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Thesis and Purpose Statements
Use the guidelines below to learn the differences between thesis and purpose statements
In the first stages of writing, thesis or purpose statements are usually rough or ill-formed and are
useful primarily as planning tools.
A thesis statement or purpose statement will emerge as you think and write about a topic. The
statement can be restricted or clarified and eventually worked into an introduction.
As you revise your paper, try to phrase your thesis or purpose statement in a precise way so that
it matches the content and organization of your paper.
Thesis statements
A thesis statement is a sentence that makes an assertion about a topic and predicts how the topic
will be developed. It does not simply announce a topic it says something about the topic.
Good: ! has made a significant impact on the teenage population due to its . . .
Bad: In this paper, I will discuss !.
A thesis statement makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of the
paper. It summarizes the conclusions that the writer has reached about the topic.
A thesis statement is generally located near the end of the introduction. "ometimes in a long
paper, the thesis will be e#pressed in several sentences or an entire paragraph.
A thesis statement is focused and specific enough to be proven within the boundaries of the
paper. $ey words %nouns and verbs& should be specific, accurate, and indicative of the range of
research, thrust of the argument or analysis, and the organization of supporting information.
Purpose statements
A purpose statement announces the purpose, scope, and direction of the paper. It tells the reader
what to e#pect in a paper and what the specific focus will be.
'ommon beginnings include
(This paper e#amines . . .,( (The aim of this paper is to . . .,( and (The purpose of this essay is
to . . .(
A purpose statement makes a promise to the reader about the development of the argument but
does not preview the particular conclusions that the writer has drawn.
A purpose statement usually appears toward the end of the introduction. The purpose statement
may be e#pressed in several sentences or even an entire paragraph.
A purpose statement is specific enough to satisfy the re)uirements of the assignment. *urpose
statements are common in research papers in some academic disciplines, while in other
disciplines they are considered too blunt or direct. If you are unsure about using a purpose
statement, ask your instructor.
This paper will e#amine the ecological destruction of the "ahel preceding the drought and the
causes of this disintegration of the land. The focus will be on the economic, political, and social
relationships which brought about the environmental problems in the "ahel.
Sample purpose and thesis statements
The following e#ample combines a purpose statement and a thesis statement %bold&.
The goal of this paper is to e#amine the effects of 'hile+s agrarian reform on the lives of rural
peasants. The nature of the topic dictates the use of both a chronological and a comparative
analysis of peasant lives at various points during the reform period. . . The Chilean reform
example proides eidence that land distribution is an essential component of both the
improement of peasant conditions and the deelopment of a democratic societ!. "ore
extensie and enduring reforms would likel! hae allowed Chile the opportunit! to further
expand these hori#ons.
,or more tips about writing thesis statements, take a look at our handout on -eveloping a
Thesis "tatement.
$hat is a thesis statement%
A thesis statement . . .
.akes an argumentatie assertion about a topic/ it states the conclusions that !ou
hae reached about your topic.
.akes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of your paper.
Is focused and specific enough to be (proven( within the boundaries of your paper.
Is generally located near the end of the introduction/ sometimes, in a long paper, the
thesis will be e#pressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph.
Identifies the relationships between the pieces of eidence that you are using to support
your argument.
&ot all papers re'uire thesis statements( Ask your instructor if you+re in doubt whether you
need one.
How do ) deelop a thesis statement%
Identify a topic
-erive main point from topic
'ompose a draft thesis statement
0efine and polish draft thesis statement
'omplete the final thesis statement
Identify a topic
1our topic is the sub2ect about which you will write. 1our assignment may suggest several ways
of looking at a topic/ or it may name a fairly general concept that you will e#plore or analyze in
your paper.
Consider what your assignment asks you to do
Inform yourself about your topic
Focus on one aspect of your topic
Ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your eforts
Generate a topic from an assignment
3elow are some possible topics based on sample assignments.
Sample assignment 1
Analyze "pain+s neutrality in 4orld 4ar II.
Identifed topic
,ranco+s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the A#is
Reason
This topic avoids generalities such as ("pain( and (4orld 4ar II,( addressing instead on
*ranco+s role %a specific aspect of ("pain(& and the diplomatic relations between the ,llies
and ,xis %a specific aspect of 4orld 4ar II&.
Sample assignment 2
Analyze one of 5omer+s epic similes in the Iliad.
Identifed topic
The relationship between the portrayal of warfare and the epic simile about "imoisius at 6.768-
96.
Reason
This topic focuses on a single simile and relates it to a single aspect of the Iliad %warfare being a
ma2or theme in that work&.
Developing a Thesis Statement--Additional information
Consider what your assignment ass you to do
1our assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic, or it may name a fairly general
concept that you will e#plore or analyze in your paper. 1ou+ll want to read your assignment
carefully, looking for key terms that you can use to focus your topic.
Sample assignment: Analye Spain!s neutrality in "orld "ar II
!ey terms" analye# Spain!s neutrality# "orld "ar II
#nform yourself a$out your topic
After you+ve identified the key words in your topic, the ne#t step is to read about them in several
sources, or generate as much information as possible through an analysis of your topic.
:bviously, the more material or knowledge you have, the more possibilities will be available for
a strong argument. ,or the sample assignment above, you+ll want to look at books and articles on
$orld $ar )) in general, and -pain+s neutralit! in particular.
%ocus on one aspect of your topic
As you consider your options, you must decide to focus on one aspect of your topic. This means
that you cannot include everything you+ve learned about your topic, nor should you go off in
several directions. If you end up covering too many different aspects of a topic, your paper will
sprawl and be unconvincing in its argument, and it most likely will not fulfull the assignment
re'uirements.
,or the sample assignment above, both -pain+s neutralit! and $orld $ar )) are topics far too
broad to e#plore in a paper. 1ou may instead decide to focus on *ranco+s role in the diplomatic
relationships between the ,llies and the ,xis, which narrows down what aspects of "pain+s
neutrality and 4orld 4ar II you want to discuss, as well as establishes a specific link between
those two aspects.
As yourself whether your topic is worthy of your e&orts
3efore you go too far, however, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts. Try to
avoid topics that already have too much written about them %i.e., (eating disorders and body
image among adolescent women(& or that simply are not important %i.e. (why I like ice cream(&.
These topics ma! lead to a thesis that is either dr! fact or a weird claim that cannot be
supported. , good thesis falls somewhere between the two extremes. To arrie at this point.
ask !ourself what is new. interesting. contestable. or controersial about !our topic.
As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of !our paper in mind at all times.
"ometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a
different approach to your topic.
$eri%e a main point from topic
:nce you have a topic, you will have to decide what the main point of your paper will be. This
point, the (controlling idea,( becomes the core of your argument %thesis statement& and it is the
unifying idea to which you will relate all your sub-theses. 1ou can then turn this (controlling
idea( into a purpose statement about what you intend to do in your paper.
'oo for patterns in your evidence
Compose a purpose statement
'onsult the e#amples below for suggestions on how to look for patterns in your evidence and
construct a purpose statement.
()ample 1
Topic
,ranco+s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the A#is
(vidence
Franco &rst tried to negotiate with the A'is
Franco turned to the Allies when he couldn!t get some concessions that he
wanted from the A'is
/ossible conclusion:
"pain+s neutrality in 44II occurred for an entirely personal reason ,ranco+s desire to preserve
his own %and "pain+s& power.
Purpose statement
This paper will analyze ,ranco+s diplomacy during 4orld 4ar II to see how it contributed to
"pain+s neutrality.
()ample 2
Topic
The relationship between the portrayal of warfare and the epic simile about "imoisius at 6.768-
96.
(vidence
The simile compares Simoisius to a tree# which is a peaceful# natural image(
The tree in the simile is chopped down to make wheels for a chariot# which is
an ob)ect used in warfare(
/ossible conclusion:
At first, the simile seems to take the reader away from the world of warfare, but we end up back
in that world by the end.
Purpose statement
This paper will analyze the way the simile about "imoisius at 6.768-96 moves in and out of the
world of warfare.
Derive purpose statement from topic
'oo for patterns in your evidence
To find out what !our 0controlling idea0 is. !ou hae to examine and ealuate !our
eidence. As you consider your evidence, you may notice patterns emerging, data repeated in
more than one source, or facts that favor one view more than another. These patterns or data may
then lead you to some conclusions about your topic and suggest that you can successfully argue
for one idea better than another.
,or instance, you might find out that ,ranco first tried to negotiate with the A#is, but when he
couldn+t get some concessions that he wanted from them, he turned to the Allies. As you read
more about ,ranco+s decisions, you may conclude that "pain+s neutrality in 44II occurred for
an entirely personal reason his desire to preserve his own %and "pain+s& power. 3ased on this
conclusion, you can then write a trial thesis statement to help you decide what material belongs
in your paper.
Compose a purpose statement
"ometimes you won+t be able to find a focus or identify your (spin( or specific argument
immediately. ;ike some writers, you might begin with a purpose statement 2ust to get yourself
going. , purpose statement is one or more sentences that announce !our topic and indicate
the structure of the paper but do not state the conclusions !ou hae drawn. Thus, you might
begin with something like this
This paper will look at modern language to see if it re*ects male dominance
or female oppression(
I plan to analye anger and derision in ofensi%e language to see if they
represent a challenge of society!s authority(
At some point, you can turn a purpose statement into a thesis statement. As you think and write
about your topic, you can restrict, clarify, and refine your argument, crafting your thesis
statement to reflect your thinking.
As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of !our paper in mind at all times.
"ometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a
different approach to your topic.
Compose a draft thesis statement
If you are writing a paper that will have an argumentative thesis and are having trouble getting
started, the techni)ues in the table below may help you develop a temporary or (working( thesis
statement.
Purpose statement
3egin with a purpose statement that you will later turn into a thesis statement.
,ssignment: -iscuss the history of the 0eform *arty and e#plain its influence on the <==>
presidential and 'ongressional election.
/urpose -tatement: This paper briefly sketches the history of the grassroots, conservative, *erot-led 0eform *arty
and analyzes how it influenced the economic and social ideologies of the two mainstream parties.
*uestion-to-Assertion
If your assignment asks a specific )uestion%s&, turn the )uestion%s& into an assertion and give
reasons why it is true or reasons for your opinion.
,ssignment: 4hat do Aylmer and 0appaccini have to be proud of? 4hy aren+t they satisfied
with these things? 5ow does pride, as demonstrated in (The 3irthmark( and (0appaccini+s
-aughter,( lead to une#pected problems?
Beginning thesis statement: Alymer and 0appaccinni are proud of their great knowledge/
however, they are also very greedy and are driven to use their knowledge to alter some aspect of
nature as a test of their ability. @vil results when they try to (play Aod.(
+ain idea
4rite a sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay you plan to write.
"ain idea: The reason some toys succeed in the market is that they appeal to the consumers+
sense of the ridiculous and their basic desire to laugh at themselves.
'ist ideas
.ake a list of the ideas that you want to include/ consider the ideas and try to group them.
+( nature , peaceful
-( war mat.riel , %iolent /competes with +01
2( need for time and space to mourn the dead
3( war is inescapable /competes with 201
%ormula
Use a formula to arrive at a working thesis statement %you will revise this later&.
although most readers of BBBBBBB have argued that BBBBBBB, closer e#amination shows
that BBBBBBB.
BBBBBBB uses BBBBBBB and BBBBB to prove that BBBBBBBB.
phenomenon # is a result of the combination of BBBBBBBBBB, BBBBBBBBBB, and
BBBBBBBBB.
Compose a draft thesis statement
,hat to eep in mind as you draft an initial thesis statement
3eginning statements obtained through the methods illustrated above can serve as a framework
for planning or drafting your paper, but remember they+re not yet the specific, argumentative
thesis you want for the final version of your paper. In fact, in its first stages, a thesis statement
usually is ill-formed or rough and serves only as a planning tool.
As you write, you may discover evidence that does not fit your temporary or (working( thesis.
:r you may reach deeper insights about your topic as you do more research, and you will find
that your thesis statement has to be more complicated to match the evidence that you want to use.
1ou must be willing to re2ect or omit some evidence in order to keep your paper cohesive and
your reader focused. :r you may have to revise your thesis to match the evidence and insights
that you want to discuss. 1ead !our draft carefull!. noting the conclusions !ou hae drawn
and the ma2or ideas which support or proe those conclusions. These will be the elements of
!our final thesis statement.
"ometimes you will not be able to identify these elements in your early drafts, but as you
consider how your argument is developing and how your evidence supports your main idea, ask
yourself, ($hat is the main point that ) want to proe/discuss%( and (How will ) conince
the reader that this is true%( 4hen you can answer these )uestions, then you can begin to
refine the thesis statement.
As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of !our paper in mind at all times.
"ometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a
different approach to your topic.
4e&ne and polish the thesis statement
To get to your final thesis, you+ll need to refine your draft thesis so that it+s specific and
arguable.
Ask if your draft thesis addresses the assignment
5uestion each part of your draft thesis
Clarify %ague phrases and assertions
In%estigate alternati%es to your draft thesis
'onsult the e#ample below for suggestions on how to refine your draft thesis statement.
Sample Assignment
Choose an actiit! and define it as a s!mbol of ,merican culture. 3our essa! should cause
the reader to think criticall! about the societ! which produces and en2o!s that actiit!.
+( As
The phenomenon of drive-in facilities is an interesting symbol of american culture, and
these facilities demonstrate significant characteristics of our society.
This statement does not fulfill the assignment because it does not re)uire the reader to
think critically about society.
-( *uestion
-rive-ins are an interesting symbol of American culture because they represent
Americans+ significant creativity and business ingenuity.
This statement is more precise in that it identifies two American characteristics that drive-
ins appear to symbolize creativity and ingenuity. 3ut this assertion also seems to be one
that few would argue with.
2( Clarify
Among the types of drive-in facilities familiar during the twentieth century, drive-in
movie theaters best represent American creativity, not merely because they were the
forerunner of later drive-ins and drive-throughs, but because of their impact on our
culture they changed our relationship to the automobile, changed the way people
e#perienced movies, and changed movie-going into a family activity.
This statement introduces a new idea, and it is the first statement that is arguable to some
e#tent. The new information is that drive-in movies were forerunners of later
developments and that they had an impact on our culture.
3( #nvestigate
4hile drive-in facilities such as those at fast-food establishments, banks, pharmacies, and
dry cleaners symbolize America+s economic ingenuity, they also have affected our
personal standards.
Cotice that this sentence is different in structure from the one you started with %(-rive-ins
represent Americans+ creativity and business ingenuity(&. The (factual( information in the
earlier statement has been incorporated into a dependent clause %(4hile drive-ins . . .
ingenuity(&. The contestable part of your idea then appears in the independent clause
%(they also have affected our personal standards(&. In other words, you are no longer
focusing on a claim that most people would agree with/ instead you are using the obvious
as a point of departure for an idea you will need to (prove.(
6( -e.ne
4hile drive-in facilities such as those at fast- food restaurants, banks, pharmacies, and
dry cleaners symbolize %<& Americans+ business ingenuity, they also have contributed %D&
to an increasing homogenization of our culture, %E& a willingness to depersonalize
relationships with others, and %6& a tendency to sacrifice )uality for convenience.
This statement is now specific and fulfills all parts of the assignment. This version, like
any good thesis, is not self-evident/ its points, <-6, will have to be proven with evidence
in the body of the paper. The numbers in this statement indicate the order in which the
points will be presented. -epending on the length of the paper, there could be one
paragraph for each numbered item or there could be blocks of paragraph for even pages
for each one.
As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of !our paper in mind at all times.
"ometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a
different approach to your topic.
Complete the &nal thesis statement
The /ottom 'ine
As you move through the process of crafting a thesis, you+ll need to remember four things
+( Conte)t matters7 Think about your course materials and lectures( Try to
relate your thesis to the ideas your instructor is discussing(
-( As you go through the process described in this section# always eep your
assignment in mind( 8ou will be more successful when your thesis /and
paper1 responds to the assignment than if it argues a semi9related idea(
2( 8our thesis statement should be precise# focused# and contesta$le: it
should predict the sub9theses or blocks of information that you will use to
pro%e your argument(
3( ;ake sure that you keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times( Change
your thesis as your paper e%ol%es# because you do not want your thesis to
promise more than your paper actually deli%ers(
In the beginning, the thesis statement was a tool to help you sharpen your focus, limit material
and establish the paper+s purpose. 4hen your paper is finished, however, the thesis statement
becomes a tool for your reader. It tells the reader what you have learned about your topic and
what evidence led you to your conclusion. It keeps the reader on track--well able to understand
and appreciate your argument.
"riting a 4esearch Paper
This page lists some of the stages involved in writing a library-based research paper.
Although this list suggests that there is a simple, linear process to writing such a paper, the actual
process of writing a research paper is often a messy and recursive one, so please use this outline
as a fle#ible guide.
+( $isco%ering# <arrowing# and Focusing a 4esearchable Topic
-( Finding# Selecting# and 4eading Sources
2( =rouping# Se>uencing# and $ocumenting Information
3( "riting an ?utline and a Prospectus for 8ourself
6( "riting the Introduction
@( "riting the Aody
B( "riting the Conclusion
C( 4e%ising the Final $raft

Discovering0 1arrowing0 and %ocusing a -esearcha$le Topic
Try to &nd a topic that truly interests you
Try writing your way to a topic
Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic
Pose your topic as a >uestion to be answered or a problem to be sol%ed
%inding0 Selecting0 and -eading Sources
1ou will need to look at the following types of sources
library catalog# periodical inde'es# bibliographies# suggestions from your
instructor
primary %s( secondary sources
)ournals# books# other documents
Grouping0 Se2uencing0 and Documenting #nformation
The following systems will help keep you organized
a system for noting sources on bibliography cards
a system for organiing material according to its relati%e importance
a system for taking notes
,riting an 3utline and a Prospectus for 4ourself
'onsider the following )uestions
"hat is the topic0
"hy is it signi&cant0
"hat background material is rele%ant0
"hat is my thesis or purpose statement0
"hat organiational plan will best support my purpose0
top
,riting the #ntroduction
In the introduction you will need to do the following things
present rele%ant background or conte'tual material
de&ne terms or concepts when necessary
e'plain the focus of the paper and your speci&c purpose
re%eal your plan of organiation
,riting the /ody
Dse your outline and prospectus as *e'ible guides
Auild your essay around points you want to make /i(e(# don!t let your sources
organie your paper1
Integrate your sources into your discussion
Summarie# analye# e'plain# and e%aluate published work rather than
merely reporting it
;o%e up and down the Eladder of abstractionE from generaliation to %arying
le%els of detail back to generaliation
top
,riting the Conclusion
If the argument or point of your paper is comple'# you may need to
summarie the argument for your reader(
If prior to your conclusion you ha%e not yet e'plained the signi&cance of your
&ndings or if you are proceeding inducti%ely# use the end of your paper to add
your points up# to e'plain their signi&cance(
;o%e from a detailed to a general le%el of consideration that returns the topic
to the conte't pro%ided by the introduction(
Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research(
-evising the %inal Draft
Chec overall organi5ation" logical *ow of introduction# coherence and
depth of discussion in body# efecti%eness of conclusion(
Paragraph level concerns" topic sentences# se>uence of ideas within
paragraphs# use of details to support generaliations# summary sentences
where necessary# use of transitions within and between paragraphs(
Sentence level concerns" sentence structure# word choices# punctuation#
spelling(
Documentation" consistent use of one system# citation of all material not
considered common knowledge# appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes#
accuracy of list of works cited(
Discovering0 1arrowing0 and %ocusing a -esearcha$le Topic
Try to &nd a topic that truly interests you
Try writing your way to a topic
Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic
Pose your topic as a >uestion to be answered or a problem to be sol%ed
%inding0 Selecting0 and -eading Sources
1ou will need to look at the following types of sources
library catalog# periodical inde'es# bibliographies# suggestions from your
instructor
primary %s( secondary sources
)ournals# books# other documents
Grouping0 Se2uencing0 and Documenting #nformation
The following systems will help keep you organized
a system for noting sources on bibliography cards
a system for organiing material according to its relati%e importance
a system for taking notes
,riting an 3utline and a Prospectus for 4ourself
'onsider the following )uestions
"hat is the topic0
"hy is it signi&cant0
"hat background material is rele%ant0
"hat is my thesis or purpose statement0
"hat organiational plan will best support my purpose0
top
,riting the #ntroduction
In the introduction you will need to do the following things
present rele%ant background or conte'tual material
de&ne terms or concepts when necessary
e'plain the focus of the paper and your speci&c purpose
re%eal your plan of organiation
,riting the /ody
Dse your outline and prospectus as *e'ible guides
Auild your essay around points you want to make /i(e(# don!t let your sources
organie your paper1
Integrate your sources into your discussion
Summarie# analye# e'plain# and e%aluate published work rather than
merely reporting it
;o%e up and down the Eladder of abstractionE from generaliation to %arying
le%els of detail back to generaliation
top
,riting the Conclusion
If the argument or point of your paper is comple'# you may need to
summarie the argument for your reader(
If prior to your conclusion you ha%e not yet e'plained the signi&cance of your
&ndings or if you are proceeding inducti%ely# use the end of your paper to add
your points up# to e'plain their signi&cance(
;o%e from a detailed to a general le%el of consideration that returns the topic
to the conte't pro%ided by the introduction(
Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research(
-evising the %inal Draft
Chec overall organi5ation" logical *ow of introduction# coherence and
depth of discussion in body# efecti%eness of conclusion(
Paragraph level concerns" topic sentences# se>uence of ideas within
paragraphs# use of details to support generaliations# summary sentences
where necessary# use of transitions within and between paragraphs(
Sentence level concerns" sentence structure# word choices# punctuation#
spelling(
Documentation" consistent use of one system# citation of all material not
considered common knowledge# appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes#
accuracy of list of works cited(
,oring with sources
4uoting and /araphrasing
Use the menu below to learn more about )uoting and paraphrasing.
5ow to avoid plagiarism
"hould I paraphrase or )uote?
"uccessful vs. unsuccessful paraphrases
5ow to paraphrase a source
5ow to )uote a source
Additional resources
5ownload this handout
'ollege writing often involves integrating information from published sources into your own
writing in order to add credibility and authority--this process is essential to research and the
production of new knowledge.
5owever, when building on the work of others, you need to be careful not to plagiari#e (to steal
and pass off %the ideas and words of another& as one+s own( or to (present as new and original an
idea or product derived from an e#isting source.(< The University of 4isconsin takes very
seriously this act of (intellectual burglary,( and the penalties are severe.
These materials will help you avoid plagiarism by teaching you how to properly integrate
information from published sources into your own writing.
<. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, <>th ed. %"pringfield, .A .erriam-4ebster,
<==E&, FFF.
Dsing literary >uotations
Use the guidelines below to learn how to use literary )uotations.
Incorporating 5uotations into Sentences
Punctuating and Indenting 5uotations
Fmphasiing 8our Ideas
;aintaining Clarity and 4eadability
$ocumenting 5uotations

,or further information you may wish to see Guoting, *araphrasing, and Acknowledging
"ources, or you
may wish take the 4riting 'enter class entitled ;iterary Analysis? Co *roblemH.
#ncorporating *uotations
As you choose )uotations for a literary analysis, remember the purpose of )uoting.
1our paper develops an argument about what the author of the te#t is doing--how the te#t
(works.(
1ou use )uotations to support this argument/ that is, you select, present, and discuss
material from the te#t specifically to (prove( your point--to make your case--in much the
same way a lawyer brings evidence before a 2ury.
Guoting for any other purpose is counterproductive.
top
Punctuating and #ndenting *uotations
,or the most part, you must reproduce the spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation of the
original e#actly.
The following alterations are acceptable
Changing the closing punctuation
1ou may alter the closing punctuation of a )uotation in order to incorporate it into a sentence of
your own
(3ooks are not life,( ;awrence emphasized.
'ommas and periods go inside the closing )uotation marks/ the other punctuation marks go
outside.
;awrence insisted that books (are not life(/ however, he wrote e#ultantly about the power of the
novel.
4hy does ;awrence need to point out that (3ooks are not life(?
6sing the slash when 2uoting poetry
4hen )uoting lines of poetry up to three lines long %which are not indented, see Indenting
)uotations&, separate one line of poetry from another with a slash mark %see e#amples in
Incorporating Guotations into "entences&.
6sing (llipsis Points for 3mitted +aterial
If for the sake of brevity you wish to omit material from a )uoted passage, use ellipsis points
%three spaced periods& to indicate the omission.
%"ee this sample paragraph. The writer )uoted only those portions of the original sentences that
related to the point of the analysis.&
6sing S2uare /racets when Altering +aterial
4hen )uoting, you may alter grammatical forms such as the tense of a verb or the person of a
pronoun so that the )uotation conforms grammatically to your own prose/ indicate these
alterations by placing s)uare brackets around the changed form.
In the following )uotation (her( replaces the (your( of the original so that the )uote fits the point
of view of the paper %third person&
4hen he hears 'ordelia+s answer, ;ear seems surprised, but not dumbfounded. 5e advises her to
(mend IherJ speech a little.( 5e had e#pected her to praise him the most/ but compared to her
sisters+, her remarks seem almost insulting %<.<.=7&.
top
#ndenting *uotations
*rose or verse )uotations less than four lines long are not indented. ,or )uotations of this length,
use the patterns described above.
Indent (longer( )uotations in a block about ten spaces in from the left margin/ when a )uotation
is indented, )uotation marks are not used.
The MLA Handbook %<==7& recommends that indented )uotations be double-spaced, but many
instructors prefer them single-spaced. The meaning of (longer( varies slightly from one style
system to another, but a general rule is to indent )uotations that are more than two %or three& lines
of verse or three %or four& lines of prose.
Indent dialogue between characters in a play. *lace the speaker+s name before the speech )uoted
'A@"A0 @t tu, 3ruteH Then, fall, 'aesarH
'ICCA ;ibertyH ,reedomH Tyranny is deadH %E.<.88-8F&
,or more information see Guoting, *araphrasing, and Acknowledging "ources - 5ow to Guote a
"ource.
top
(mphasi5ing 4our #deas
,hat to include in literary analysis
Take a look at this sample paragraph. It includes E basic kinds of materials
<. statements e#pressing the student+s own ideas about the relationship 4oolf is creating/
D. data or evidence from the te#t in summarized, paraphrased, and )uoted form/ and
E. discussion of how the data support the writer+s interpretation.
The )uotations are used in accordance with the writer+s purpose, i.e. to show how the
development of .rs. 0amsey+s feelings indicates something about her personality.
Should # 2uote7
Guoting is only one of several ways to present te#tual material as evidence.
1ou can also refer to te#tual data, summarize, and paraphrase. 1ou will often want merely to
refer or point to passages %as in the third sentence in the sample paragraph& that contribute to
your argument.
In other cases you will want to paraphrase, i.e. (translate( the original into your own words,
again instead of )uoting. "ummarize or paraphrase when it is not so much the language of the
te#t that 2ustifies your position, but the substance or content.
*uote selectively
"imilarly, after you have decided that you do want to use material in )uoted form, )uote only the
portions of the te#t specifically relevant to your point.
Think of the te#t in terms of units--words, phrases, sentences, and groups of sentences
%paragraphs, stanzas&--and use only the units you need.
If it is particular words or phrases that (prove( your point, you do not need to )uote the sentences
they appear in/ rather, incorporate the words and phrases into sentences e#pressing your own
ideas.
top
+aintaining Clarity and -eada$ility
#ntroduce your 2uotations
Introduce a )uotation either by indicating what it is intended to show or by naming its source, or
both.
,or non-narrative poetry, it+s customary to attribute )uotations to (the speaker(/ for a story with a
narrator, to (the narrator.(
,or plays, novels, and other works with characters, identify characters as you )uote them.
5o not use two 'uotations in a row. without interening material of !our own.
,or further information see Guoting, *araphrasing, and Acknowledging "ources - 5ow to Guote
a "ource.
Pay attention to ver$ tense
Tense is a tricky issue. It+s customary in literary analysis to use the present tense/ it is at the
present time that you %and your reader& are looking at the te#t.
3ut events in a narrative or drama take place in a time se)uence. 1ou will often need to use a
past tense to refer to events that took place before the moment you are presently discussing
4hen he hears 'ordelia+s answer, ;ear seems surprised, but not dumbfounded. 5e advises her to
(mend IherJ speech a little.( 5e had e#pected her to praise him the most/ but compared to her
sisters+, her remarks seem almost insulting %<.<.=7&.
top
Documenting *uotations
,ollow your course instructor+s guidelines for documenting sources. If your instructor hasn+t told
you which system to use to document sources, ask.
$eep in mind that when you are writing a paper about the same te#t and )uoting from the same
edition that everyone else in the class is, instructors will often allow you to use informal
documentation. In this case 2ust include the page number in parentheses after the )uotation or
reference to the te#t. To be sure, though, you should ask your course instructor.
The documentation style used in this pages is that presented in the <==7 MLA Handbook, but
other style systems are commonly used. The 4riting 'enter has information about the rules of
documentation in general and about a number of the most common systems, such as A*A,
A*"A, '3@, 'hicagoKTurabian, .;A, and Cumbered 0eferences.
Drafting and -evising 4our
Paper
In%est in 8our Introduction
4hen they begin to read your paper, readers are trying to understand a comple# te#t that is new
to them. They want to know what it+s about, to understand its background or conte#t, and to see
its goals or purpose. An e#plicit and detailed overview will help you show the richness and
comple#ity of your work and set up the reader+s e#pectations for your paper.
,hen should you write the introduction7
1ou do not need to write your introduction first. "ome writers write the introduction in the
middle of the drafting process once they see the larger direction of the paper/ others write the
introduction last, once they know the e#act content of their work. Try different approaches to see
which one is best for you, but always check your introduction before you turn in your final draft
to be sure it matches the paper you actually wrote.
8ow can you start drafting an introduction7
-epending on the discipline you+re writing in, an introduction can engage readers in many ways
Ask a >uestion
Identify a debate
=i%e a comparison
F'plain a situation
$escribe a problem
5uote an authority
Cite an e'ample
Set up an intellectual problem
?fer a hypothesis
,hat should your introduction promise7
Introductions represent a promise the writer makes to the reader. 1our introduction should
announce your paper+s topic and purpose, situate that purpose in relation to what you+ve
discussed in your course or what has already been published on that topic, and offer your readers
a preview of how you will satisfy that purpose.
To address a topic9
:ne of the important functions of an introduction is to announce what !ou are writing about to
your readers.
To present a claim0 .nding0 or argument9
1ou will often read them toward the end of an introduction the thesis statement %which could
also be a purpose statement or )uestion&. This is a promise that your paper is going to make a
point, not 2ust cover a topic.
To participate in a conversation9
If you are writing for an instructor, this promise might mean suggesting that your paper will
touch on the main topic of the course. If you are writing as a scholar, this promise might meaning
e#plaining how your research will fill an important gap in the e#isting research.
To e)cite and engage your reader:s intellectual curiosity9
An introduction should seek to engage readers so that they will become invested in your writing.
In some conte#ts this means finding a way to persuade a reader who is reading 9> papers on the
same topic that yours is worth paying special attention to. In other conte#ts this means helping a
reader already committed to your work to recognize what unusual or e#citing )uestion your
paper will address.
Sample introductions
6ndergraduate history essay
Cotice that this introduction begins by situating the paper in the conte#t of larger conversations
about 3ritish attitudes towards ,rench politics and ends by promising a specific argument that
the rest of the paper will support.
In <8F=, 3ritain+s eyes were fi#ed on ,rance+s turbulent political arena. In 2ust a few decades,
,rance+s once-formidable divine-right monarchy had been reduced to a state of relative
powerlessness by fre)uent warfare, burgeoning social unrest, and a pressing financial crisis from
the nation+s incessant militarism and the court+s lavish e#penditures. As ,rance+s sociopolitical
scene intensified, noteworthy events found their way onto ;ondon stages with a flourish of
historicity, drama, and hyperbole. These plays, conse)uently, provide a revealing lens for
e#amining 3ritain+s response to and interpretation of the initial events of the ,rench 0evolution.
In particular, Lohn -ent+s The Triumph of ;iberty, performed in <8=>, and The 0oyal ,ugitives,
staged in <8=<, offer intriguing samples of 3ritish sentiment surrounding the "torming of the
3astille and ;ouis !MI+s flight to Marennes. -espite their decidedly ,rench sub2ect matter, the
plays+ intense professions of 3ritish nationalism and their inclusion of @nglishmen in leading
roles suggest that 3ritain celebrated the rise of liberty and democracy in ,rance, but refused to
honor the role of ,rench citizens in promoting these virtues. Instead, the plays seem to interpret
,rench radicalism as the product of an undercurrent of democratic sentiment initiated by 3ritain,
thereby allowing 3ritain to take credit for such favorable circumstances as the fall of the 3astille
and ;ouis !MI+s recapture. Used with permission o the author!
+echanical engineering
,rom .ounting methodologies to measure @UM reticle nonflatness by U4N.adison graduate
student Menkata "iva 3attula et al. %D>>=&. Cotice that, in an engineering paper, an introduction
presents a research )uestion or problem.
.eeting the image placement %I*& re)uirements in the sub-E>-nm regime may be one of the most
difficult challenges facing the semiconductor industry. ,or @#treme Ultraviolet ;ithography
%@UM;&, all sources of I* error must be either minimized, compensated for, or completely
eliminated. :ne potential source of error is the nonflatness of the @UM; mask during e#posure
scanning. 4ith nontelecentric illumination of the mask, any nonflatness of the patterned surface
of the reticle will induce I* errors on the device wafer. To address this issue, "@.I "tandard *E8
has established the flatness specifications for the @UM; mask substrate. The goal of this study
was to identify the most accurate procedures for measuring and subse)uently describing the
nonflatness of the substrate.
'egal writing
,rom U4N.adison ;aw *rofessor Andrew 3. 'oan+s Ludicial 'apacity and the "ubstance of
'onstitutional ;aw %D><D&. Cotice how the introduction leads the reader through a series of
logical steps that describe the current conversation about the topic, and how the last sentence
ends by promising %by implication& to fill an important gap in that conversation.
"tart with a very basic premise courts can decide only a small fraction of the constitutional
issues generated by the American government. 3y now, this is something of a commonplace
among constitutional theorists. 3ut it is a commonplace of a peculiar sort. It receives fre)uent lip
service but is almost never taken really seriously. Advocates for more e#pansive constitutional
protections routinely brush aside, or outright ignore, the 2udiciary+s limited capacity. :pponents
of such protections routinely write as if (government by 2udiciary( were a real and worrisome
possibility. .eanwhile, there has been very little work e#ploring why the 2udiciary has such
limited capacity or how we should e#pect this limitation to affect the substance of its
constitutional decisions.
Impro%e 8our Paper by "riting Structured Paragraphs
In academic writing, effective paragraphs serve as building blocks to construct a comple#
analysis or argument. *aragraphing helps readers to understand and process your ideas into
meaningful units of thought.
,hat do paragraphs do7
Imagine reading this page without paragraph breaks. *aragraphs create order and logic by
helping your reader recognize the boundaries where one point ends and another begins.
8ow long should a paragraph $e7
In a first draft, it may make sense to set a goal for length. ,or e#ample, you can set a goal of
writing four to si# sentences per paragraph in that number of sentences you can announce an
idea, prove that idea with evidence, and e#plain why this evidence matters by linking it to the
overall goal of your paper.
In the final version of your paper you may have a shorter paragraph or two. "hort paragraphs
call a lot of attention to themselves, so they can effectively emphasize a point. Too many short
paragraphs, however, may indicate that your ideas are not developed with evidence and analysis.
1ou+ll generally read and write longer paragraphs in academic papers. 5owever, too many long
paragraphs can provide readers with too much information to manage at one time. 0eaders need
planned pauses or breaks when reading long comple# papers in order to understand your
presented ideas. 0emember this writing mantra (Aive your readers a breakH( or (Aood
paragraphs give one pauseH(
!inds of sentences in a paragraph
Thinking about paragraphs rigidly in terms of length may lead to formulaic writing. Instead, as
you revise your draft think about how each sentence is functioning in your paragraph, and
whether your paragraph has sufficient functional sentences to make its point.
Transition sentences guide your reader smoothly from the topic of the preceding paragraph into
the topic of your new paragraph. 4riters sometimes begin with a transition sentence before
introducing the topic of the new paragraph.
A topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. 3eginning a paragraph with a topic
sentence ensures your reader recognizes early in the paragraph what larger idea the paragraph is
going to demonstrate. @#pert writers may not introduce the topic until the middle or end of the
paragraph, and often imply their topics without ever writing a topic sentence.
Bod! sentences develop the topic of the paragraph. These sentences work to analyze data or
)uotations, describe a te#t or event, set up a comparison, showcase evidence, and sometimes they
enumerate the logical points for readers to give them a sense of a paper+s bigger picture. In body
sentences, you need to consider how much )uoted data or evidence will demonstrate or prove
your point.
6inking sentences relate back to the paper+s main argument by showing how the idea of that
paragraph matches the overall goal of the paper.
Concluding sentences may bring a section to its end before you move on to a new section of the
paper.
Some sample paragraphs
6ndergraduate art analysis
Cotice how the writer develops the idea in the body sentences, as promised in the first sentence,
and concludes her paragraph by offering a keen, close observation of specific details.
In order to understand how .anet+s work echoes or communicates with Titian+s, one must first
consider the similarities between their paintings. To begin with, both take a nude woman as the
sub2ect. .ore than that, however, .anet directly copies the composition of Titian+s Menus/ the
overwhelming similarity in color and the figures+ arrangement in each painting prove this. 3oth
women are lying in the same position with their heads on the left-hand side of the canvas. 3oth
women have their left leg crossed over the right. 3oth women have flowers and accessories.
:ther key elements unite these paintings, as well the arrangement of the sheets on the bed/ the
green curtains/ the servants/ and the small animal at the foot of the bed. All these features clearly
indicate that .anet echoes Titian. If one stopped at the similarity in the composition, it would
appear that both paintings communicate the same thing/ both would be a celebration of the
beauty of the human figure, and .anet+s voice would have added nothing new to the
conversation/ it would have no additional meaning besides venerating the masterful work of
Titian. "Used with permission!#
6ndergraduate literary analysis
In this paragraph from a D><D ;ewis *rize-winning @nglish essay, U4N.adison undergraduate
Abby 3ecker organizes her sentences savvily. "he first transitions her reader into her topic, then
introduces the source of evidence for that paragraph before analyzing that source and returning to
the topic with the new critical perspective that her analysis suggests.
In order for a political or social revolution to occur, connections must be formed. .ore means of
communication lead to more opportunities to make connections. In -os *assos+ $he %&nd
'arallel, L. 4ard .oorehouse focuses on making business connections but never forms any
relationships. 5e e#plains at a party that (he had come down in a purely unofficial way you
understand to make contacts( %D6=&. In business and politics, making contacts denotes an
impersonal, removed way of dealing with people. This type of communication does not result in
connections. .oorehouse+s connections are for his own political personal gain. There may be a
connection but no insight or true relationship. .oorehouse views people as a tool to advance his
own business and political agendas demonstrating that connections with people are often made
out of selfish, egotistical motives.
+aga5ine pro.le
,rom a "eptember D>>9 $he Atlantic article, by .arshall *oe, describing Limmy 4ales,
4ikipedia, and collaborative knowledge. Cotice how the first sentence introduces a
philosophical issue that the body sentences define and link to both 4ikipedia and 4ales+s own
personality.
4ales was an advocate of what is generically termed (openness( online. An (open( online
community is one with few restrictions on membership or posting-everyone is welcome, and
anyone can say anything as long as it+s generally on point and doesn+t include gratuitous ad
hominem attacks. :penness fit not only 4ales+s idea of ob2ectivism, with its emphasis on reason
and re2ection of force, but also his mild personality. 5e doesn+t like to fight. 5e would rather
suffer fools in silence, waiting for them to talk themselves out, than confront them. This patience
would serve 4ales well in the years to come.
Psychology
,rom "pontaneous Aestures Influence "trategy 'hoices in *roblem "olving %D><<&. U4-
.adison *sychology *rofessor .artha Alibali et al. present empirical research on how children
use physical gestures to ac)uire mathematical problem-solving knowledge. Cotice the clarity of
e#pression in the first paragraph+s topic sentence the writer provides sufficient set-up to prepare
readers for the data which comes at the end of each paragraph.
4e predicted that participants in the gesture-allowed condition would be less likely than
participants in the gesture-prohibited condition to generate the parity strategy, because the
availability of gesture would promote use of perceptual-motor strategies instead. This was indeed
the case/ the proportion of participants who used the parity strategy on at least one trial was .86
in the gesture-allowed condition and .=< in the gesture-prohibited condition, BD%<, C O F7& O
6.<8, p O .>6 %,ig. <&. :nce they generated the parity strategy, most participants %F=P& used it on
all subse)uent trials.
+echanical engineering
,rom .ounting methodologies to measure @UM reticle nonflatness %('I) 'roceedings 868>,
D>>=&, by the lab of U4N.adison *rofessor 0o#anne ;. @ngelstad. Cotice how 3attula et al.
signal the practical conse)uence of their findings and also suggest that another result would be
possible depending on further research.
Unfortunately, to map the entire reticle with a single measurement, a <D in. beam e#pander is
needed. 4ith such a large optical system, the e#pander must be held rigidly, not allowing it to tip
or tilt. "ince the U4-'.' mount must remain vertical to be effective, it cannot be used in this
scenario. 'onse)uently, the application of this mount is limited. Thus, a number of new designs
have been proposed by industry to address the alignment issues and provide for other options,
such as automated handling. Three of these designs are described and evaluated in the following
sections.
'iterary studies
,rom Dorothy West's 'aradise* A +iography o Class and Color %D><D&, by U4N.adison
*rofessor "herrard-Lohnson. Cotice how the first two sentences give crucial background
information in order to set up the topic sentence.
In Contested Waters* A (ocial History o (wimming 'ools in America, Leff 4iltse e#amines how
U.". swimming pools were transformed from interracial single-se# spaces in which class and
gender were more important than race to (leisure resorts, where practically everyone in the
community e#cept black Americans swam together.( 5is study then follows what he calls the
second social transformationQ(when black Americans gained access through legal and social
protest( and (white swimmers generally abandoned them for private pools.( The various
iterations of 4est+s story, which discuss the span from <=7> to <=F>, fall between these two
moments in social and legal history. I am particularly intrigued by how the national history of
segregated bathing areas informs the local, particular event described by 4est. -oes the
e#clusion of blacks from the high beach parallel the segregation of public pools? In the early
twentieth century, public bathing spaces were notoriously violent. The 'hicago 0iot in <=<= was
touched off when white bathers threw rocks at black teenagers who had drifted into a white
beach on ;ake .ichigan. Cortherners+ use of pools during the *rogressive era reinforced class
and gender but not racial distinction. 4orking-class folk did not swim with the upper classes, but
they were not as concerned about color. ,ollowing the Areat .igration, the concerns about
intimacy and se#uality that have always been latent in conversations about public space %in
particular the public space of the pool& were directed at blacks. The peculiar democracy of the
beachQin bathing suits it is more difficulty to determine classGworked against black Americans.
4iltse marks this shift between the years of <=D> and <=6>. The social changes that took place
during this period shape 4est+s comple# politics. %D9&
'egal writing
,ormer U4N.adison "chool of ;aw *rofessor Arthur ,. .c@voy wrote this model paragraph as
part of a memorandum on effective writing. Cotice that each of the body sentences illustrates and
develops the main idea or topic sentence.
The ideal paragraph contains five sentences. The topic sentence almost always comes first and
states as clearly as possible the point that the paragraph makes, 2ust as the first sentence of this
paragraph did. The three middle sentences of the paragraph follow the topic sentence in some
rational order and substantiate it with e#amples, analysis, or other kind of development/ if
written clearly, middle sentences may employ con2unctions or subordinate clauses to put across
comple# ideas without breaking the basic form. @very well-written paragraph ends with a
(clincher( sentence that in some way signals completion of the paragraph+s point and places it in
conte#t, either by restating the topic sentence, relating the topic back to the thesis of the writing
as a whole, or by providing a transition to the paragraph that follows. 4hile good style may
re)uire a writer to vary this basic form occasionally, the five-sentence model captures the
*latonic essence of the paragraph and most effectively accomplishes its purpose, which is to state
a single idea, in se)uence, discretely and comprehensively.
;ake 8our Hast "ords Count
In academic writing, a well-crafted conclusion can provide the final word on the value of your
analysis, research, or paper. 'omplete your conclusions with convictionH
'onclusions show readers the value of your completely developed argument or thoroughly
answered )uestion. 'onsider the conclusion from the reader+s perspective. At the end of a paper,
a reader wants to know how to benefit from the work you accomplished in your paper. 5ere are
wa!s to think about the purpose of a conclusion
To connect the paper!s &ndings to a larger conte't# such as the wider
con%ersation about an issue as it is presented in a course or in other
published writing(
To suggest the implications of your &ndings or the importance of the topic(
To as >uestions or suggest ideas for further research(
To revisit your main idea or research >uestion with new insight(
Should you summari5e7
'onsider what readers can keep track of in their heads. If your paper is long or comple#, some
summary of your key points will remind readers of the ground you+ve covered. If your paper is
short, your readers may not need a summary. In any paper, you+ll want to push beyond mere
summary to suggest the implications or applications of your work.
8ow do you start drafting a conclusion7
@ffective conclusions take the paper beyond summary and demonstrate a further appreciation of
the paper+s argument and its significance why it works, why it is meaningful, and why it is
valuable. To get started, you might ask yourself these )uestions
Iow do the ideas in your paper connect to what you ha%e discussed in class#
or to what scholars ha%e written in their treatment of your topic0
"hat new ideas ha%e you added to the con%ersation0 "hat ideas do you
criti>ue0
"hat are the limitations of your data# methods# or results0
"hat are the conse>uences of the strongest idea that comes out of your
paper0
Iow can you return to the >uestion or situation you describe in your
introduction0
()amples
+echanical engineering
,rom .ounting methodologies to measure @UM reticle nonflatness %('I) 'roceedings 868>,
D>>=&, by U4N.adison *rofessor 0o#anne ;. @ngelstad+s lab. Cotice how 3attula et al. e#plain
the limitations of their findings, and identify specific future developments that would make their
proposal more accurately testable.
The horizontal whiffle tree mount should have performed the best considering the kinematics of
the <9 support points, as well as theoretically displaying the least amount of gravitational
distortions. 5owever, due to possible friction at the pivoted 2oints and the current tolerances on
the whiffle tree system, there were difficulties in using this mount. At this time, the process of
averaging the measurements taken at four vertical orientations appears to be the best approach.
Gender and ,omen:s Studies
,rom @#amining .illie and 'hristine .c$oy 4here @nslavement and @nfreakment .eet
%(igns E8, D><<&, by U4N.adison *rofessor @llen "amuels. Cotice how "amuels+s conclusion
briefly summarizes her article+s main claims before turning to the conse)uences of her strongest
claims.
4hile there are still many )uestions left unanswered about the .c$oys, and many possible
truths to be drawn from their lives, I have aimed in this article to establish that at least two things
are not true the tale of the beneficent and beloved slaveowners and the resigned, downcast
e#pression on .illie+s face in the altered picture. .oreover, I contend that turning away from
historical legacies as comple# and dangerous as those of enslavement and enfreakment keeps us
from being able to understand them and to imagine different futures. 4e need to develop
paradigms of analysis that allow us to perceive and interpret both the radical empowerment of
the .c$oys+ lives and the oppressions that are no less fundamental to their story. "uch an
analysis must allow for dissonance, contradictions, and even discomfort in its gaze. :nly then
can we move forward with the work of shaping new representations and new possibilities for
e#traordinary bodily e#perience.
'egal writing
,rom U4N.adison ;aw *rofessor Andrew 3. 'oan+s Ludicial 'apacity and the "ubstance of
'onstitutional ;aw %D><D&. Cotice how this conclusion emphasizes the significance of the topic
under consideration.
Ludicial capacity has been too long misunderstood and too long neglected. It is a central
institutional characteristic of the 2udiciary, which has significant predictive power in important
constitutional domains and also significant normative implications. It deserves consideration
from constitutional theorists on par with that accorded to 2udicial competence and 2udicial
independence. Indeed, it is crucial to a full understanding of both of these much-discussed
institutional features of the 2udiciary.
4e%erse ?utlines: A "riter!s Techni>ue for F'amining ?rganiation
.any writers use a reverse outline to check their work. 0everse outlining is a process whereby
you take away all of the supporting writing and are left with a paper+s main points or main ideas,
sometimes represented by your paper+s topic sentences. 1our reverse outline provides a bullet-
point view of your paper+s structure because you are looking at the main points of the paper you
wrote.
@#perienced writers, especially when writing longer papers about a comple# sub2ect, need ways
to test their drafts for the logical se)uence of points its structure. A reverse outline allows writers
to read a condensed version of what they wrote, and provides one good way to e#amine and
produce a successful paper.
A reverse outline can help you"
$etermine if your paper meets its goal
$isco%er places to e'pand on your e%idence or analysis
See where readers might be tripped up by your organiation or structure
8ow to create a reverse outline
7. -tart with a complete draft to have a fuller picture of the plan you carried out. 1ou can use a
partial draft to review the organization of the paragraphs you have written so far.
8. Construct the outline by listing the main idea of each paragraph in your draft in a blank
document. If a paragraph+s topic sentence provides a succinct version of the paragraph+s
argument, you can paste that sentence into the outline as a summary for that paragraph.
:therwise, write a one9sentence summar! to e#press the main point of the paragraph.
:. &umber !our list for ease of reference.
6se your reverse outline to answer 2uestions
Does every paragraph relate $ac to your main idea7
1our reverse outline will help you think more effectively about your paper+s focus its big
picture. -oes every item on your list relate back to your main point?
.any writers find that new ideas or topics appear near the end of a reverse outline. These topic
shifts may signal that you need to revise certain paragraphs in you draft to be sure they relate
back to your main idea, or they may inspire you to revise your main idea so it takes on some of
the new points these paragraphs suggest.
3y viewing the structure of your paper from the vantage of a reverse outline, you can make
productive decisions about whether to keep certain paragraphs or cut them from a draft.
,here might a reader have trou$le following the order of your ideas7
1ou can use a reverse outline to review a paper+s organization or structure and then make
strategic choices for rearranging the paper on a paragraph-by-paragraph basis, or for adding or
removing paragraphs to improve organization.
Do several of your paragraphs repeat one idea7
If your reverse outline shows two paragraphs that make similar points, consider combining them
or revising one so that it does not make too similar a point.
Does one paragraph ;uggle several topics7
If one item on your reverse outline discusses more topics than other paragraphs, that may be a
paragraph your reader will struggle to follow. 3y dividing its topics into two or more paragraphs,
each one discussing a more focused topic or set of topics, you may be able to ensure that your
reader follows your meaning.
Are your paragraphs too long7 Too short7
3y comparing total paragraphs to total pages, you can learn your average paragraph length and
more easily spot paragraphs that are unusually long or short.
An e)ample of a reverse outline
,or e#ample say you are writing a paper for an engineering class in which you are e#ploring the
concept of how humans learn to trust technology through individual consumer choices, and your
research involves analyzing several television commercials for Apple computers and products.
<. @ver since Apple+s <=F6 "uper 3owl commercial, customers have seen Apple as creating
technology that appeals to our individuality.
D. :ver time, Apple has introduced a variety of devices that appeal to our sense of individuality
and in our need to connect with other individuals and to our world.
E. 4ith the introduction of the i*od in D>><, Apple began e#ploring ways to win consumer trust
in technology by focusing on how humans can determine the ways they choose to use the
technology they purchase.
6. 4ith the opening of Apple stores, Apple began to offer yet another way to e#plore our trust
issues with technology through talking to friendly individual sales people in clean, well-lit stores.
7. In D>>8, Apple rolls out the (5i, I+m a .ac, and I+m a *'( TM commercials thus showing the
funny side of Apple ads.
9. Apple+s more recent TM commercials show how it easy it is for consumer to maintain their
individuality and to trust in Apple+s new technological offerings, most notably, the i*hone line.
8. Apple continues to e#plore the human connection with technology through their developments
and applications of voice-activation and speech technology, which serve to bring out a more
intimate, individual e#perience with their technology.
Take a look at this reverse outline above. 4hat do you see? .ost sentences address some aspect
of how human trust evolves with Apple+s technological developments, and these choices are
individual choices.
5owever, sentence %7& stands out 4hy? "entence %7&, based on the topic sentence, only treats
the humor without connecting the way humor can help us alleviate some of our trust issues with
technology as individual consumers. 4hat can you do? As the writer, you may need to revise the
paragraph to directly connect with the paper+s argument, or, if you determine that the paragraph
is serving an important part of your paper+s argument, then you may merely need to revise topic
sentence %7&, perhaps like this
In D>>8, Apple rolls out the (5i, I+m a .ac, and I+m a *'( TM commercials, and by promoting
their funny side, Apple ads help another generation of consumers get over their (trust issues(
with .acs by personifying the choices they make as individual personality types and the
technologies they are willing to trust.
Peer 4e%iews
Use the guidelines below to learn how best to conduct a peer draft review.
,or further information see our handout on 5ow to *roofread.
/efore you read and while you read the paper
,ind out what the writer is intending to do in the paper %purpose& and what the intended
audience is.
,ind out what the writer wants from a reader at this stage.
0ead %or listen& to the entire draft before commenting.
,hat to include in your criti2ue
*raise what works well in the draft/ point to specific passages.
'omment on large issues first %-oes the draft respond to the assignment? Are important
and interesting ideas presented? Is the main point clear and interesting? Is there a clear
focus? Is the draft effectively organized? Is the se)uence of points logical? Are ideas
ade)uately developed? If appropriate, is the draft convincing in its argument? Is evidence
used properly?&. Ao on to smaller issues later %awkward or confusing sentences, style,
grammar, word choice, proofreading&.
Time is limited %for your response and for the author+s revision&, so concentrate on the
most important ways the draft could be improved.
'omment on whether the introduction clearly announces the topic and suggests the
approach that will be taken/ on whether ideas are clear and understandable.
3e specific in your response %e#plain where you get stuck, what you don+t understand&
and in your suggestions for revision. And as much as you can, e#plain why you+re making
particular suggestions.
Try describing what you see %or hear& in the paper--what you see as the main point, what
you see as the organizational pattern.
Identify what+s missing, what needs to be e#plained more fully. Also identify what can be
cut.
8ow to critici5e appropriately
3e honest %but polite and constructive& in your response
-on+t argue with the author or with other respondents.
Proofreading
*roofreading means e#amining your te#t carefully to find and correct typographical errors and
mistakes in grammar, style, and spelling. 5ere are some tips.
Aefore 8ou Proofread
"hen 8ou Proofread
"hen 8ou "ant to Hearn ;ore
/efore 4ou Proofread
/e sure you:ve revised the larger aspects of your te)t9 $on!t make
corrections at the sentence and word le%el if you still need to work on the
focus# organiation# and de%elopment of the whole paper# of sections# or of
paragraphs(
Set your te)t aside for a while <1= minutes0 a day0 a wee> $etween
writing and proo.ng9 Some distance from the te't will help you see
mistakes more easily(
(liminate unnecessary words $efore looing for mistaes9 See the
writing center handout how to write clear# concise# direct sentences(
!now what to loo for9 From the comments of your professors or a writing
center instructor on past papers# make a list of mistakes you need to watch
for(
,hen 4ou Proofread
,or from a printout0 not the computer screen9 /Aut see below for
computer functions that can help you &nd some kinds of mistakes(1
-ead out loud9 This is especially helpful for spotting run9on sentences# but
you!ll also hear other problems that you may not see when reading silently(
6se a $lan sheet of paper to cover up the lines $elow the one
you:re reading9 This techni>ue keeps you from skipping ahead of possible
mistakes(
6se the search function of the computer to .nd mistaes you:re
liely to mae9 Search for Eit#E for instance# if you confuse EitsE and Eit!s:E for
E9ingE if dangling modi&ers are a problem: for opening parentheses or >uote
marks if you tend to lea%e out the closing ones(
#f you tend to mae many mistaes0 chec separately for each ind
of error0 moving from the most to the least important0 and following
whatever techni2ue wors $est for you to identify that ind of
mistae9
For instance# read through once /backwards# sentence by sentence1 to check
for fragments: read through again /forward1 to be sure sub)ects and %erbs
agree# and again /perhaps using a computer search for Ethis#E Eit#E and
EtheyE1 to trace pronouns to antecedents(
(nd with a spelling chec0 using a computer spelling checer or
reading $acwards word $y word9
Aut remember that a spelling checker won!t catch mistakes with homonyms
/e(g(# Ethey!re#E Etheir#E EthereE1 or certain typos /like EheE for EtheE1(
,hen 4ou ,ant to 'earn +ore
Tae a class9
The "riting Center ofers many workshops# including a number of grammar
workshops(
6se a hand$oo9
A number of handbooks are a%ailable to consult in the "riting Center# and
each "riting Center computer has an online handbook(
Consult a ,riting Center instructor9
"riting Center instructors won!t proofread your papers# but they!ll be glad to
e'plain mistakes# help you &nd ways to identify and &' them# and share
"riting Center handouts that focus on particular problems(
'heck for information on how to make an appointment with a 4riting 'enter instructor.
,or further information see our handout on *eer 0eviews
Dsing $ashes
-ashes, when used sparingly and correctly, can be used to make your writing sound more
sophisticated.
#ndicate sudden changes in tone or thought within a sentence
To emphasize the contradiction between ideas
There is an illness in many foreign services--the people in them are only good at following
instructions.R
I am under the impression that she has no instructions at all--and doesn+t need any.R
The e#uberant--I should say lunatic--)uality of his ravings electrified the crowd. R
Set o& some sentence elements
To insert parenthetical commentary while emphasizing their importance %*arentheses tend to
diminish the importance of what+s enclosed in them&
:ver a candlelit dinner last month at "paso 5ouse, the ambassadorial residence in .oscow,
0obert "trauss and his wife 5elen listened as two "enators--0epublican 0obert '. "mith of Cew
5ampshire and -emocrat Lohn $erry of .assachusetts--agreed that the way to bring American
audiences (out of their chairs( these days was simply to say, in "mith+s words, (4e won the cold
war, and we+re not going to send one dime in aid to 0ussia.(R
"trauss favors--as does, sotto voce, the Administration--early admission of 0ussia to the
International .onetary ,und.R
Create emphasis
To connect ideas strongly to each other.
To feed, clothe, and find shelter for the needy--these are real achievements.
,or further information you may wish to take one of the following free grammar, style, and
punctuation workshops offered by the 4riting 'enter.
RAdapted from $ime Maga,ine, 9 April <==D.
Dsing Commas
Use commas to set off non9restrictie modifiers. -o not use commas to set off restrictie
modifiers.
1on-restrictive vs9 restrictive modi.ers
A non9restrictie modifier adds information that is not essential to our understanding of the
sentence/ if we remove it from the sentence, the basic meaning of the sentence does not change.
A restrictie modifier identifies, or limits the reference of, the noun it modifies.
()ample of a non-restrictive modi.er"
The statue of his mother by Loseph "mith, dated <F=6, sold for over a million dollars.
The date of Loseph "mith+s statue can be removed from the sentence without altering its
meaning
The statue of his mother by Loseph "mith sold for over a million dollars.
()ample of a restrictive modi.er"
The painting dated <F=6 is a forgery/ the one dated <F=D is genuine.
The phrases (dated <F=6( and (dated <F=D( cannot be detached from the sentence without
making the meaning unclear
The painting Iwhich one?J is a forgery/ the one Iwhich one?J is genuine.
%urther e)amples
Cote the distinction and the different punctuation in the following pairs of sentences
&on9restrictie 4illiam 'arlos 4illiams, the poet, was also a farmer.
1estrictie The poet 4illiam 'arlos 4illiams was also a farmer.
&on9restrictie Lohn, who has been drinking, should not drive.
1estrictie *eople who have been drinking should not drive.
&on9restrictie .any Americans travel to .e#ico, where ;aetrile is legal and readily available.
1estrictie .any Americans travel to countries where ;aetrile is legal and readily available.
&on9restrictie In spring, when the water is high, the lake surges over the rocks.
1estrictie At times when the water is high the lake surges over the rocks.
&on9restrictie The waiters, dressed in their white 2ackets, are already arranging the chairs on
the sidewalk.
1estrictie The waiters dressed in white 2ackets serve in the main dining room/ those in red
serve in the coffee shop.
Self-test and answers
0eady to test what you+ve learned? 'lick on the link below
Test !our knowledge
,or further information on commas see our page on 'oordinating 'on2unctions or our grammar
and style ,AG. :r take one of the free grammar, style, and punctuation workshops offered by the
4riting 'enter.
'ontact Us
Dsing Semicolons
"emicolons help you connect closely related ideas when a style mark stronger than a comma is
needed. 3y using semicolons effectively, you can make your writing sound more sophisticated.
Connect closely related ideas
;ink two independent clauses to connect closely related ideas
"ome people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.
;ink clauses connected by con2unctive adverbs or transitional phrases to connect closely
related ideas
3ut however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own decisions; as a
result, many people swear by their writing methods.
;ink lists where the items contain commas to avoid confusion between list items
There are basically two ways to write with a pen or pencil, which is ine#pensive and
easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which is more e#pensive but )uick and
neat.
;ink lengthy clauses or clauses with commas to avoid confusion between clauses
"ome people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a computer; but others, for
different reasons, choose to write with a pen or pencil.
-ules for 6sing Semicolons
A semicolon is most commonly used to link %in a single sentence& two independent
clauses that are closely related in thought.
4hen a semicolon is used to 2oin two or more ideas %parts& in a sentence, those ideas are
then given e)ual position or rank.
"ome people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.
Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that are connected by con2unctive
adverbs or transitional phrases.
3ut however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own decisions; as a
result, many people swear by their writing methods.
Use a semicolon between items in a list or series if any of the items contain commas.
There are basically two ways to write with a pen or pencil, which is ine#pensive and
easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which is more e#pensive but )uick and
neat.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses 2oined by a coordinating con2unction if the
clauses are already punctuated with commas or if the clauses are lengthy.
"ome people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a computer; but others, for
different reasons, choose to write with a pen or pencil.
Avoid using a comma when a semicolon is needed"
)ncorrect: The cow is brown, it is also old.
Correct: The cow is brown; it is also old.
$hat+s going on here% 3oth parts of the sentence are independent clauses, and commas should
not be used to connect independent clauses if there is no coordinating con2unction. This mistake
is known as a comma splice.
)ncorrect: I like cows, however, I hate the way they smell.
Correct: I like cows; however, I hate the way they smell.
$hat+s going on here% The con2unctive adverb howeer signals a connection between two
independent clauses, and commas should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is
no coordinating con2unction.
)ncorrect: I like cows they give us milk, which tastes good, they give us beef, which also tastes
good, and they give us leather, which is used for shoes and coats.
Correct: I like cows they give us milk, which tastes good; they give us beef, which also tastes
good; and they give us leather, which is used for shoes and coats.
$hat+s going on here% It+s unclear what the three list items are, since the items are separated by
commas.
)ncorrect: 'ows, though their bovine ma2esty has been on the wane in recent millenia, are still
one of the great species of this planet, domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we
humans pass tumultuously by.
Correct: 'ows, though their bovine ma2esty has been on the wane in recent millenia, are still
one of the great species of this planet; domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we
humans pass tumultuously by.
$hat+s going on here% It+s unclear where the first independent clause ends and the second
independent clause begins.
Avoid using a semicolon when a comma is needed"
)ncorrect: The cow is brown/ but not old.
Correct: The cow is brown. but not old.
$hat+s going on here% The coordinating con2unction but doesn+t re)uire a semicolon, since the
second part of the sentence isn+t an independent clause.
)ncorrect: 3ecause cows smell/ they offend me.
Correct: 3ecause cows smell. they offend me.
$hat+s going on here% The first part is not an independent clause, so no semicolon is re)uired.
Dsing Coordinating Con)unctions
Use coordinating con2unctions to indicate that the elements they 2oin are e)ual in importance and
in structure.
De.nition of Coordinating Con;unctions
'oordinating con2unctions 2oin grammatically similar elements %two nouns, two verbs, two
modifiers, two independent clauses&
and
or
nor
so
but
for
yet
8ow to punctuate coordinating con;unctions
4hen a coordinating con2unction 2oins two independent clauses, a comma is used before the
coordinating con2unction %unless the two independent clauses are very short&.
'on2unctions that are not followed by non-essential elements should never be followed by
commas.
*erhaps no budget is without some fat, but university officials argue that their uni)ue function
re)uires special standards of evaluation.
4hen either independent clause in a compound sentence contains a comma to set off
introductory or non-essential elements, a reader may be confused by a comma before a
coordinating con2unction. In this case, a semicolon may replace the comma.
The figures at elite universities, particularly, are enough to cause sticker shock/ yet the current
increases at many schools are the lowest in a decade.
,hen 13T to punctuate coordinating con;unctions
If a sentence begins with a coordinating con2unction, it is not followed by a comma
1et the typical tenured professor+s salary of S6E,7>> still represents <>P less buying power than
the e)uivalent salary in <=8>.
'ommas are not used between two verbs, two sub2ects, two complements, or two ob2ects 2oined
by a coordinating con2unction.
That confuses most analogies between universities and profit-making enterprises. Icompound
ob2ect of prepositionJ
@ndowments and gifts make up the rest. Icompound sub2ectJ
Aeorgetown, for e#ample, has eliminated one-third of its graduate programs in the past five years
and recently decided to close its dental school. Icompound verbJ
Q All e#amples taken from (,acing Up to "ticker "hock,( $ime %April D>, <=F8&, 8>.
Dsing Con)uncti%e Ad%erbs
Use con2unctive adverbs %or sentence adverbs& to
indicate a connection between two independent clauses in one sentence
link the ideas in two or more sentences
show relationships between ideas within an independent clause(
()amples of Con;unctive Adver$s"
also
howe%er
otherwise
conse>uently
indeed
similarly
&nally
likewise
then
furthermore
moreo%er
therefore
hence
ne%ertheless
thus
nonetheless
8ow to punctuate con;unctive adver$s
4hen a con2unctive adverb connects two independent clauses in one sentence, it is preceded by a
semicolon and followed by a comma.
Tuition increases, say officials, are driven by the universities+ costs/ conse)uently, tuition income
typically covers less than 7>P of college budgets.
If a con2unctive adverb is used in any other position in a sentence, it is set off by commas.
Conetheless, some colleges are making efforts to trim budgets and pass along the savings.
"ecretary 3ennett, however, maintains that more federal aid would only encourage universities
to count on the government to meet any increases they might impose.
Q All e#amples taken from (,acing Up to "ticker "hock,( $ime %April D>, <=F8&, 8>.
Sub)ect9%erb Agreement
4atch the sub2ect-verb agreement in your sentences when...
"hen the sub)ect follows the %erb
"hen words like EeachE are the sub)ect
"hen words like EnoneE are the sub)ect
"hen the sub)ects are )oined by EandE
"hen singular sub)ects are )oined by words like EorE
"hen one sub)ect is singular and one plural
"hen a linking %erb is used
"hen a collecti%e noun is used
"hen a relati%e pronoun is used as a sub)ect of an ad)ecti%e clause
,hen the su$;ect follows the ver$
4hen the sub2ect follows the verb %especially in sentences beginning with the e#pletives (there
is( or (there are(&, special care is needed to determine the sub2ect and to make certain that the
verb agrees with it.
:n the wall were several posters.
There are many possible candidates.
There is only one good candidate.
,hen words lie ?each? are the su$;ect
4hen used as sub2ects, words such as
each# either# neither
another
anyone# anybody# anything
someone# somebody# something
one# e%eryone
e%erybody# e%erything
no one# nobody# nothing
take singular verbs.
-o not be confused by prepositional phrases which come between a sub2ect and its verb. They do
not change the number of the sub2ect.
@ach takes her turn at rowing.
Ceither likes the friends of the other.
@veryone in the fraternity has his own set of pre2udices.
@ach of the rowers takes her turn at rowing.
@very one of the fraternity members has his own set of pre2udices.
,hen words lie ?none? are the su$;ect
:ther words such as
none# any# all
more# most# some
may take either singular or plural verbs, depending on the conte#t.
"ome of the dollar was spent.
"ome of the dollars were spent.
ICote here the prepositional phrase does affect the sub2ect. It tells you whether you are talking
about a part of one thing %singular& or about a number of things %plural&.J
,hen the su$;ects are ;oined $y ?and?
"ub2ects 2oined by (and( take plural verbs.
3e aware phrases such as (in addition to,( (as well as,( and (along with( do not mean the same
thing as (and.( 4hen inserted between the sub2ect and the verb, these phrases do not change the
number of the sub2ect.
3oth Tom and Lane have @nglish <98 papers due on Tuesday.
Tom, as well as Lane, has an @nglish D>8 paper due Tuesday.
,hen singular su$;ects are ;oined $y words lie ?or?
"ingular sub2ects 2oined by (or,( (nor,( (either . . . or,( or (neither. . . nor( take a singular verb.
@ither the man or his wife knows the truth of the matter.
Ceither money nor power was important any longer.
,hen one su$;ect is singular and one plural
If one sub2ect is singular and one is plural, the verb agrees with the nearer sub2ect.
Ceither the television nor the radios work.
Ceither the radios nor the television works.
,hen a lining ver$ is used
A linking verb %(is,( (are,( (was,( (were,( (seem( and others& agrees with its sub2ect, not its
complement.
Loe+s favorite dessert is blueberry muffins.
3lueberry muffins are Loe+s favorite dessert.
,hen a collective noun is used
4hen regarded as a unit, collective nouns, as well as noun phrases denoting )uantity, take
singular verbs.
The whole family is active.
%,amily is a collective noun regarded as a unit.&
The family have met their various obligations.
%The individuals of the family are regarded separately.&
A thousand bushels is a good yield.
%a )uantity or unit&
A thousand bushels were crated.
%individual bushels&
,hen a relative pronoun is used as a su$;ect of an ad;ective
clause
A relative pronoun %(who,( (which,( or (that(& used as a sub2ect of an ad2ective clause takes
either a singular or plural verb in order to agree with its antecedent.
A vegetable that contains --T can be harmful.
%Ad2ective clause modifying the singular noun (vegetable.(&
Megetables that contain --T can be harmful.
%Ad2ective clause modifying the plural noun (vegetables.(&
.ary is one of the students who have done honor to the college.
%Ad2ective clause modifies the plural noun (students.( ("tudents( is the antecedent of (who.(
In the above sentence .ary is 2ust one of the students. "o at least two students have done honor
to the college.
'ompare that to
.ary is the only one of our students who has achieved national recognition.
In this case, (one,( not (students,( is the antecedent of (who.(
'ompare to the sentence above
:f all our students, .ary is the only one who has achieved national recognition.
,or further information see our other pages on grammar, or you may wish to take one of our
grammar classes
Twele Common <rrors
Use this checklist as a list of reminders while you are editing your paper.
<. "entence fragments
D. "entence sprawl
E. .isplaced and dangling modifiers
6. ,aulty parallelism
7. Unclear pronoun reference
9. Incorrect pronoun case
8. :mitted commas
F. "uperfluous commas
=. 'omma splices
<>. Apostrophe errors
<<. 4ords easily confused
<D. .isspellings
5ownload this handout
This list includes only brief e#amples and e#planations intended for you to use as reminders
while you are editing your papers. If you would like to learn more, consider the following
options
Take one of the free grammar, style, and punctuation classes offered by the 4riting
'enter.
"et up an appointment for an individual conference in the 4riting 'enter.
'onfer with your course instructor.
'onsult a handbook for additional e#amples and complete e#planations.