TER$&T$*& +5 )$(RAT$+N
The subFect of vibration deals ith the oscillatory behavior of all bodies possessing mass and elasticity!
The simplest form of oscillation, #non as harmonic motion, ill be described!
Earmonic motion is illustrated in 5igure C by a rotating vector 3A4 hich results in a sine ave! The
point on the sine ave 3hich repeats itself over e'ual time intervals4 is represented by the
trigonometric functions A sin t or A cos t! The time elapsed hile the motion repeats itself is called a
period, and motion during this period is a cycle! 5re'uency of vibration is the number of complete
cycles in a specified time period, and the pea# value, or amplitude of the motion is A!

5igure C! Earmonic Aotion 5ormed by a Rotating )ector
- C - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
This amplitude is referred to as the pea#-to-pea# displacement of the sine ave, and is expressed in mils
36 mil = !<<6G4! $t is also possible to measure vibration in terms of velocity 3inches7 second4! Eoever,
current velocity measurements are mainly used for fre'uencies above ><<< cycles per minute!
$n reality, vibration may not be the pure sine ave that e have described! $t may have multiple and sub-
multiple components and7or extraneous HhashG hich could ma#e the shape other than a true sinusoidal
ave form!
)ibration that results from the excitation of external forces is called forced vibration! Ihen the exciting
force is harmonic, the forced vibration ta#es place at the fre'uency of the excitation! The natural
fre'uency is mathematically defined by the N 2 3J7A4
D
, here J is the lateral stiffness and A is the
mass! Ihen the fre'uency of the exciting force coincides ith one of the natural system fre'uencies, a
condition called resonance occurs and dangerously large amplitudes may result!
5igure : results if e expand the rotating vector of a single heel mounted on a shaft that is flexible and
unbalanced due to too much eight existing at point 1! $f this heel is sloly rotated in the direction of
the arro, a dial indicator ould measure a Hrun-outG! The maximum point of deflection of this run-out
is called the Eigh &pot! This high spot is present at all operating speeds, but the angle of its location ill
change!

5igure :! "nbalanced &ingle Iheel
*R$T$*AL &.EE-
At certain speeds 3#non as critical speeds4 rotating shafts become dynamically unstable and exhibit
large lateral magnitudes of vibration! This phenomenon is due to a resonant fre'uency that occurs hen
the operating speed of the machine corresponds to the natural fre'uency of the lateral shaft vibration!
Almost all General Electric turbine-generator rotors operate above the first critical speed and many
operate above the second critical speed! A fe operate at speeds that approach the third critical!
5$R&T *R$T$*AL &.EE-
A rotor hich vibrates excessively at the first critical speed is said to be statically out of balance and ill
re'uire hat is #non as a static correction! 5igure > depicts the shape of a rotor that is operating near
the first critical speed! 5or purposes of illustration this shape is highly distorted!
A rotor in this condition is often balanced by placing eights in the planes provided near the ends of the
rotor! Eoever, it is balanced most effectively at midspan 3as determined by 5igure >4, but this is not
alays possible for many rotors! The end planes and midspan are the locations here the centrifugal
force of the balance eight counteracts the unbalanced condition as shon by the arros!
- : - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
5igure >! 5irst *ritical Aode
(alance eights of e'ual effective si/e 3eight x moment arm4 are located at each end of the rotor, or
one eight at midspan, in order to counteract the situation shon in 5igure >! A correction of this type is
called a static pair or a midspan static! $f a coupling span is operating in an unbalanced condition, it
tends to run in the static mode! All components of a turbine-generator unit do not reach their critical
speed at the same time! Typical first critical speeds for a G-C type turbine-generator are as follos9
Rotor &peed3R.A4
Eigh .ressure 86<<
Reheat 8C<<
Lo .ressure HAG 6B<<
Lo .ressure H(G 6B><
Generator 5ield ?<<
&E*+N- *R$T$*AL &.EE-
A rotor that vibrates excessively at its second critical speed is dynamically unbalanced and re'uires a
dynamic or couple correction! 5igure ; depicts the shape of a rotor that is operating near its second
critical speed! 5or purposes of illustration this shape is highly distorted!
5igure ;! &econd *ritical Aode
The rotor shon in 5igure ; is balanced by placing balance eights in the planes provided near the ends
of the rotor! The centrifugal force of the balance eights counteract the unbalanced condition at these
locations, as shon by the arros! The corrective eights are effectively e'ual 3eight x moment arm4
and are located 6@< apart at each end of the rotor! This type of correction is called a couple!
- > - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Again, using a G-C type of turbine-generator unit, the second critical speeds are as follos9
Rotor &peed3R.A4
Eigh .ressure ::<<
Reheat :<<<
Lo .ressure HAG C:<<
Lo .ressure H(G C>><
Generator 5ield 8:<<
TE$R- *R$T$*AL &.EE-
A rotor that is running near its third critical speed ill assume a shape as shon in 5igure B! Again, the
situation is highly exaggerated! This type of unbalance canKt be counteracted in the end planes alone! To
actually minimi/e this type of unbalance, corrective eights are re'uired in three placesL each end plane
and at the midspan, here the end plane and midspan effects are opposite each other! (ut, this is an
impossible tas#! Eoever, the vibration measured at the bearings can be reduced!
5igure B! Third *ritical Aode
The end plane vibration measured at the bearings 3see 5igure B4 appears to be unbalanced in the static
mode! The field engineer must be able to distinguish beteen the first and third critical speeds and
carefully note this condition hen conducting a balance program! 5or most turbine-generator units the
only rotor that may experience this type of condition is the generator field!
&$GN$5$*AN*E +5 *R$T$*AL &.EE-
Ihen a field engineer performs any balance programs, he must pay careful attention to magnitude of
critical speed vibration along ith the fre'uency at hich it appears! *areful analysis of critical speed
vibration ill often divulge valuable information pertaining to the type of re'uired eight correction!
5urthermore, balance eights that affect the critical speed vibration ill usually affect operating speed
vibration and vice versa! An improvement at critical speed ill usually yield the same results at
operating speed ithout noticeably affecting other critical speeds!
$f a balance correction reduces the critical speed vibration but increases the vibration at operating speed,
it may be necessary to compromise so that neither vibration level is excessive even though it is possible
to reduce one or the other by further balancing! The inability to reduce both critical speed and operating
speed vibration indicates that the corrective eights are not in the optimum axial planes!
&peed-vibration and speed-phase angle curves are extremely helpful tools hen analy/ing the critical
speeds and locating balance corrections if the critical speed vibration is excessive! Ihen plotted
graphically, the speed versus vibration and phase angle curves ill clearly sho the location, magnitude,
and associated phase angle of significant critical speeds! (alance shots can usually be accurately
- ; - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
determined by using this information! After a balance shot is made, repeated plots ill result in an
accurate measured effect method for any refinement that may be necessary!
E$GE &.+T TEE+R,
)ibration is caused by a stimulus created by pulsating forces due to a rotor that rotates about its
geometric center rather than the center of mass! An ideal system shon in 5igure @ consists of a single
disc of mass 3A4 symmetrically located on a shaft that is supported by to bearings! The center of mass
3*A4 of the disc is at a radial distance 3E4 from the geometric center 3>4 of the disc! The centerline of
the bearings intersects the plane of the disc at 3<4, and the shaft center is deflected by +& = r as the
system rotates! $f the effects of gravity and friction are neglected, the disc is influenced by the action of
to forcesL the restoring force of the deflected shaft from & to <, and the centrifugal force acting in the
other direction through *A! Therefore, if these to forces are in e'uilibrium, they must be colinear, and
e'ual in magnitude and opposite in direction! .oints <, &, and *A also lie in a straight line!

5igure @! Rotating "nbalanced -isc Iithout 5riction
The lateral deflection 3r4 of the center of the disc can be determined by e'uating the to forces involved!
The restoring force of the shaft is Jr, here J is the lateral stiffness of the shaft at the disc, and the
centrifugal force is e'ual to A
8
3r 0 E4!
Thus9
Jr = A
8
3r 0 E4 3E'uation 64
r 2 MA
8
EN 7 MJ - AN 3E'uation 84
N 2 3J7A4
D
2 the natural fre'uency of lateral vibration of the shaft and disc at /ero speed! Thus,
N
8
2 J7A or A 2 J 7 3N4
8
&ubstituting A = 3N4
8
in E'uation 8 e arrive at9
r 2 M3J7N
8
4 7
8
EN 7 M3J - J7N
8
4
8
N
- B - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
-ividing by J,
r 2 M37 N4
8
3
8
E4N 7 M36- 37 N4
8
N 3E'uation C4
E'uation C relates the lateral deflection 3r4 as n function of the operating speed 34 and the natural
fre'uency of lateral vibration 3 N4 of the shaft and disc! 5rom this e'uation e can ma#e the folloing
conclusions9
6! Ihen unit speed 34 is less than the natural fre'uency 3 N4, the denominator is positive!
Eence, the lateral deflection 3r4 is in the positive direction!
8! Ihen unit speed is e'ual to the natural fre'uency, the denominator is /ero! Therefore, the
magnitude of lateral deflection is infinite and a self-destruct condition exists!
C! Ihen unit speed is greater than the natural fre'uency, the denominator ill be negative!
Eence, the direction of lateral deflection is negativeK compared to conclusion 6!
:! Ihen unit speed is much greater than the natural fre'uency, the lateral deflection approaches
the value of radial distance 3E4! Therefore, the disc ould be rotating about its center of
gravity 3*A4!
The comparison of conclusions 6 and C is important! $f the lateral deflection is ta#en as the high spot, e
can see that it changed position relative to the geometric center by 6@<=! Iithout considering frictional
damping, the change appears instantaneously! Eoever, e must consider frictional damping! The
damping force 354 in 5igure ? acting at & is viscous in nature and proportional to the tangential velocity
r! The expression for 5 is as follos9
5 = *r 3E'uation :4
here * is the coefficient of viscous friction!
5igure ?! 5orce -iagram of Rotating "nbalanced -isc Iith 5riction
- @ - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
The presence of the frictional force 354 no enables line E to lead liner by an angle as shon in
5igure ?! The forces indicated in the diagram presuppose that the points <, &, and G remain fixed relative
to each other and that the configuration rotates together at speed !
&olving for 9
Tan 2 *
8
7 J - A
8
2 M83 7 N4

N 7 M36- 37 N4
8
N 3E'uation >4
here 2 damping factor 2 *7*+ 9 *+ 2 8A N
E'uation > indicates that is constant at any given speed and thereby substantiates the assumption
that +, &, and G remain fixed relative to each other and rotate about + ith speed ! To observations
can be made ith the damping factor remaining constant9
6! As speed varies from a value much less than the Onatural fre'uency to a value Fust belo
natural fre'uency, Tan varies from 0< to + , and varies from <= to ?<=!
8! As the speed increases from Fust above the natural fre'uency to a point ell beyond the
natural fre'uency, Tan varies from - , to -<, and varies from ?<= to 6@<=!
Eence, the high spot varies sloly from <= to 6@<= as a function of speed! $f the value of the constant
damping factor is altered, the shape of the curve beteen <= and 6@<= ill change as shon in 5igure
6<! -amping factors are a function of bearing type, si/e, length, diameter, bearing housing structure,
rotor design, oil viscosity, etc!
5igure 6<! Graphical .lot of Aoving Eigh &pot Iith &peed
- ? - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
E$GE &.+T *+N)ENT$+N
Revie 5igure ? and E'uation >! Refer to 5igure 66 and consider the disc to be lengthless and mounted
on a massless shaft 3similar to 5igure @ except damping exists4! This model may be used to analy/e shaft
behavior at the first critical speed!
The center of rotation is not coincident to the center of mass, and as the shaft accelerates, a small
deflection develops in line ith the center of mass! This point is called Eigh &pot 6 here = <9 As
speed is further increased, the amplitude of deflection increases and the angle moves sloly against
rotation! Ihen the shaft speed approaches close to the first critical, the angle of deflection moves faster!
As the critical speed is attained, the phase 34 has shifted ?<= to E&8! The displacement is then
maximum! As speed increases further, the E& angle shifts further and becomes E&C 3- 6@<=4 ith a
sloer rate of phase change and gradually diminishes in amplitude! This 6@<= phase traverse occurs for
each critical speed! The corrective eights are alays located at E&C 3I4 to move the center of mass to
coincide ith the center of rotation! The unbalanced condition and the angle of corrective eights
remain fixed but the indicated Eigh &pot changes as a function of speed!
5igure 66! Eigh &pot *onvention for 5irst *ritical
Again, a set of Eigh &pot numbers exists for each individual critical speed 3see 5igure 684! Also, the
rotor is li#ely to be deflected to some degree in more than one mode at any given speed! 5igure 68 is
similar to 5igure 66, except it is for the second critical speed! 5igure 6C is a family of Eigh &pot curves!
- 6< - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
-ATA RE*+R-$NG
R+T+R AN- &TAT+R AARJ$NG *+N)ENT$+N&
General Electric has established a standard method for reference mar#ing shafts and plotting data for
rotor balance or# using an $R- set! As each rotor is manufactured, it is stamped at several places along
its length ith degree mar#ings every C<= from <= to C;<=! These angles increase against rotation, hence
they are alays seen to increase as the rotor turns!
Ihen performing any balance or#, the unit is alays vieed from the generator end loo#ing toard
the front standard! Eence, the rotor is alays vieed as rotating cloc#ise, and rotor angles are alays
increasing as they pass by the observer! Eoever, there are exceptions as in the case of some gas
turbine-generator sets, marine units, and units ith gear drives 35&><<<4!

5igure 68! Eigh &pot *onvention for 8nd *ritical
5igure 6C! 5amily of Eigh &pot *urves
- 66 - A :8:
E& C
E& 8
E& 6
Running &peed
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Ihen the standard convention is used, the rotor and7or stator is mar#ed by one of the to methods
shon in 5igure 6:!
&TAT+R RE5EREN*E AETE+-
R+T+R RE5EREN*E AETE+-
5igure 6:! Rotor and &tator Aar#ing *onventions
The rotor reference method has a reference point mar#ed on the rotor hich passes angles that are
mar#ed on a stationary turbine component! +n the other hand, the stator reference method has the angles
mar#ed on the shaft and the hori/ontal Foint is used as the reference point! This method is preferred for
large shafts here it is difficult to strobe the shaft at all angles! Iith each method, the reference mar#
sees an increasing angle as the rotor turns, thus adhering to the convention! The rotor /ero mar# should
be set to correspond ith the T&$ phase meter bolt here applicable!
$t may be necessary to deviate from the stated convention hen or#ing ith older turbine-generator
units for the folloing reasons9
6! The customer may already have his e'uipment mar#ed by another convention 3this situation
often occurs4! Exercise extreme care in this case by ma#ing sure the procedure utili/ed is
ell documented on the data sheets!
8! &ometimes there isnKt any visible mar#ing system and the machine is in operation! $n this
case, try to identify an existing mar# on the shaft by using the strobe light! Ihen it is found,
use it as the <= mar# in the rotor reference method! $f there are no obvious rotor mar#s, try to
ma#e one by placing a small droplet of paint onto the rotor 3use a bright color4! The stator
can easily be mar#ed during unit operation!
C! $f you are loo#ing for existing mar#s, chec# the rear of the exciter! Aany older machines
have an access in this area for tachometer use, and past field engineers have used this area for
rotor reference mar#ing! These mar#ings are usually found under the GE insignia at the rear
of the exciter!
&EA5T REA-$NG&
Aodern turbine-generator units have shaft riding vibration pic#ups in each bearing as standard
e'uipment! $f portable vibration measuring e'uipment is used, the readings may be ta#en by holding the
portable probe directly on top of the existing shaft riding probe! Eoever, remember to disarm the
existing vibration trips before doing this because you can accidentally bump the shaft riding probe too
hard and cause a spi#e that ill trip the machine!
- 68 - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Ihen no shaft riding probe is present, a shaft stic# 35igure 6>4 may be used to ride the shaft near the
bearing that is being measured! The shaft stic# should be made of ood and thoroughly soa#ed in oil!
*oupling covers contain drilled access holes sealed ith pipe plugs! These holes permit access to the
coupling rims in order to obtain vibration readings! These readings are usually ta#en by using a ood
doel rod thoroughly soa#ed in oil! The oil acts as a lubricant and helps to diminish the burning that
ta#es place as the ood rides the shaft!
)ibration readings on the collector rings may be ta#en directly off the brushes by using doel rods!
Eoever, hen this is done ma#e sure the rod is ell insulated!
5igure 6> &haft Riding &tic#
&TAT$+NAR, REA-$NG&
Ihen access to the shaft is not readily available, bearing cap readings may be used! These readings are
ta#en in the hori/ontal, vertical, and axial directions! $f stationary readings are ta#en on stationary parts
other than bearing caps, the location and type of reading should be ell documented!
-ATA RE*+R-$NG
*are must be exercised hen recording any data that is pertinent to a vibration problem! .referably, this
data is recorded hen the unit is loaded and operating under steady state conditions! $t should also be
consistent and repeatable! Locations and severity of critical speeds 3magnitude and phase angle4 are very
useful tools hen analy/ing data properly!
The folloing items indicate available data that is generally useful hen conducting a balance program!
6! -ate - All data sheets, graphical plots, etc!, should be properly dated including the time of
day!
8! *ustomer, "nit, and Turbine Number!
C! Turbine *ode, Last &tage (uc#et Length and Type of Exhaust Eood here applicable!
:! E'uipment "sed - .roperly identify the vibration recording e'uipment because the
e'uipment constant is very important!
- 6C - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
>! Aethod used hen referencing data to turbine position! Rotor Reference Aethod, &tator
Reference Aethod, or anotherP $f an abnormal method is used, a short explanation or
illustration is arranted!
;! .ic#up Angle - &tationary angle of vibration probe! *onfusion is minimi/ed by #eeping this
angle constant!
B! *ritical &peed - Aagnitude, phase angle, and turbine speed!
@! Load - JI and J)A!
?! &hot Number - Aids in chronological record #eeping!
6<! 5iltered and "nfiltered -ata - Recorded for each coupling and7or bearing! 5or problems
involving simple mechanical unbalance this data should be nearly identical! $f not, further
investigation in the form of a fre'uency scan is re'uired!
66! &table &team *onditions - &tep changes in vibration data corresponding to changes in steam
conditions may be a clue to other problems!
68! *ontrol )alve .osition - Aay directly affect bearing loading and conse'uently vibration
trends!
6C! Lube +il Temperature!
6:! Generator field current, field temperature, hydrogen cold gas temperature at each cooler!
These items may indicate restricted cooling or uneven heating!
6>! &team .ressure and Temperature - This is ta#en along the entire steam path and can be used
to indicate internal damage!
Ihenever the field engineer records the above items, it must be done accurately! This point cannot be
overstressed! Ee should not have to 'uestion the validity of the data, nor should another engineer if the
original balance personnel ere replaced on the Fobsite! Iell defined data is a blessing!
)$(RAT$+N AEA&"R$NG EQ"$.AENT
GENERAL
(efore 6?:>, there asnKt any operating instrumentation that provided plant operations personnel ith
vibration data, and even today it is not supplied on many smaller units! Thus, there are hundreds of units,
some of hich are 'uite large, hose operators regularly evaluate a unitKs vibration Hby feelG! Aost
operators ho become thoroughly familiar ith their units over a long period of time, can detect
changes in vibration levels ith considerable precision! This ability is 'ualitative in nature, particularly
if the changes are not too gradual! Iith practice, the field engineer can also ac'uire this s#ill of Fudging
vibration Hby feelG and turn it into a useful tool!
$f a unit lac#s operational vibration instrumentation, there should still be a regular program of chec#ing
vibration at periodic intervals in order to detect any gradual changes that may occur! This can be readily
accomplished by using portable e'uipment such as a light beam or an $R- set!
- 6: - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
L$GET (EAA
The )ibration -isplacement $ndicator 3)-$ or Light (eam4 is a hand-held, mechanical optical device
that measures vibration displacement! $f properly used, it gives direct and accurate vibration
measurements at speeds beteen 68<< and 6><<< rpm! $t can be used at higher or loer speeds, but its
accuracy becomes 'uestionable! Iith a Hlight beamG that is in good condition, and gaining sufficient
practice, it is not difficult for any personnel to read the one to three mil vibration levels to the nearest 67:
mil! Eigher amplitudes can be read to the nearest 678 mil!
T"R($NE &".ER)$&+R, $N&TR"AENT& -GENERAL ELE*TR$*
Aost modern large units 3and many smaller ones also4 are provided ith Turbine &upervisory $n-
struments 3T&$4 manufactured by the General Electric *ompany! The T&$ e'uipment measures and
records many unit operating parameters, one of hich is vibration! The plant operations personnel use
the T&$ system to evaluate unit vibration levels on a daily basis!
Earlier versions of the T&$ system used vibration detectors that ere mounted on the bearing caps! These
detectors measured the vibration levels of stationary turbine parts 3bearing caps4! Late model T&$
systems use the shaft riding pic#up hich measures vibration levels in the rotating turbine components!
$n the late 6?;<Ks, the T&$ system incorporated a phase meter that indicates the phase angle of vibration
ith respect to a fixed point on the shaft!
The vibration detector consists of a ound coil hich is seismically suspended by a spring, in a
permanent magnetic field! Ihen vibration causes the core and permanent magnet assembly to vibrate,
the suspended coil ill not follo the vibration motion since it stays motionless! Thus, an alternating
current is generated and fed bac# to a vibration recorder and phase meter 3hen used4!
The phase meter compares the phase of the various vibration signals from the shaft pic#ups against the
angular position of a pulse from the phase reference generator! The meter reads the specific angle
beteen the Hpositive direction crossingG of the pulse and vibration signals 35igure 6;4! The phase
reference generator is a small magnetic pic#up that is usually mounted on the first, or smallest, coupling
housing of the turbine-generator unit and there is a specially mounted bolt on the coupling rim! The
magnetic pic#up produces a pulse each time the proFecting bolt on the coupling rim passes through the
air gap! Thus, high spot readings anyhere on the rotor are referenced to this bolt!
5igure 6;! .hase Aeter
-uring starting and stopping of a turbine-generator unit, the recorded vibration points ill be printed in
the proximity of /ero on the chart scale for speeds belo ;<< rpm! The lo pic#up signal fre'uency at
- 6> - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
these lo speeds is not sufficient to actuate the e'uipment! )ibration readings should be considered
approximate beteen ;<< and B@< rpm, and accurate at speeds above B@< rpm!
$n the event a vibration detector or detector cable develops an open circuit, the recorder ill either print
belo /ero mils or it ill print against its loer stop! The output current of the circuit ill be /ero
milliamps! This is an abnormal reading, since 6 milliamp represents /ero vibration!
There are to related pieces of e'uipment for the phase meter, and they should be located together! This
e'uipment consists of a filter transformer sitch unit and the phase meter itself! A bearing selector
sitch and a filter in-out sitch is mounted on the panel face!
To obtain vibration readings, turn the channel selector sitch on the filter7sitch unit to the desired
turbine bearing! $f the turbine is operating at a speed other than synchronous, the filter sitch must be in
the HoutG position! Note the magnitude of the selected bearingsK vibration on the T&$ recorder! $f the
magnitude is one mil or more, it is usually possible to obtain meaningful phase angle readings! Eoever,
if the vibration is less than one mil, the phase angle readings are usually erratic, unstable, and not very
meaningful! -uring extremely favorable circumstances it may be possible to obtain useful phase angle
readings 3in some instances4 hen vibration levels are somehat less than one mil!
Record one reading ith the Normal7Add 6@< &itch in the Normal position, and then record a second
reading ith the Noritial7Add 6@< &itch held in the Add 6@< position! $f this second reading is less
than 6@<<, add 6@<< to the value and record the result! &hould the second reading be more than 6@<<,
subtract 6@<< from the value and record the result! The to recorded values should agree ith each
other ithin a 8<< span!
$f there is poor agreement beteen the Normal and Add 6@<= readings, the validity of both values should
be 'uestioned! This situation ill generally occur hen vibration signals are very small compared to the
superimposed noise, or hen relatively large harmonics are present! Also, fluctuating readings can
normally occur hen the meter attempts to indicate near either end of the scale! This is not an indication
of an invalid reading, providing the alternate 3Add 6@< or Normal4 reading is steady near mid scale! This
is further explained in the next to paragraphs!
$f the normal reading should be at or near 6@<=, it is probable that the meter reading ill be unsteady or
erratic hen the sitch is held in the Add 6@< position! This is caused by the meter trying to fluctuate
from the /ero end of the scale to the C;<= end, hence it reads erratically in beteen! $n this event the Add
6@< reading should be disregarded!
&imilarly, if the Add 6@< reading 3before adding or subtracting 6@<=4 is at or near 6@<=, it is probable
that the normal reading ill be unsteady or erratic! $n this event, the Add 6@< reading should be ac-
cepted, and the result recorded after adding or subtracting 6@<= 3hichever applies4! Eere, the erratic
Normal reading is disregarded!
- 6; - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
$n order to find the shaft HEigh &potG from the meter reading, the folloing e'uation is used9
HS = M - RG + CAL -90 3E'uation ;4
Ihere HS angle against rotation from the phase reference generator bolt to the high spot
M resolved phase meter reading
RG angle against rotation from the shaft vibration pic#up to the phase reference generator -
usually /ero
CAL pic#up speed calibration angle hich is alays positive as follos9
&peed CAL
+ver C<<< rpm 0>=
8;<< rpm +6<=
88<< rpm +6B=
6@<< rpm 08>=
6;<< rpm 0C8=
6:<< rpm 0:<=
68<< rpm 0><=
6<<< rpm +;@=
@<< rpm 0?<=
Note9 .ositive angles are alays against rotation, and negative angles are alays ith rotation!
(ENTLE,-NE)A-A T&$
The (entley-Nevada T&$ e'uipment measures the pea#-to-pea# radial displacement of a rotor Fournal in
one radial direction for steam turbine-generators rotating at speeds above B<< rpm! This system uses a
non-contacting probe ith a remotely mounted receiver or monitor that incorporates a meter for
indicating pea#-to-pea# vibration amplitude! The output signals are conditioned for recorder inputs and
interface ith digital computers! Eence, there are to levels of high vibration alarm and self-chec#ing
circuitry!
The vibration probe does not contact the rotor Fournal! $t determines the distance 3gap4 beteen the
Fournal and probe tip by using a high fre'uency magnetic field! As the Fournal moves, the gap changes
and the output signal varies proportionately! The probe tip is adFustable in the up and don direction
ithin the probe assembly in order to initially set the proper gap!
&imilar to the GE T&$, there is a reference probe hich produces a spi#e indication every revolution!
The spi#e indication is generated each time a collar notch located at or near the turbine-generator
coupling passes by the reference probe! The collar notch is ! 6<<G deep and ! ><<G ide!
- 6B - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
The sine ave produced by the vibration probe can be compared to the signal generated every
revolution! The angle displacement beteen the spi#e and the next maximum of the sine ave is the
phase angle! &ome units utili/e a -igital )ector 5ilter that displays this phase angle digitally!
The field engineer ill re'uire the use of a dual trace oscilloscope for most units! Ihen using the
oscilloscope, set the time scales so that the displayed distance beteen the reference probe spi#es ill be
ten centimeters! $ntroduce the sine ave form from the vibration channels and read the phase angle 3see
5igure 6B4!
5igure 6B! .hase Angle Readout on -ual-Trace +scilloscope
5or the example in 5igure 6B, the maximum point of the vibration generated sine ave occurs at to
centimeters on the 6< centimeter scale, or 8<R of one revolution! &ince one revolution is C;<<, the
phase angle is 8<R of C;<< or B8<! "nli#e other vibration measuring e'uipment, the (entley-Nevada
system has no inherent e'uipment lag to be concerned ith!
$R-
The term $R- is derived from $nternational Research and -evelopment and the $R- e'uipment is
manufactured by $R- Aechanalysis, $nc! There are many different models of the $R- )ibration
Analysis--ynamic (alancer used in the field today! The folloing are the models that are commonly
used9
Aodel SB>8
Aodel S;<<
Aodel SC6:
Aodel SCC<
Aodel SC><
Aodel S;<6
Aodel SC:<
Aodel SC;<
The instrument panels of most models contain the folloing items9
6! Amplitude meter
8! Amplitude range selector
- 6@ - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
C! -isplacement-velocity selector
:! 5ilter-oscillator selector
>! 5re'uency meter
;! .oer selector
B! 5re'uency range selector
@! .ic#up selector
?! 5ilter turning dial
6<! 5ilter turning control
66! .oer indicator lamp
The accessories include a strobe light and a vibration pic#up!
Ihen ta#ing vibration readings on a turbine-generator unit, the $R- e'uipment is used as described in
the folloing paragraphs!
&etup
6! -etermine here the shaft is mar#ed for the recording of phase angles! The $R- set must be
placed near this location!
8! "se shielded cables ith Amphenol connector to lin# the pic#up and strobe to the instrument!
.reparation of 5ilter-Tuner
6! &et the filter-oscillator selector to the oscillator mode! The strobe light ill no fire at a rate
set by the filter tuner dial!
8! AdFust the fre'uency range selector to the range that covers the unit operating speed
3normally ><<->J4!
C! AdFust the filter tuner dial until the strobe appears to have HstoppedG the rotor, and beare of
multiple fre'uencies! The filter tuner is no synchroni/ed ith the unit speed!
Aeasuring )ibration Aagnitude
6! &et the filter-oscillator selector to the sharp, or Hfilter inG, position! All fre'uencies of
vibration other than operating speed ill no be filtered and eliminated!
8! .osition the displacement-velocity selector to the displacement position! The amplitude meter
ill no indicate pea#-to-pea# displacement in mils! The velocity position, normally used at
speeds above ><<< rpm, ould indicate vibration in inches7second!
C! &et the amplitude range selector to the test position 3for those models ith this capability4!
The amplitude and fre'uency meters should indicate in the green scale! Next, sitch the
selection to the maximum scale!
:! $f the unit in 'uestion uses a General Electric T&$ shaft riding probe, the $R- pic#up may be
placed on top of the GE pic#up!
- 6? - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
*aution9 $f a vibration trip circuit exists on the T&$ system, this trip should be disabled prior to
performing this step! $f a shaft riding probe doesnKt exist, a shaft stic# should be used! Alays use
the shaft stic# at the same angle from the hori/ontal Foint, and record the angle!
>! Iith the probe in place, the $R- ill indicate the filtered vibration magnitude! AdFust the
amplitude range selector until the magnitude is indicated near the center of the scale!
;! The phase angle of the vibration high spot ill electronically fire the strobe! Read and record
the angle! This may be accomplished by the &tator Reference Aethod of the Rotor Reference
Aethod!
B! After recording the values in &teps > and ;, turn the filter-oscillator selector to the filter out
position! This mode of operation permits indications of all fre'uencies of vibration! &hould
the filter out reading differ from the filter in reading, a problem other than, or in addition to, a
straightforard mechanical unbalance may exist! The cause of this difference may arrant
further investigation!
5re'uency &cans for Non-operational &peeds
6! The filter oscillator selector should be in the Ofilter inK or sharp mode!
8! &loly adFust the filter tuner dial and monitor the magnitude of vibration!
C! Ihen the filter tuner set point is other than operating fre'uency, the amplitude meter should
indicate near /ero!
:! $f magnitudes increase, adFust the set point until the magnitude pea#s! This point is the
probable extraneous fre'uency!
E'uipment *onstant
An $R- set has an inherent e'uipment lag or e'uipment constant! The values of this lag varies as a
function of rotor speed and portable e'uipment model number! *onsult 5igure 6@ for the e'uivalent lag
that applies to your situation!
+ther (alance E'uipment
A field engineer may find himself using vibration measuring e'uipment other than the units already
described! Aanufacturers of this e'uipment include Reliance Electric and .A* 3.recision Aeasurement
*orp!4! The operation of these portable units is very similar to the $R- in most casesL hence there is no
real need for added discussion here! The e'uipment constant curves for these units are shon in 5igure
6?!
- 8< - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
5igure 6@! $R- E'uipment *onstants
- 86 - A :8:
BASICS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS
5igure 6?! E'uipment *onstants
- 88 - A :8: