1.

Adjectives
1.1 Order of adjectives
Some adjectives can be used before a noun in English. See page
64 for a guide to the order in which they can be used. In general
we put the precise adjective nearest the noun but it is not always
easy to decide which is the most precise: a possible order would
be:
(! ("! (#! (4!
determiner$ your own options$ dimensions (si%e$ weight!$ age$
(&! (6! ('! ((! ()!
shape$ colour$ place of origin$ material$ purpose.
Examples:
* a +hinese sil, wedding dress
* some short blue denim jeans
* an awful old stair carpet
"a. -his is the biggest factory
in the area.
"b. I have many old boo,s but
this is the most interesting.
#. .e is as strong as a horse.
.e isn/t as0so clever as his
sister.
1e form the superlative by
"a. adding 2 est to one*syllable
adjectives ant to two syllable
adjectives ending in y
using most 3 two* and more
than two*syllable adjectives
#. 1e use as 3 adjective 3 as
for positive comparisons or
not and as0so 3 adjective 3 as
for negative comparisons
1.3.2. Adjectives of one
syllable
. If the adjective ends in two
consonants (e.g. ng, - rd, -rm!
just add er, -est to the
adjective:
long, longer, longest
hard harder hardest
warm warmer warmest
". If the adjective ends in one
vowel or one consonant (e.g. 2
in$ *at$ *ot! double the
consonant and add er, -est to
the adjective:
thin thinner thinnest
fat fatter fattest
hot hotter hottest
#. If the adjective ends in 2e
add 2r$ *st to the adjective:
wide wider widest
rude ruder rudest
E4ceptions:
5ood better best
6ad worse worst
7uch0many more most
8ar farther farthest
(used to describe distance$ but
can also mean 9additional$
e4tra: 2 e.g. further details$
further information!
old older oldest
(used to describe objects and
people!
old elder eldest
Notice elder, eldest are used
before a noun to tal, about
family relationships$ but after
verb only older oldest are
possible (e.g. 7y older/elder
brother$ 7y brother is older
than I am!.
1.2 Other points to notice
about the order and use of
adjectives
. .e is metre #; tall.
". I don/t li,e living alone.
#. It/s difficult to read.
-he instructions are easy to
follow.
4a. She was worried about
him.
.e/s a worried man.
4b. It/s all very worrying.
It/s a worrying time for all
of us.
. <djectives describing
measurement come after the
measurement.
". Some adjectives (e.g. alone,
afraid, alive, awake! come
after the verb$ never before a
noun.
#. <djectives are often
followed by an infinitive with
to.
4a. <djectives ending in ed
come after a verb li,e be,
seem or before a noun and
describe a person/s feelings.
4b. <djectives ending in ing
come after a verb or before a
noun and describe the person
or thing that produces those
feelings.
1.3 Comparative and
superlative of adjectives
1.3.3 Adjectives of more than
one syllable
1.3.1 Form
. I/ve never been happier
than I am now
8riday #
th
is the unluckiest
day in the year in 6ritain.
". Sally is cleverer/more
clever than her brother.
-he commonest/most
common cause of road death
is careless driving.
. If the adjective ends in 2y$
change the y to i and add 2
er, -est to the adjective.
E4ception: friendly, more
friendly, most friendly
". Some adjectives with two
syllable can form their
comparative and superlative in
two ways: either by adding 2
(e)r, -(e)st or by using more,
a. =ondon is bigger than
Edinburgh.
b. -his armchair is more
comfortable than that
wooden seat.
1e form the comparative by:
a. adding er to one*syllable
adjectives and to two*syllable
adjectives ending in y
using more 3 two* and more
than two*syllable adjectives 3
than
#. I find science more
interesting than the arts.
.e told me the most
extraordinary story.
most.
#. If the adjective has three (or
more! syllables use more$ most
3 adjective.
wee,ly.
1e are paid monthly.
4b. Every Saturday we go out.
&a. .e never buys cigarettes.
.e always ma,es his own.
&b. She is always late.
&c. -hey/ve never offered to
help.
1e are often being as,ed
for information of this ,ind.
6. Sit down here.
at the beginning for emphasis
4a. <dverbs which tell us
9how often/ usually come in
the end position.
4b. >hrases li,e every wee,$
every Saturday can also come
at the beginning of a sentence.
&a. <dverbs which do not tell
us 9e4act,y when: usually
come before a one*word verb.
&b. If the verb is be they
always follow the verb.
2. Adverbs
2.1 Form
. ?uic, ?uic,ly
slow slowly
". careful carefully
beautiful beautifully
#. luc,y luc,ily
funny funnily
4. .e greeted me in a friendly
way.
She loo,ed at me with a
silly expression on her face.
&. 1e arrived late.
Stand up straight.
.e wor,s very hard.
@on/t wal, so fast.
. <deverbs can be formed
from adjectives by adding - ly
". -he same rule applies to
adjectives that end in i.
#. -o form adverbs from
adjectives ending in 2y$
change the y to I and add 2ly.
4. -o form adverbs from
adjectives ending in 2ly we
use a phrase 9in a way: etc.
&. Some adjectives do not
change when they become
adverbs.
Notice: lately and hardly have
a different meaning from late
and hard: lately 2 recently$
hardly 2 scarcely.
.e went to the cinema to the
.igh Street in town.
>ut the boo, on the table in
the dining room.
'. .e reads his newspaper
?uic,ly at the brea,fast table
every morning.
&c. If it is a two or more word
verb they come after the first
part of the verb.
6. <dverbs and adverb phrases
which tell us 9where: usually
come in the end position with
the direction (to the cinema!
mentioned first and the places
second (smaller places come
before larger ones!.
'. <dverbs and adv. >hrases
which tell us 9how$ where and
when: usually come in that
order in the sentence (e.g. how
A ?uic,ly$ where A at the
brea,fast table$ when A every
morning!.
2.2 Comparative and
superlative of adverbs
2.4 Adverb or adjective?
. She drives more carefully
than her husband.
-his is the most efficient
run office in the area.
". .e arrived later than you.
.e wal,ed the fastest.
. 1e usually form the
comparative and the
superlative by adding more
most 3 adverb.
". <dverbs with the same form
as adjectives form their
comparative and superlative
with 2er 2est.
Botice some e4ceptions to
these two rules:
1ell better best
6adly worse worst
=ittle less least
7uch more most
-hat smells good but it tastes
awful.
Botice: If the verb is seem$
appear$ loo,$ sound$ feel$ taste
we use an adjective$ not an
adverb.
3. Articles
3.1 ndefinite article !a"an#
2.3 $osition of adverbs and
adverb phrases in
sentences
. Cou will need a pen and an
e4ercise boo,.
". -here was a terrible storm
last night. -he storm swept
across the whole country.
#. < million people received
our help last year. < few$
however$ were not so luc,y.
4. 1e come to classes twice a
wee,.
&. She/s a lorry driver.
Dse with singular countable
nouns:
. for more general meaning
(it doesn/t matter which pen!.
Botice: an is used before a
word that begins with a vowel
sound (e.g. an hour$ an heir$ an
7> but a university!.
". for a noun mentioned for the
first time. Botice: we use the
for the second mention.
#. with numbers (e.g. a
hundred$ a thousand$ a
million! and fractions (e.g. a
half$ a ?uarter etc.!.
Botice:
< few (people! A someE
< little (help! A some
but
. .e plays the piano well.
She sings beautifully.
"a. She/s very clever.
I can hardly read it.
I don/t ?uite understand.
"b. I have enough money.
.e/s not tall enough to join
the police force.
-hey don/t wor, hard
enough.
#a. .e/s coming tomorrow.
#b. Cesterday he was in >aris.
-oday he/s in Fome.
4a. -he maga%ine comes out
. <dverbs which tell us
9how: usually come in the end
position.
"a. <dverbs which tell us 9to
what e4tent or to what degree:
usually come in the middle
position.
"b. Botice: enough comes
before a noun and after an
adjective or adverb.
#a. <dverbs which tell us
9when: usually come in the
end position.
#b. -hey can come at the
; few A not many
; little A not much
4. to mean 9every: with
e4pressions of time (e.g. once
a year!
&. to describe a person/s job or
situation
#a. for newspaper headlines
b.for tele4es (where the
message should be as short as
possible!
c. for personal$ informal
messages
4. before a second noun in a
lin,ed part of nouns
3.2 %efinite article !the#
. Gane: < man phoned last
night.
>eter: 1ell$ what did the
man wantH
".=ast night I read the boo,
you recommended.
#. -he sun rises in the east and
sets in the west.
4. -he computer has
revolutioni%ed office systems.
&. Cou can buy the best pi%%as
in town at >aulo/s.
6. -he English and the 8rench
agreed to build a channel
tunnel.
-he strong should help the
wea,.
'. I live in the Dnited
States0the Betherlands0the
8al,lands0the 1est Indies0the
>hilippines0the DSSF.
(. >aris lies on the Seine.
-he <tlantic separates
6ritain from <merica.
It/s very hot in the
7editerranean at the moment.
Dse with most nouns for more
specific meaning:
. to refer bac, to something
already mentioned
". when we ,now which one
we are tal,ing about
#. when we refer to only one
of its ,ind
Botice these other uses of the:
4. with singular countable
nouns when they stand for an
invention or a species
&. with a superlative (the first$
the most enjoyable!
6. with adjectives as plural
nouns
'. with the names of countries
or groups of islands which are
plural. Botice these
e4ceptions: the Dnited
Iingdom$ -he Cemen
(. with names of rivers$ oceans
and seas
3.4 Chan&es of meanin&
Sometimes the use (or omission J! of the article changes the
meaning of what we say.
3.4.1 'eals
. < dinner was held last night
at the Savoy.
-he dinner we held last night
was marvelous.
". +ome to ; dinner ne4t
Saturday.
1hat time do you have
brea,fast.
. a0an or the for particular
meals
". no article (;! for mealtimes
in general
3.4.2 (ransport
. I hailed a ta4i but it didn/t
stop.
-he si4 o/cloc, train was en
minute early.
". I always travel by ; bus.
I came home on ; foot.
. a0an or the for particular
forms of transport
". no article (;! for the form of
transport in general
3.3 )o article !*#
a. ; 7useums are interesting
; places.
b. ; Sound travels very fast
in ; water.
1e do not use an article:
a. with plural countable
nouns and 3.4.3 $laces
"a. I live in ; Fome0; >ercy
Foad0; +hina0;Gersey0near ;
=a,e 1indermere.
"b. I shop in ; .arrods.
"c. I read ; >unch.
"d. -he ?ueen lives in ;
6uc,ingham >alace.
"e. .e went to ; Shelffield
Dniversity.
#a. ; 7<B 8JDB@ @E<@
JB ; -D6E
#b. Send ; representative
immediately.
#c. ; @inner in ; oven.
4. Cou will need a ,nife and
for,. -a,e a buc,et and spade
to the beach.
b. with uncountable nouns
when spea,ing about the noun
in general (e.g. food$ music$
love etc.! +ompare: I hate the
sound of a drill (a particular
sound!. Botice: a few
uncountable nouns (e.g.
advice$ news$ luggage$
information$ research! re?uire
phrases li,e: a0the bit of a0the
piece of to refer to a particular
e4ample of that noun: a bit of
advice$ a piece of news.
". with the names of most
a. towns0cities$ streets$
countries$ single0individual
islands$ la,es
b. shops
c. maga%ines. Botice these
e4ceptions: -he Economist$
the =istener and most news
papers (-he Bew Cor, -imes$
-he @aily 7ail!
d. named buildings
e. named institutions (e.g.
universities$ schools$ churches
etc.!
. -he meeting was held in a
school.
-he wor,men are busy in the
church repairing the roof.
". .e/s at university
(studying!.
She/s in hospital (receiving
treatment!.
.e is in prison (serving a
sentence!.
. a0an or the to refer to a
particular or ,nown place or
building
". no article (;! to refer to the
normal activity which goes on
at a place or building
4. Conditional sentences
6oth if and unless (A if K not! can be used to introduce
conditional sentences. -he if clause can come before or after the
main (or 9result: clause!. Botice we often use a comma when
the if*clause comes first.
4.1 Conditional 1 +.2 ,erbs follo-ed by the
infinitive
a. If you ta,e drugs regularly$
you become addicted to them.
b. If you mi4 the colours blue
and red$ you get purple.
". If you wor, hard$ you/ll get
a good job.
Dnless you study$ you won/t
pass your e4ams.
I/ll e4plain it again if you
don/t understand.
DSE:
a. for general facts that do not
change
b. for scientific facts. Botice
the verbs in both parts of the
sentences are in the present.
". maionly for future
possibilities. Botice the verbs
after if and unless are in the
present but the verbs in the
9result: part of the sentence
are in the future.
+.2.1 ,erb . infinitive -ith to
I can/t afford to have a holiday
this year.
1e decided to get married.
I managed to find another
glass to replace the one I
bro,e.
Some verbs are followed by
the infinitive with to. .ere are
some of the most common:
<fford forget
<ppear happened
<rrange hope
@ecide intend
8ail learn
7ange promise
7ean refuse
Jffer seem
>lan threaten
prepare
4.2 Conditional 2
a. If I had a million pounds$ I
would buy a yacht.
If he ,new the answer he
wouldn/t tell me.
If 7ary were here now$ she
would drive me home.
b. If I were you$ I wouldn/t
marry him.
Dse:
a. the 9unreal: or improbable
conditions in the present or
future
b. for giving advice and
suggestions. Botice the verbs
after if in the 9result: part of
the sentence are in present
conditional.
4.3 Conditional 3 +.2.2 ,erb . direct object .
infinitive -ith to
a. 1e wouldn/t have gone
abroad for our holidays if we
hadn/t bought a new car.
b. If we hadn/t set out late$
we wouldn/t have been caught
in the traffic jam.
c. If you had listened to your
father$ you wouldn/t have
made so many mista,es.
Dse:
a. for 9unreal: or impossible
conditions in the past.
b. to imply regret
c. to imply criticism. Botice
the verbs after if are in the past
perfect but the verbs in the
9result: part of the sentence
are in the perfect conditional.
.e advised me to ta,e the
e4am.
-hey persuaded me to stay for
a few days.
Some verbs have a direct
object before the infinitive
with to. .ere are some of the
most common:
<dvise persuade
<llow remind
Encourage teach
8orce tell
Invite warn
order
5. Gerunds and infinitives
+.1 ,erbs follo-ed by the
&erund !or /in& form#
+.2.3 ,erb . direct object .
infinitive -ithout to
I can/t stand waiting in ?ueues.
Cou considered buying a
house in the coutryside$ but we
enjoy being in the town too
much.
I miss living abroad.
Some verbs are followed by
the 2ing form. .ere are some
of the most common:
I heard him sing 8igaro.
.e let me borrow his car.
.e made me tell him the truth.
Some verbs have a direct
object before the infinitive
without to. .ere are some of
the most common:
8eel let
.ear ma,e
See
Botice: hear and see can be
followed by the 2 ing form to
e4press hearing or seeing only
part of an action (e.g. compare
I heard him singing in the
bath!.
<ppreciate
<void
+an/t help
+an/t stand
+onsider
@eny
@esli,e
Enjoy
8eel li,e
8inish
5ive up
imagine
,eep (on!
loo, forward
to
mention
mind
miss
object to
practise
put off
ris,
suggest
be0get used to
be worth
+.3 ,erbs follo-ed by either
the /in& or the infinitive
what to do. #. after certain adjectives 3
prepositions. .ere are some of
the most common:
afraid of good at
bad at ,een on
bored with interested in
clever at tired of
fond of worried
about
. .e continued wor,ing0to
wor, after everybody else had
left the building.
"a. I li,e going to the cinema.
She loves dancing.
"b. I li,e to go to the cinema
once a wee,.
She would love to dance
the samba with you.
#a. I began studying0to study
in )(4.
I started writing0to write
when I was very young.
#b. I began to see that
something was wrong.
I started to reali%e what he had
done for me.
4a. .e stopped smo,ing last
wee,.
.e remembers going to the
seaside when he was a child.
.e/ll never forget eating raw
fish for the first time.
4b. .e stopped the car to pic,
up a hitch*hi,er.
.e remembered to post the
letters.
&a. I tried to phone you several
times but I couldn/t get
through.
&b. I tried wor,ing in a shop$
but it didn/t interest me.
6. Cour hair needs cutting.
-he garden wants weeding.
Some verbs ta,e either the 2
ing form or the infinitive:
. Sometimes there is very
little difference in meaning.
"a. 1hen verbs li,e can/t bear$
li,e$ love$ hate$ prefer are
followed by the 2ing form$
they tend to refer to a general
activity.
"b. but when these verbs are
followed by the infinitive$ they
tend to refer to particular
occasions
#a. begin and start can ta,e
either the 2ing form or the
infinitive
#b. but before a verb
e4pressing understanding (see$
reali%e! these verbs are
followed by the infinitive.
4. with verbs li,e stop$
remember$ not forget$ regret
a. the 2ing form refers to what
happens0happened before the
main verb (e.g. first he
smo,ed$ than he stopped: first
he went to the seaside$ now he
remembers the eventE first he
ate raw fish$ now he
remembers the event 2 never
forget A always remember!
b. the infinitive refers to what
happens0happened after the
main verb (e.g. first he
stopped the car$ then he pic,ed
up the hitch*hi,erE first he
remembered about the letters$
then he posted them:
&. try can ta,e either the 2ing
form or the infinitive but
a. it is followed by an
infinitive when we mean 9to
attempt to do something:
b. it is followed by the 2ing
form when we mean 9to
e4periment:
6. neead and want can be
followed by either the 2ing
form or the infinitive $ but
when they are followed by the
2ing form the meaning is
always passive.
+.+ Other uses of the infinitive
. I came here to study
English.
". She doesn/t ,now what to
do ne4t.
+an you e4plain how to do
itH
-he infinitive is also used:
. to e4press purpose
". after who$ what$ how$
whether and verbs li,e ,now$
e4plain$ wonder. Botice the
infinitive is not used in thios
way after why.
6. Link words
0.1 1ords e2pressin& result
a. .e was so tired that he
went to bed early.
.e spo,e Fussian so well
that everyone thought he was
Fussian.
b. It was such a difficult
e4am (that! he ,new he
wouldn/t pass it.
". It was late$ so he decided to
ta,e a ta4i home.
#a. 1e have invested too
much money in this project.
+onse?uently$ we are in
financial difficulties.
#b. .is wife left him and as a
result he became very
depressed.
4. 1e feel$ therefore$ that a
decision must be made.
a. so 3 adjective0adverb 3
that 3 clause
b. such 3 noun 3 that 3
clause
Botice: that can be left out in
informal speech.
". so 3 clause
#a. as a result$ conse?uently
can begin a new sentence
#b. and$ as a result$ is used in
the middle of a sentence
4. therefore often comes in the
middle of a sentence (it can
also come at the beginning or
the end!.
+.4 Other uses or /in& form 0.2 1ords e2pressin& reason
. 1al,ing is good for you.
". <fter wal,ing to wor,$ I/m
ready to sit at my des, all day.
#. I/m afraid of missing the
train.
.e/s good at telling others
-he 2ing form is also used:
. as the subject of a clause or
sentence
". following time words li,e
after$ before$ when$ since$
while
. Seeing that0Since0<s we
arrived late$ all the best seats
had been ta,en.
1e couldn/t find a good seat
because all the best ones had
been ta,en.
. such$ as$ seeing that 3
clause often come before the
main clause
". because 3 clause usually
comes after the main clause
#. 1e were unable to go by
train because of the rail stri,e.
7any of the deaths of older
people are due to heart attac,s.
#. because of$ as a result of
and due to are followed by a
noun or a noun phrase.
Botice: due to means 9caused
by: or 9resulting from:.
4. @uring0<ll through the
summer we got a lot of
visitors.
It rained heavily throughout
the night.
be used to introduce a chain of
events
4. during$ all through and
throughout are followed by a
noun or a noun phrase
0.3 1ords e2pressin& purpose 0.0 1ords e2pressin&
condition
. 1e came to the countryside
to find some peace and ?uiet.
.andle the flowers carefully
in order not to manage them.
". .e chose this university so
that0in order that he could
study >hysics.
. 1e can use the infinitives to
(do!$ in order (not! to (do!$ so
as (not! to (do! to e4press
purpose.
Botice: in order to$ so as to
are more formal.
". so that$ in order that 3
clause (often with the verbs
can could$ might$ would in the
clause!.
. Even if you are born rich$
life is very difficult.
Cou can borrow the car as
long as you are careful with itL
Cou can/t come with me
unless you promise to ,eep
?uiet.
". I don/t ,now whether you
have met him or not.
a. -hey discussed whether
they should attend the 5ames.
b. It depends on whether the
government ta,es any action.
-he organi%ers will decide
whether to impose lines.
. even if$ as long as and
unless 3 clause can be used
before or after he main clause
Botice unless means 9if K
not:
". whether 3 clause usually
comes after the main clause
and is often used in indirect
?uestions with K or not
a. +ertain verbs (e.g. discuss!
can be followed by whether
but not if
b. <fter prepositions and
before to infinitives use
whether but not if.
0.4 1ords e2pressin& contrast
. <lthough0Even if0Even
though the car is old$ it is still
reliable.
"a. @espite0In spite of the
rain$ I went for a wal,.
"b. 1e enjoyed our wal,ing
holiday despite0in spite of the
fact that it was lining.
#a. 6uying a house is
e4pensive. It is$ however$ a
good investment.
4. Gohn is very rich
but0while0whereas his friends
are e4tremely poor.
&. Jn the one hand$ these
computers are e4pensive. Jn
the other hand$ they are
e4actly what we wa
. although$ even if$ even
though 3 clause can come
before or after the main clause.
Botice: even though is more
informal
"a. despite or in spite of 3 a
noun or noun phrase 3 the 2
ing form
"b. despite the fact that$ in
spite of the fact that 3 clause
#a. however can come at the
beginning$ in the middle or at
the end of a sentence
#b. though is more informal
and comes at the end of a
sentence
4. but$ while$ whereas are
usually placed in the middle of
two main clauses e4pressing
contrasting ideas
&. on the one hand and on the
other hand can be used at the
beginning$ in the middle or at
the end of two sentences
e4pressing contrasting ideas.
Botice: on the other hand is
often used at the beginning of
the second sentence.
#. -a,e this umbrella in case it
rains.
In case of emergency brea,
the glass.
#. in case 3 clause usually
comes after the main clause.
Botice: In case of 3
noun(often used in formal
written notices.
0.3 1ords e2pressin&
additional information or
reinforcin& a point
a. I don/t really want to go
out tonight. 6esides there is a
good film on -M.
1e are still waiting for the
goods we ordered three
months ago. 8urthermore we
have been overcharged for our
last order.
b. -his theory about the
origins of the universe is new.
It is$ moreover$ e4tremely
interesting.
"a. -he painting is not only
valuable but also a wor, of art.
She not only writes novels but
(she! lectures as well.
-he house was not only
large but (was0it was! also
modern.
"b. Bot only is the restaurant
superb but it is also e4pensive.
#. -hey robbed a ban, as well
as a post office.
<s well as being sent to
prison$ they were lined ".;;;

a. besides$ in addition (to
that! and furthermore can be
used at the beginning of a
sentence following the first
statement made. Botice:
besides is less formalE
furthermore is more formal
b. moreover can be used at
the beginning or in the middle
of the sentence which gives
additional information
"a. not only K but also0as well
can lin, to sentences$ phrases
or words to give additional
information. Botice: but also
are used together when there is
no sentence subject pronoun
and a verb in the second part
of the sentence$ but K also are
separated when there is a verb
in the second part of the
sentence.
"b. not only can come at the
beginning of the first part of
the sentence to emphasi%e
0.+ 1ords e2pressin& time
. 1hen01hile0<s I was
driving along the road$ I saw a
terrible accident.
.e went out after he/d
finished wor,.
". 1henever0Everytime I see
him$ he/s driving a different
car.
. when$ while$ as and after 3
clause can come before or
after the main clause.
". whenever$ everytime 3
clause often come before the
main clause for added
emphasis.
#. first$ then$ later etc. can be
pounds.
4. -hey li,e Indian food. I li,e
Indian food too0as well.
-hey aren/t very generous
people. -hey haven/t got any
friends either.
1hat the spea,er is saying. In
this case it is necessary to
change the order of the subject
and verb. In sentences li,e
these the subject pronoun and
verb in the second part of the
sentence are usually
mentioned and but K also are
separated.
3.4 should
. I should really help my
mother with the dishes (but I
won/t!
". I should study harder
#. 1e should be ta,ing off in a
few minutes
4. I01e should be most
grateful if you could send us a
copy of the agreement
&. I should have told you but I
forgot
Should is used to e4press
. an obligation (which you
may not carry out!
". advice
#. something that will almost
certainly happen as long as
nothing une4pected prevents it
4. conditional sentences in
more formal0written style with
I and we
&. (with the perfect infinitive!
an obligation which was not
carried out
7. odals
1ill$ shall$ would$ should$ may$ might$ can$ could$ must$ have
(got! to$ ought to$ need
3.1 -ill
. It/ll be raining tomorrow.
". Bothing on -M. I/ll go to the
cinema instead.
#. 1ill you sit down$ pleaseH
I won/t go with you.
4. I/ll ta,e you to the cinema.
&. +ould you lend me one
poundH
Jf course I will.
6. Cou will start wor, at ( on
7onday.
'. I will not be treated in this
way.
1ill is used to e4pressE
. a prediction about the future
". a decision made while you
are spea,ing
#. a re?uest or a refusal
4. a promise
&. willingness
6. an order
'. determination
3.+ may and mi&ht
. .e may0might be the new
teacher
". .e may0might be late this
evening
#. 7ay0might I as, a ?uestionH
4. -hey may0might have been
held up in the traffic
7ay and might are used to
e4press:
. a possibility now
". a possibility in the future
Botice: might is rather less
certain than may in meaning
#. as,ing for permission
Botice: may is more common
than might and can is often
used instead of may
4. (with the perfect infinitive!
a possible e4planation for
something in the past
3.2 shall
. 1e hall send you the
information as soon as
possible
". Shall we go out for a meal
tonightH
#. Shall I carry the case for
youH
4. Bo pupil shall enter the
library without the permission
of a teacher.
Shall is used to e4press:
. the future (in the same way
as will but only with I and we!
". a suggestion
#. an offer
4. Botice: shall is occasionally
used in very formal (written!
orders.
3.0 can
. I can s,i0drive a car
". I/m there tomorrow. I can
drive you to the airport.
#. +an I go nowH
4. +an you come to the partyH
&. Cou can/t be tiredL Cou/ve
been asleep all morning.
6. Cou can/t have been pleased
when you reali%ed what he had
doneL
+an is used to e4press
. ,nowing how to do
something
". being able to do something
#. as,ing for permission (used
informally instead of may!
4. a possibility
&. an unli,ely e4planation for
something nowE It/s
impossible for you to be tired
6. (with the perfect infinitive!
an unli,ely e4planation for
something in the past: It
wasn/t possible for you to be
pleased
3.3 -ould
. I/d li,e to go.
I wish you wouldn/t smo,e
so much.
". I would move house if I had
the money.
#. 1ould you type this for me$
pleaseH
4. I/d rather have tea than
coffee.
&. 1ill you ring meH
.e as,ed if I would ring
him.
6. .e would sing at the top o
his voice in the shower.
1ould is used to e4press:
. a wish (sometimes
suggesting annoyance or
disapproval!
". the 9result: part of a
conditional sentence
#. a polite re?uest
4. a preference with rather
&. the reporting of will
6. a habit in the past
3.3 could
. 1hen I was si4 I could play
the piano.
". 1hen I was younger I could
drive around for our without a
brea,.
+ould is used to e4press:
. ,nowing how to do
something in the past
". being able to do something
in the past
#. +ould I use your phoneH
4. +ould he be rightH
&. -hey couldn/t have phoned
herL She hasn/t got a phoneL
#. as,ing for permission (used
informally instead of may but
rather more polite than can!
4. a possibility (rather less
strong than can!
&. (with the perfect infinitive!
an unli,ely e4planation for
something in the past: It
wasn/t possible for them to
phone her
!. "#e $assive
4.2 'ost common forms

I- Is
.as been done
1ill be seen
1as reported
3.4 must
. I must wash my hair
tonight.
". -he wor, must be done
before tomorrow.
#. Cou must not smo,e in here.
4. Cou must be e4hausted after
all that wor,.
&. Cou must have been
surprised when she said she
was getting married.
7ust is used to e4press:
. a personal obligation
". what you consider to be
someone else/s obligation
#. (with not! what is not
allowed
4. a reasonable conclusion
made about something now
&. (with the perfect infinitive!
a reasonable conclusion about
something in the past
-his toy is made in Gapan.
< strange object has been seen
in the night s,y.
8urther information will be
given in our ne4t bulletin.
-his report was prepared by a
team of e4perts.
-he passive is formed by using
a form of be (is$ has been$ will
be$ was etc.! 3 the past
participle of the verb (made$
seen$ given$ prepared!.
Botice: when the person or
thing responsible for the action
(the agent! is mentioned$ use
the preposition by.
3.5 have !&ot# to 4.2 6se
I/ve got to0have got to be on
time tomorrow.
1e haven/t got to0don/t have
to go if we don/t want to.
.ave (got! to is used to
e4press
1hat is or isn/t necessary
. 8ive policemen have been
,illed in Borthern Ireland.
-he weather was heated and
a solution of chemicals was
prepared.
". < description of the
gunman was issued by the
police.
#. < charity record has been
made by many famous names
in the world of pop music.
-he passive is used:
. when the agent is un,nown
(we may not ,now who ,illed
the policemen! or not
important. Botice: the passive
is often used in newspaper
reports and in scientific
e4periments or processes.
". to ma,e the object of the
active verb more important
(attention is drawn to the
description of the gunman
rather than who issued it!
#. when the description of the
agent is very long (many
famous names in the world of
poo music!
3.1* ou&ht to
. I really ought to go and see
her.
". I ought to have gone to see
her but I was busy.
Jught to is used to e4press:
. an obligation (which you
may or may not carry out!
". (with the perfect infinitive!
an obligation which you did
not carry out
Botice: ought to is rather
stronger than should
3.11 need 4.2 $oints to remember
. Cou needn/t shout. I can
hear you
Cou needn/t bring anything
to the party.
". Beed I ta,e anything to the
partyH
Beed you as, that
?uestionH
#. Cou needn/t have phoned. I
already ,new you were
coming.
. needn/t is used here as a
modal verb
". -here is also a ?uestion
form$ constructed in the same
way as ?uestions with can$
must and other modals.
#. Beedn/t with the perfect
infinitive e4presses the idea
that something in the past was
not necessary but it was done.
+ompare the ordinary verb
need:
Cou don/t need to shout. I can
hear you.
@o I need to ta,e anything to
the partyH
Cou dindn/t need to phone. I
already ,new you were
coming.
. -he painting should be
finished by ne4t wee,.
". -he decoration should have
been finished but I ran out of
paint.
#. 7other -eresa was awarded
the Bobel >eace >ri%e.
-he Bobel >eace >ri%e was
awarded to 7other -eresa.
4. I got stuc, in a traffic jam.
She is getting married ne4t
month.
&a. It is thought that he started
the fire deliberately.
&b. .e had got his hair cut
yesterday.
6. -his job needs0wants doing.
. Dse be 3 past principle after
should and other modals
". Dse been 3 past participle
after would have$ should have
etc.
#. Merbs with two objects
which can form two types of
active sentence can form two
types of passive sentence.
4. get 3 past participle is often
used instead of be with passive
meaning.
&. -he passive is used in
constructions with verbs li,e
thin,$ believe$ say$ consider$
feel$ find$ ,now$ understand
a. after the introductory if
b. before an infinitive
6. have0get something done
e4presses the idea of
a. arranging for or paying
somebody to do something for
you. Botice: get is more
informal.
b. e4periencing something
'. <fter need$ want$ the 2ing
form can be used with passive
meaning
5.3.2 ,erb . adverb .
preposition . object
1e dropped in on the Sniths.
1e dropped in on them.
Even if the object is a pronoun
it must come after the adverb
3 preposition.
5.4 Ordinary verbs . preposition
%. &#rasal verbs
-he boy ran over the bridge.
.e stepped over the puddle.
.e stepped over it.
-he object must come after the
verb 3 preposition$ even when
it is a noun.
5.1 1hat is a phrasal verb?
1' &re$ositions
. < phrasal verb consists of a verb plus one or two words li,e on$
up$ into etc.
". -he words which come after the verb are usually adverbs$
although sometimes a phrasal verb can consist of verb 3 adverb 3
preposition.
#. 1hen an ordinary is followed by a preposition$ the meaning of
the verb will be clear from the meanings of the individual parts of
the verb. In the case of a phrasal verb$ however$ the parts of the
phrasal verb together have one basic meaning which may be
completely different from their individual meanings.
1*.1 amon&
. @ivide these sweets among the
children.
". -he wor,ers tal,ed among
themselves as if they waited to
see the boss.
#. .e was the only one among all
my friends who supported me.
Dse for a group of things to
e4press:
. 9with a share for each of:
". with one another:
#. 9in the group0company of:
Ordinary verbs +
prepositions
I loo,ed into the mirror.
She ran out of the room crying.
hrasal verbs
-he police are loo,ing into the
murder.
1e ran out of money on
holiday.
Botice: these verbs change
their meaning when adverbs
and prepositions are added.
E.g. loo, into (a murder! A
investigateE run out of (money!
A have none left.
1*.2 all
. -he train left at midnight0(.#;
p.m.
"a. I/ll meet you at the corner of
the street.
"b. -he train stops at
6irmingham.
I studied at =ondon.
#. =oo, at this new car.
<im at the centre.
Dse to e4press:
. an e4act point of time
"a. an e4act position or place
"b. with the name of a city$
town or village$ if we are
interested in a particular point
of activity in it rather than the
whole place
5.2 $hrasal verbs -hich can be
separated
5.2.1 ,erb . adverb . object (sed e)$ressions
. .e loo,ed a word up in the
dictionary.
.e loo,ed up a word in the
dictionary.
". .e loo,ed it up.
. If the object is a noun$ it can
come before or after the
adverb.
". If the object is a pronoun
(e.g. it! it must come before
the adverb.
<t all
costs0events
<t any rate
<t church0the
hairdresser/s0
school
<t +hristmas0
Easter
<t ease
<t first (sight!
<t hand
<t home0the
office
<t last
<t least
<t a loss0 a
profit
<t lunch
<t night
<t once
<t peace0war
<t present
<t sea
<t a time
(when!
<t the same
time (as!
<t times
<t the
wee,end
<t wor,
<stonished at
6ad at
+lever at
5ood at
Shoc,ed at
Shoot at
Shout at
Smile0laugh at
Surprised at
5.3 $hrasal verbs -hich cannot
be separated
5.3.1 ,erb . adverb !no object#
-hey called in to see us.
-he plans fell through.
-hey turned up une4pectedly.
Cou cannot separate the two
parts of the verb. Cou cannot
say 9-hey called to se us in:.
1e wal,ed for several miles
1*.3 bet-een
7iles 4. <re you for or against
nuclear weaponsH
&. 1hat did you do that forH
6. =et/s go out for a meal.
'. -hey left for <merica this
morning.
#.distance
4. 9in favor of:
&. reason
6. purpose 3 noun
'. movement towards.
. -he ban, is between the post
office and the ba,er/s.
". -he ferry sails between
@over and Jstend.
<n agreement was made
between the three super*
powers.
#. Gust between you and me$ I
thin, he/s awful.
4. I can/t choose between these
three dresses.
Dse to e4press:
. a position in the middle
(which things or people on two
sides!
". bringing two or more things
or people together
#. sharing something together
(a secret!
4. either one thing or another
(seful e)$ressions
8orever
8or goodness/
sa,e
8or heaven/s
sa,e
Jnce and for
all
8or a while0
time
<n4ious for
<s for
<s, for
+are for
>ay for
Feason for
Fesponsible
for
Search for
1*.4 beyond 1*.4 from
. -he farm lies beyond that
field.
". .is story is beyond belief.
She is beyond help.
#. -he success of the plan was
beyond anything we had hoped
for.
Dse to e4press
. 9further than: (distance!
". 9outside the understanding
or the reach of:
#. 9more or better than:
. 1e traveled from Mienna to
>aris by train.
". .e wor,s from ) to &.
#. >rices start at & pounds.
4. I can/t tell one from the other
Dse to e4press
. place of origin
".a starting point in time
#. a starting point in ?uantity
4. separation
1*.+ by (seful e)$ressions
. -his boo, was written by
+harles @ic,ens.
". -his model was made by
hand.
#. -he ban, is just by the >ost
Jffice.
4. 6y ne4t year I/ll have
fnished this boo,.
Dse to e4press
. who does0did0will do an
action
". how something is0was0will
be done
#. closeness or nearness to
4. 9not later than:
8rom < to N
8rom
beginning to
end
8rom head to
toe
8rom morning
to night
8rom time to
time
<way from
<part from
.ear from
>revent from
(doing!
Suffer from
(seful e)$ressions 1*.5 in
6y accident
6y airbus0 car0
plane0sea0ship
0 train (and
other means of
transport!
6y all means
6y chance
6y day0night
6y (doing!
6y far
6y mista,e
6y post
6y sight
6y surprise
6y yourself
(alone!
<ma%ed by

<stonished
by

Impressed
by

Surprised by

Dpset by

. -hey/re in the ,itchen.

". 1e got married in
7arch0winter0)(&.
#. I/ll be bac, in an hour.
4. .e/s in ban,ing0the local
police force0a mess.
Dse to e4press
. place
". a point during a longer period
of time 2 wee,s$ months$
seasons$ years and centuries
#. 9within a certain time:
4. a job0profession0situation
1*.0 e2cept (seful e)$ressions
. <ll the boys had pens e4cept
one.
". -he holiday was e4cellent
e4cept for the rain.
#. .e/s a good student$ e4cept
that he/s always late.
Dse to e4press
. 9e4cluding:
". 9apart from: 3 noun
#. 9apart from the fact that: 3
clause
In all
In any case
In bed
In common
In danger
In debt
In difficulties
In the end
In fact
In general
In half
In hurry
In in,0pencil
In love
In a loud
voice
In the
morning
In my opinion
In other words
In particular
In prison
In private
In public
In secret
In sight
In spite of
In shoc,
In tears
In time
In turn
In a way
In a sense
@ressed in
5et in
Interested in
Succeed in
-a,e part in 1*.3 for
. -his is for you.
". 1e/ve lived here for three
years.
Dse to e4press:
. 9intended to belong to:
". length of time

A or at
1*.1* into 1*.14 out of
.ey came into the room. Dse to e4press movement
towards
. She ran out of the house.
". -wo out of five children have
learning problems.
#. I copied the recipe out of the
newspaper.
4. -he dress was made out of a
lace curtain.
Dse to e4press
. movement away from
". 9from among: (with ratios!
#. place of origin
4. the material something is
made from
(seful e)$ressions
6ump into
+rash into
5et into (trouble!
5o into
Gump into
Fun into
-hrow into
1al, into
1*.11 of (seful e)$ressions
. -he cover of this boo, is
attractive.
". .e/s one of my best friends.
#. a ton bric,s
a pint of mil,
a pound butter
4. .e died of starvation.
&. a man of 4;0the +ity of
=ondon0made of gold
Dse to e4press
. 9belonging to:
". 9from among:
#. measure
4. cause
&. description
Jut of breath
Jut of control
Jut of danger
Jut of date
Jut of order
Jut of
practice
Jut of the
?uestion
(impossible!
Jut of reach
Jut of stoc,
Jut of wor,
1*.1+ since
(seful e)$ressions
. I haven/t seen him since
)'(.
". Since he had flu$ he decided
not to go to wor,.
Dse to e4press
. a starting point for actions
and situations which continue to
the moment of spea,ing
". 9because:
<head of
6ecause of
6y means of
+ure
someone of
@ie of
@o%ens
of
Enough of
Everyone of
E4ample of
E4planation
ofO
.undreds of
In case of
In front of
Instead of
=ac, of
Jn account
of
Jn behalf of
Jut of
>roof of
Femind
someone of
Several of
-hin, of
-ypical of
1*.10 to
. 1e/re going to >aris.
". It/s a ?uarter to ".
#. 1e/ll be in the office from )
to &.
4. .e won by " games to #.
I prefer sleeping to wor,ing.
Dse to e4press
. 9in the direction of:
". 9before: (in time!
#. until
4. comparison
1*.12 off
. < tile has come off the roof.
". Jur house is off the .igh
Street.
Dse to e4press
. movement away from
". 9at a distance from:
(seful e)$ressions
(seful e)$ressions
<ccording to
In addition to
@ue to
Jwing to
In order to
So as to
Jff duty
Jff limits
Jff wor,
5et off (the bus!
-a,e off (your coat!
1*.13 under
1*.13 on
. -he bo4 in under the stairs.
". >lease don/t sweep the dust
under the carpet.
#. -he bridge is under repair.
Dse to e4press
. 9beneath:
". 9beneathP(with movement!
#. 9in the process of:!
. -he boo, is on the table.
". I/ll see you on Saturday
morning0+hristmas @ay0your
birthday.
#. 1hat/s on -M tonightH
-here/s a good film on at the
cinema.
4. .e/s written a boo, on
insects.
Dse to e4press
. contact (on the surface of!
". time 2 a particular day
#. what entertainment is being
offered
4. what something is about
(seful e)$ressions
Dnder control
Dnderneath (preposition! A
under
Dnder orders
Dnder oath (in a court of law!
(seful e)$ressions 1*.14 until
Jn business
Jn duty
on purpose
Jn time
Jn foot
Jn the other
hand
Jn holiday
Jn sale
Jn the whole
<gree on
@epend on
+ongratulate
someone on
.ave an
effect on
. I/ll ,eep the ring until we
meet again.
Stir the mi4ture until it thic,ens.
Dse to e4press
. Dp to a certain time
". 9up to a point or degree
when:
1*.15 up 11.1.2 7eavin& out the pronoun
in definin& relative clauses
@on/t run up the stairs.
.e went up in the ne4t class.
Dse to e4press movement to a
higher place
-he man (who0whom0that! I was
meeting was an important client.
-he relative pronoun can be left
out when it refers to the object
of the verb in the clause. Botice:
the relative pronoun cannot be
left out when it refers to the
subject of the verb in the clause
(e.g. -he man who came to meet
me was an important client!
(seful e)$ressions
Dp*to*date (modern!
uphill
Dps and downs (good times
and bad times!
8ed up (bored or unhappy!
1*.2* -ith"-ithout 11.1.3 $repositions used -ith
relative pronouns in
definin& clauses
. 6e patient with the children
". .e hit the burglar with a
hammer.
#. Cou/ll have to go with
0without me.
4. < room with0without a view
Dse to e4press
. 9as regards
". instrument
#. accompanying0not
accompanying
4. having0not having
. -he man who0that I was
tal,ing to is my uncle.
"a. -he person to whom I was
addressing my comments does
not seem to be listening.
"b -he problem about which we
had so much discussion has
been solved.
. -he preposition comes at the
end of the clause in informal
speech or writing.
"a. -he preposition comes at the
beginning of the clause in
formal speech and writing.
"b. Botice: the relative pronoun
cannot be left out in sentences
li,e these even though it is the
object of the verb of the clause.
(seful e)$ressions
1ith best
wishes
1ith0without
difficulty
1ithout any
fuss
1ith love
1ith pleasure
<gree with
<ngry with
@o without
8illed with
5reen with
envy
.ave
difficulty
with
@isgusted
with
Impressed
with
>leased with
Shivering
with (cold!
-rembling
with fear
(what/s!
wring with
(H!
11.2 )on8definin& relative
clauses
I/ve just met 7rs 1atts who
wants to buy my car.
-hese clauses give further
information$ which could be left
out$ about the sentence.
+ommas are used.
11. *elative clauses
11.1 %efinin& relative clauses 11.2.1 9elative pronouns in non8
definin& clauses
Is that the man who wants to
buy your carH
-hee clauses are necessary in
order to complete the meaning
of a sentence. -hey identify
somebody or something. Bo
commas are used.
11.1.1 9elative pronouns in
definin& relative clauses
a. -he members of the
e4pedition$ who had been away
for si4 months$ said they were
proud of their achievements.
b. -he candidates$ who0whom
we met for the first time
yesterday$ are all preparing their
speeches for the debate
tomorrow.
c. < car manufacturer$ whose
name I have forgotten$ has
invented an electric car.
"a. -he report$ which was drawn
up by a special committee$
states that more needs to be
done in the inner city areas.
-hese relative pronouns are
used
. for people
a. who 2 as the subject of the
verb in the clause
b. who0whom0that 2 as the
object of the verb in the clause
c. whose 2 meaning 9belonging
to:
". for things
a. which 2 as the subject or
object of the verb in the clause
b. which 2 to give further
information about the whole
main sentence
a.-he person who deals with
that isn/t hear at the moment.
-he person who interviewed
me was a nice sort of fellow.
b. -he person who0whom0that
you want is out of office.
c. -he man whose address
you/ve as,ed for has left the
firm
"a. -he instructions which
come with this machine are
impossible to follow.
-hese relative pronouns are
used
. for people
a. who0that 2 as the subject of
the verb in the clause
b. who0whom0that 2 as the
object of the verb in the clause
( whom is more formal!
c. whose meaning 9belonging
to:
". for things
a. which0that 2 as subject or
"b. .e had been in prison$
which was a fact nobody had
reali%ed.
Botice: the relative pronoun
cannot be left out in non*
defining clauses and that
cannot be used to replace the
relative pronoun.
12.1.2 )o chan&es
11.2.2 $repositions used -ith
relative pronouns in non8
definin& clauses
Some verbs used in directed speech do not change in reported
speech. -he 9reporting: verb is often in the present tense.
@irect speech
-he verbs do not normally
change when
. reporting a present state of
affairs 2 e.g. 9-he cost of living
here is high:.
". reporting things which are
always true 2 e.g. 9It/s always
cold at this time of year:.
#. reporting something which
we believe (or someone
believes! will happen 2 e.g.
9-hey/re going to sac, #;;
wor,ers ne4t wee,:.
4. they are the modal structures
would$ could$ might$ ought and
should 2 e.g. 9Cou might be
mista,en:.
Feported speech
. -he reporter says0said that the
cost of living here is high.
". 7ary says it/s always cold at
this time of year.
#. -he union representative said
that they are going to sac, #;;
wor,ers ne4t wee,.
4. She said (that! he might be
mista,en.
-he organi%ation$ to which we
owe so much$ has announced a
further contribution for our
appeal.
>repositions usually come at
the beginning of the clause as
the use is rather formal.
11.3 $articiple phrases
In participle phrases the relative pronoun and the au4iliary
verb(s! are left out.
. -he boy (who is! sitting in
that corner has been here all
morning.
-he bric,s (which have
been! used to build the church
were specially made.
". Simone de 6eauvoir (who
was! well,nown for her fight
for the women/s rights died in
)(6.
-hese phrases can be
. defining
or
". non*defining
12.2 9eported statements
12. 9eported speech 12.2.1 ,erb !. that#
>lease tell 7r. 1att I/ve put
the paper in the post.
7rs. 5reen phoned.
Jh what did he sayH
.e said he/d put the papers in
the post.
(e.g. say$ claim$ admit$ e4plain$ insist$ agree$ complain$ deny$ reply!
9I/m an art student:.
9I don/t ,now you:.
9I was lying:.
9I/m hot:.
She said that she was an art
student.
.e claims he doesn/t ,now me.
She admitted she had been
lying.
.e e4plained (that! he was hot.
12.1 (enses
12.1.1 Chan&es
Merbs used in direct speech will change their tense in reported
speech$ especially when the 9reporting: verb is in the past (e.g.
said!
Notice admit and deny can also be followed by 2ing forms
!irect speech
.:I/ll put the letters in
the post:.
". 9I wor, for an
insurance company:.
#. 91e can/t borrow
anymore money from
the ban,:.
4. 91e/ve moved in a
bigger house:
&. 9I must pay the gas
bill:.
"hange
. will
to
would
". wor,
to
wor,ed
#. can/t
to
couldn/t
4. have moved
to
had moved
&. must
to
had to
#eported speech
. .e said he would
put the letters in the
post.
". She said she
wor,ed for a
insurance company.
#. -hey said they
couldn/t borrow
anymore money
from the ban,.
4. -hey said they
had moved to a
bigger house.
&. She said she had
to pay the gas bill.
12.2.2 ,erb . pronoun"noun !.
that#
9I/m an art student:. She told him (that! she was an
art student.
12.2.3 ,erb . infinitive
(e.g. offer$ refuse$ agree$ promise!
I/ll ta,e you to the dance. .e offered to ta,e her to the
dance.
12.2.4 ,erb / for . 8in& form
(e.g. apologi%e$ than,!
9I/m sorry I trod on your foot:
9-han, you for doing the
shopping:.
.e apologi%ed for treading on
his foot.
.e than,ed her for doing the
shopping.
4. Some words li,e please and
now disappear 2 e.g. 9>lease
come in:. 9Bow what do you
want to tal, aboutH:
4. .e as,ed her to come in.
She as,ed him what he wanted
to tal, about.
12.3 9eportin& re:uests and
orders
13. "ense for+s
9+lose the door$ please:.
9>lease don/t shout:.
9Sit$ 8lover:.
@on/t move:.
<ttac,.
.e as,ed me to close the door.
.e as,ed them not to shout.
-he boy told his dog to sit.
-he policeman ordered the
burglar not to move.
-he captain ordered his
soldiers to attac,.
13.1 $resent forms
13.1.1 $resent simple
12.4 9eportin& :uestions
. 1e go out every Saturday
night.
.e never gives me presents.
". .e lives in 5reece.
-he earth travels round the
sun.
#. Gane: I don/t li,e big cities.
-hey smell of cars.
>eter: I ,now what you
mean.
4. 8irst you chec, the gear and
the handbra,e$ then you switch
on the engine.
&. < gorilla goes into a bar and
as,s for a drin,K
-he >ope visits -o,yo today.
Dse
. for something which happens
regularly or which is a habit
(often with adverbs of time li,e
always$ usually etc.!
". for something which remains
true for a long period of time or
for a scientific fact
#. 1ith verbs not normally used
with any of the progressive
forms (believe$ understand$
imagine$ suppose$ hear$ see$
taste$ loo,$ haste$ need$ want$
prefer$ see$ appear$ belong$
deserve!. Botice feel can be
used either with the simple or
progressive form: e.g. I feel ill0I
am feeling ill
4. to give instructions (more
friendly and personal than the
imperative +hec, switch on
etc.!
&. to describe events in jo,es$
events and news items to ma,e
them seem more dramatic
Femember to change the word order in a reported ?uestion to
subject followed by verb.
9what time is it:H
9.ow much money do you
needH
.e as,ed what time it was.
She as,ed how much money I
needed.
Femember to use if or whether f there is no ?uestion word.
9<re you tiredH:
9@o you want the car or notH/
.e as,ed if I was tired.
She wondered whether I
wanted the car or not.
12.+ 9eportin& su&&estions
Suggest can be followed by an 2ing form or that 3 should 3
infinitive
9=et/s go home.: .e suggested going home.
.e suggested that they should
go home.
12.0 Other points to notice
about reported speech
@irect speech
. -he pronoun often changes
2 e.g. 9I/ve washed the
dishes:.
". 1ords li,e tomorrow
change to words not directly
related to present time 2 e.g.
9I/ll do it tomorrow:.
a. today
b. yesterday
c. ne4t wee,0year etc
d. last wee,0year etc.
e now
f. here
g. this (in the e4pression! e.g.
this year$ this wee,
#. Jther changes are:
a. 9this$ these$ that$ those: (as
adjectives!
b. 9this$ these$ that$ those: (as
pronouns!
Feported speech
. She said she had washed the
dishes.
". .e said he would do it the
following day0the ne4t day.
a. the same day0that day
b. the day before0the previous
day
c. the following wee,0year
d. the previous wee,0year
e. then
f. there
g. that (e.g. that year$ that
wee,!
#a. the
#b. it$ they$ them
13.1.2 $resent pro&ressive
. =oo,$ they are coming out of
the cinema now.
-he standard of living in the
country is slowly rising.
". She/s always borrowing
money from me.
It/s always raining here.
#. < man is standing on the
pavement when suddenly a
spaceship lands.
Dse
. for an event in progress in the
present time
". with always to show surprise
or disapproval when an action is
repeated
#. to set the scene in a jo,e or a
story and describe events which
have already begun but which
are not
13.1.3 $resent perfect
. I/ve seen that film.
I/ve just seen him.
I haven/t finished yet.
I/ve never been there.
Dse
. for an event which happened
at an indefinite time in the past.
+ompare: I saw that film last
". She/s been a widow for
about si4 months0since last
year
#a. I can/t write because I/ve
bro,en my arm.
#b. =oo, at the mess you/ve
made.
4. -his is the third time he/s
ta,en his driving test.
wee, when the time reference
is definite
Botice: adverbs which e4press
indefinite time are often used:
already$ just$ yet$ often$ never$
so far$ still etc.
". for an event which began in
the past and is still going on
now. Botice: we use for to tal,
about the length of time
#. for an event which
#a. is finished but which still
affects the present. +ompareE
-he >resident died and -he
>resident has died (so we must
ma,e various arrangements!
#b. has a result which can be
seen in the present (+ompare:
e.g. 1hat have I drawnH -o
what did I drawH
4. after e4pressions li,e
first$ second
-his best$ worst K
-hat is the most interestin
It only K
13.2.2 6sed to and -ould
a. I used to smo,e cigars but
now I prefer cigarettes.
.e used to be very fat$ but
he/s lost a lot of weight.
b. I didn/t use to go to the
theatre but I try and go once a
month now.
I never used to li,e him but
I do now.
c. !o you use to do sports at
schoolH
!idn$t you use to be much
thinnerH
". .e would ,eep telling me
what to do
Used to only e4ists in the past
form. Dse it to e4press:
a. a habit or state in the past
b. something which did not
happen in the past but which has
now become a habit or state.
Notice the negative form (e.g.
used not to go to the theatre! is
becoming less common in
speech but is still found in
formal or written English.
c. an in?uiry about a habit or
state in the past
"ompare the e4pressions
be/get used to!
"m used to getting u# early.
was used to getting u# early.
$ou"ll soon get used to drinking
tea%
soon got used to working so
hard.
Botice after be/get used to we
use the verb 3 *ing
Dse would
". for a habit or repeated event
in the past which is now
finished and which shows the
spea,er/s attitude to the event
((anger$ irritation etc.!
13.1.4 $resent perfect
pro&ressive
a. 1e/ve been living here for
si4 years0since )(.
b. 1e/ve been standing in
this bus stop for half an hour in
the pouring rain.
". I/ve been staying with my
cousin for the last wee,.
#. =oo, at the mess you/re inL
1hat on earth have you been
doingH
I can see that you/ve been
decorating. -he house loo,s
lovelyL
Dse
. for an activity which began
in the past and is still going on
(to emphasi%e the length of
time ta,en by that activity!
b. (Botice it often shows anger$
surprise etc.!
". to describe a temporary
arrangement which may still
be going on or which may just
have finished
#. for an activity which was
going on$ which has now
finished and the result of
which is still evident. (-his$
too$ often shows anger$
surprise etc.!.
13.2.3 $ast pro&ressive
a. I was driving along the
motorway when I had a
puncture.
b. It was si4 o/cloc, and
dar,ness was falling.
". I was digging the garden
while Gohn was painting the
,itchen.
#. .e was coming to dinner but
he had to go away on business.
Dse
a. for an event which was in
progress when another event
happened
b. to set the scene and provide
the bac,ground for a story
". for two (or more! events
which were in progress at the
same time in the past
#. for an event which had been
arranged but which did not
happen 13.2 $ast forms
13.2.1 $ast simple 13.2.4 $ast perfect
. =ast night I went to a
concert.
=ast time I saw 7aria was
three years ago.
". Gane: !id you have a nice
time in >arisH
>eter: Ces$ we did.
#. -he thief went into the
ban,$ pulled out a gun and
pointed at the chashier.
4. 1hen I was at school$ I got
up at seven o/cloc,.
DSE:
. when a definite point in time
is mentioned when tal,ing
about the past
". when the event too, place at
a time the spea,er is aware of
but does not mention
#. for a number of events
which too, place one after
another in the past
4. to describe a past habit
. I went bac, because %$d
forgotten my ,eys.
I was sure I hadn$t seen him
before.
6y )(6 6ob 5eldof had
raised millions of pounds for
charity.
". I had scarcely/hardly put
the phone down when the bell
rang.
No sooner had % left the
house than it started to rain.
Dse:
. for an event which happened
before another in the past (first I
forgot my ,eys$ later I went
bac, home!
". with scarcely0hardly 3 when
or no sooner 3 than. Botice
these words (scarcely$ hardly$ no
sooner! are often put at the
beginning of the sentence to
emphasi%e that one event
happened almost immediately
after the other (notice the word
order!
14. ,is#es- re.rets and
$referances
13.2.+ $ast perfect pro&ressive
-hey/d been studying for
hours when they suddenly
reali%ed it was midnight.
.e ,new they hadn/t been
paying attention during the
lesson.
Dse
to emphasi%e the continuous
nature of an action or activity
which happened before
another in the past.
14.1 1ishes and re&rets
. I wish I were richL
%f only we could see each
other more oftenL
% wish we didn$t live in this
terrible place.
". I wish you wouldn$t make so
much noiseL
%f only they would stop that
terrible noiseL
% wish it would stop rainingL
#. I wish I had never married
himL
%f only I had studied harder
at school.
I wish you hadn$t told me
your secret.
. -hese e4amples e4press
wishes (often suggesting that the
spea,er is sorry about
something 2 I/m sorry I/m not
rich!
Notice the 9past: form of the
verbs (were$ could see$ didn/t
live! after I wish and if only as
when with conditional ".
". -hese e4amples e4press verbs
for a change in the future and
often suggest that the spea,er is
angry or dissatisfied about (or
tired of! the present situation
#. -hese e4amples e4press
wishes or regrets about the past
( wish had studied harder but
didn"t!.
Notice the past perfect is used in
the same way as conditional #
sentences
13.3 (al;in& about the future
%$m gong to wash my hair.
%t$s going to snow.
I/ll see you tomorrow.
-erm starts on 7onday.
I/m meeting the boss at ;.
-his time tomorrow %$ll be
sitting my e4am.
I/ll have finished it by 4
o/cloc,.
1e/ll have been living here
for ten years ne4t spring.
-hey/re about to announce
the election results.
.e/s on the point of changing
his job.
a. I/m going to write some
letters
b. =oo, at those blac, clouds.
I thin, it/s going to rain.
-he wor, is not going to
be easy.
". -omorrow will be fine and
sunny.
1e shall expect you ne4t
wee,.
#. Easter is early this year.
-he match begins at #.#;.
1hen he comes$ I/ll tell
you.
4. 1e$re flying to Spain ne4t
wee,.
I/m taking my driving test
tomorrow.
&. -his time ne4t wee, I/ll be
swimming in the
7editeranean.
6. -hey/ll have done their
homewor, by tomorrow.
'. .e/ll have been working
for the ban, for # years ne4t
summer.
(. -he plane is on the point of
ta,ing off.
Bic, was &ust about to put
the money in his poc,et.
6e going to
8uture simple
>resent simple
>resent progressive
8uture perfect
8uture perfect progressive
6e about to or be on the point
of
. Dse be going to for
a. an intention
b. an indication that something
is probable
". Dse future simple (will0
shall! to ma,e a prediction
about the future.
Notice shall is only used for I
and we
#. Dse present simple for
future events on a timetable or
a fi4ed programme. Notice
when ca be used with the
present simple for an event in
the future
4. Dse present progressive for
a definite arrangement$ plan or
appointment
&. Dse future progressive for
an event which will be in
progress at a certain time in the
future
6. Dse future perfect for an
event which will be over no
later than a certain time in the
future
'. Dse future perfect
progressive for something
which is which is still in
progress but which will be
complete not later than a
certain time in the future (often
used to emphasi%e the length
of time involved!
(. Dse be about to or be on the
point of for an event which is
or was just going to ta,e place.
14.2 $references
a. I li,e the summer better than
the winter
b. I prefer soft drin,s to
alcohol.
"a. I/d rather have a snac, than
a ta,e*away meal.
"b. I/d rather not go to the
football match$ if you don/t
mind.
#. I would rather you stayed at
home tonight. I thin, it/s going
to snow.
I/d rather you didn/t see him
again.
a. li,e K better than K and
b. prefer K to K e4press
general preferences
"a. Qd rather 3 infinitive without
to K than K e4presses either a
general preference or a
preference for a particular
occasion (e.g. "d #refer (to
have) a glass of wine now!
"b. Qd not 3 infinitive without to
e4presses the fact that you
would prefer not to do
something which has been
suggested
#.would rather 3 (you etc.! 3
past tense suggests that you
could be happier if someone did
or didn/t o something.
Notice the 9unreal: present is
e4pressed by a 9past: form of
the verbs stayed, didn"t see
15. ,ords t#at cause
difficulties
1+.2 do and ma;e
1+.2.1 'eanin& of do and ma;e
.ave$ ma,e and do . 1hat are you doingH
I/m doing a pu%%le.
"a. I/m ma,ing a ca,e.
-his firm ma,es -M sets.
"b. -he car journey made him
sic,.
"c. -hey made him wor, very
hard.
. do can mean 9perform an
action in general: and 9solve or
put together:
". ma,e can mean
a. 9create: or 9construct:
b. 9cause to happen:
c. 9force:
1+.1 have
1+.1.1 (hree basic uses of have
. She has bought a new car.
.e said he had seen the
film.
". I have (got! to be ready at
6.#;.
Cou don/t have to (haven/t
got to! do it if you don/t want
to.
@o I have to (.ave I got to!
goH
#. -hey/re having the house
redecorated.
@id he have his hair cut
yesterdayH
I didn/t have the curtains
made. I mad them myself.
4. I/ve got a headache.
.ave you got a big familyH
I haven/t got any brothers or
sisters.
.ave can be used
as an au4iliary verb
". to e4press what is or isn/t
necessary. Notice have got to
can be used to e4press the
same idea as have to.
#. to e4press the idea of
arranging for or paying
somebody to do something for
you. Botice the object of the
sentence comes between have
and the past participle.
4. with got to e4press a
condition or state (less
common in the 9past: tense
and often suggesting the idea
of 9possession:!. Notice have
got is now more common n
statements than than the rather
formal have four brothers,
but ?uestion forms and
negatives with do and have are
commonly used (e.g. &o you
have a big family' don"t have
any brothers or sisters!
1+.2.2 Other e2pressions usin&
do and ma;e
@J 7<IE
* a course
* a favour
* homewor,
* military
service
* something0
nothing0
anything
* .istory$
7aths$
Science (as
subjects!
* wor, or jobs
in general (the
cleaning0
gardening
etc.!
* rrangements
an attempt
-he beds
< decision
<n effort
<n e4cuse
=ove
< mista,e
7oney
< noise
<n offer
< phone call
< profit
< speech
< suggestion
trouble
Botice there are meny phrasal verbs with do and ma,e
1+.1.2 Other e2pressions usin&
have
. I/ll have the chic,en0some
tea$ please.
". .e/s having a shower0
bath0 test.
#. 'he$s &ust had a little girl.
4. She had an enormous hat
on.
&. (e$ve had a marvelous
holiday.
1e didn$t have any trouble
with the car.
6. )ave a tryL
@id they have a ?uarrelH
.ave in these e4amples means
9eat: or 9drin,:
". 9taste:
#. 9give birth to:
4. 9wear:
&. 9e4perience:
6. In these e4amples and others
li,e them$ have means the
same as the word it is used
with (e.g. try$ ?uarrel!
1+.1.3 had better
Cou had better decide ?uic,ly.
Cou/d better not have any
more to drin,L
(ad better is used to give
strong advice (A ought!