The Microscope

Parts and Functions

Eyepiece Lens: the lens at the top that you
look through. They are usually 10X or 15X
power.

Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the
objective lenses

Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to
the base

Base: The bottom of the microscope, used
for support

Illuminator: A steady light source (110 volts)
used in place of a mirror. If your microscope
has a mirror, it is used to reflect light from an
external light source up through the bottom of
the stage.

Stage: The flat platform where you place
your slides. Stage clips hold the slides in
place. If your microscope has a mechanical
stage, you will be able to move the slide
around by turning two knobs. One moves it
left and right, the other moves it up and
down.

Revolving Nosepiece or Turret: This is the part that holds two or more objective lenses and can be
rotated to easily change power.

Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. They almost always
consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a 10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we
get total magnifications of 40X (4X times 10X), 100X , 400X and 1000X. To have good resolution at
1000X, you will need a relatively sophisticated microscope with an Abbe condenser. The shortest lens is
the lowest power, the longest one is the lens with the greatest power. Lenses are color coded and if built
to DIN standards are interchangeable between microscopes. The high power objective lenses are
retractable (i.e. 40XR). This means that if they hit a slide, the end of the lens will push in (spring loaded)
thereby protecting the lens and the slide. All quality microscopes have achromatic, parcentered, parfocal
lenses.

Rack Stop: This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get to the slide. It is
set at the factory and keeps students from cranking the high power objective lens down into the slide and
breaking things. You would only need to adjust this if you were using very thin slides and you weren't
able to focus on the specimen at high power. (Tip: If you are using thin slides and can't focus, rather than
adjust the rack stop, place a clear glass slide under the original slide to raise it a bit higher)

Condenser Lens: The purpose of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the
specimen. Condenser lenses are most useful at the highest powers (400X and above). Microscopes
with in stage condenser lenses render a sharper image than those with no lens (at 400X). If your
microscope has a maximum power of 400X, you will get the maximum benefit by using a condenser
lenses rated at 0.65 NA or greater. 0.65 NA condenser lenses may be mounted in the stage and work
quite well. A big advantage to a stage mounted lens is that there is one less focusing item to deal with. If
you go to 1000X then you should have a focusable condenser lens with an N.A. of 1.25 or greater. Most
1000X microscopes use 1.25 Abbe condenser lens systems. The Abbe condenser lens can be moved up
and down. It is set very close to the slide at 1000X and moved further away at the lower powers.

Diaphragm or Iris: Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. This diaphragm has
different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of light that is projected upward
into the slide. There is no set rule regarding which setting to use for a particular power. Rather, the
setting is a function of the transparency of the specimen, the degree of contrast you desire and the
particular objective lens in use.

DRAWING:



Animal Cell Definition
Animal cells are eukarytoic. Animal cells are have outer boundary known as the plasma membrane. The
nucleus and the organelles of the cell are bound by a membrane. The genetic material (DNA) in animal
cells is within the nucleus that is bound by a double membrane. The cell organelles have a vast range of
functions to perform like hormone and enzyme production to providing energy for the cells.
The components of animal cells are centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules, mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes, plasma membrane and
ribosomes.
Parts of Animal Cell
Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other membrane bound cellular
organelles. These cellular organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal
functioning of the cell. Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack of the cell
wall, the shape and size of the animal cells are mostly irregular. The constituents of animal cells are
structures like centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.



Parts of the animal cell are as follows:

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.

Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended inside the cell.

Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell.

Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.

Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.

Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.

Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell.

Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.

Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis.

Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.

Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of nucleic acids and
proteins in/out of the cell.

Animal Cell Structure
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, the nucleus and other organelles of the cell are bound by membrane.

Cell membrane
It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to move across it.
Electron microscopic studies of cell membrane shows the lipid bi-layer model of
the plasma membrane, it also known as the fluid mosaic model.
The cell membrane is made up of phospholipids which has polar(hydrophillic) heads and non-
polar (hydrophobic) tails.
Cytoplasm
The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the cytoplasm.
The cellular organelles are suspended in this matrix of the cytoplasm.
This matrix maintains the pressure of the cell, ensures the cell doesn't shrink or burst.
Nucleus
Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and RNA.
The nucleus is surrounded by a porous membrane known as the nuclear membrane.
The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through these pores.
Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through the nuclear pores.
The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process.
The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control center.
The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for ribosome formation.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA takes place.
As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found in large number in all cells.
Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum
ER is the transport system of the cell. It transports molecules that need certain changes and also
molecules to their destination.
ER is of two types, rough and smooth.
ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic reticulum; while the
smooth ER do not have the ribosomes.
Lysosomes
It is the digestive system of the cell.
They have digestive enzymes helps in breakdown the waste moelcules and also help in
detoxification of the cell.
If the lysosomes were not membrane bound the cell could not have used the destructive
enzymes.
Centrosomes
It is located near the nucleus of the cell and is known as the 'microtubule organizing center' of the
cell.
Microtubules are made in the centrosome.
During mitosis the centrosome aids in dividing of the cell and moving of the chromosome to the
opposite sides of the cell.
Vacuoles
They are bound by single membrane and small organelles.
In many organisms vacuoles are storage organelles.
Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which function for transport in/out of the cell.
Golgi bodies
Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell.
The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from the rough ER by dividing them into smaller units with
membrane known as vesicles.
They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell.
They are called the power house of the cell because energy(ATP) is created here.
Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane.
It is spherical or rod shaped organelle.
It is an organelle which is independent as it has its own hereditary material.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain oxidative enzymes that are
digestive in function.
They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and help in synthesis of
cholesterol.
Cytoskeleton
It is the network of microtubules and microfilament fibres.
They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.
They are different based on the function they perform and their length.
Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer and are fewer in number.
They are organelles of movement.
The flagellar motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary movement is power stroke
and recovery stroke.

Function of Animal Cell


All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are differentiated into plant cells and animal cells.
Structurally there are a few differences in plant and animal cells though their functionality is almost the
same.



All the cells are enclosed in a protective membrane called the cell membrane however plant cells have an
extra addition the cell wall. The cells have certain organelles that are membrane bound within them, these
structures are called cellular organelles. These organelles are specified to perform certain activities that
are important for the survival of the cell. All the cells function together in coordination with each other and
help the organism to survive. The functions of animal cell is carried out by the different cell organelles.
The organelles of the cell function as a unit and regulate the activities of the cell. The different cell
organelles and their functions are as follows:

Cell Nucleus - Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell. The genetic material of the
organism is present in the cell. The replication of DNA, and synthesis of RNA occurs in the nucleus of the
cell. It also regulates the activities of the other cellular organelles.

Mitochondria - The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the cell. Its main function if to
produce energy for cell by the process of cellular respiration. The energy produced is ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network for transportation of certain substances in and out of the
nucleus.

Golgi Apparatus - It is involved with processing and packaging of the molecules that are synthesized by
the cells. The crude proteins that are passed on by the ER to the apparatus are developed by the golgi
apparatus into primary, secondary, and tertiary proteins.

Ribosomes - The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.

Lysosomes - They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell. They have digestive enzymes and are
involved in clearing the in wanted waste materials from the cell. They also engulf damaged materials like
the damaged cells,and invading microorganisms and digest food particles.

Vacuole - They are large storage organelles. They store excess food or water.

Functions of The Animal Cell
The animal cells perform variety of activities by the aid of the cellular organelles. These cells function as a
unit and the cells together form tissues. A group go tissues with similar function form an organ and a
group of organ of specific function to perform becomes and organ system. Thus, the microscopic cells
form the basic unit for the activities and coordination and help survival of the organism.