Petrology, Stratigraphy, and Origin of The Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut (1950)

STATE OF CONNECTICUT ,
State Geological ar:d Natural I-Ii story Survey

Bulletin No. 73
PETROLOGY, STRATIGRAPHY,
AND ORIGIN
OF THE
TRIASSIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
OF CONNECTICUT
By
Paul D. I\:rynine, Ph. D.
Professor of Petrology and Sedimentation
The Pennsylvania State College
HARTFORD
Published by the State
1950
/ 1
&tate of Q}nuuecticut
STATE GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL
HISTORY SURVEY
Edward L. Troxell, Ph. D. , Director
Bulletin No. 73
HARTFORD
Printccl for the State Geologi cal and N atuml Hi stoty Survey
MAY. 1950
Stnh Geologi cnl and Natural Hi stoty Survey
of Connecticut

Ho);" . C uESTEn .-\. Bowu:s, Oove1'1101' of Connecticut
Dr:. CnEsn:n R. L oNGWELL, PPofessor of Geology,
r ale u niversi fy
Dn. At:THCI: H. H uGJ-ms, Dean of Tri nity College
JoE \\. PF.orr.Es, P1ofessm of Geology , ll"esleyan U11ive1'sity
Dn. Ht CHAHD H. Goonw1x, Professo?' of Botany,
(' onnecticut College
Dn. JoHN n. L UC](E, Professor of Geology,
Unil ersit y of Connecticut
DIRECTOR
Enw_-\nD L. TtWXELr., PH. D.
Trinity College, Hartford
AND EXCHANGE AGENT
James Brewster, Librarian
State Library, Hartford
Publication npprond by the Board of Finance and Control
Printed under authority of Sections 200 and 247 of the General Stat-
utes of Connecticut, Revision of 1949.
HA S. THATCHER
State Comptroller.
PETROLOGY, STRATIGRAPHY,
AND ORIGIN
OF THE
TRIASSIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
OF CONNECTICUT
By
Paul D. Krynine, Ph. D.
P1ojesso1' of Pet1'ology and S edimentation
Tlw Pennsylvania S tat e College
(A Dissertation presented in 1936 to the Faculty of the Graduate
School of Yale University in partial fulfillment , of the requiremfmts
for the degrre of Doctor of Philosophy)
HARTFORD
Printed for the State Geological and Natural Hi story Survey
MAY, 1950
Printed By
T. F . Rady & Co.
Rockville, Conn.
Abstract
Need for present stud y
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I
I NTRODUCTION
Page
5
7
Scope of work, and acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Geography, climate, and drainage . ..... : . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Previous work rlone on the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll
Statement of the problem
Method of work
Chapter II
MI NERALOGY
The mam rock-forming minerals
15
16
19
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Feldspar and its weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Mi cas .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Clay minerals: kaolin, gibbsite, and hematitic clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Calcite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Mineral aggregates and rock fragments . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The accessory heavy miner:d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Detrital minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Apatite, augite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chl01ite, epidote, fluorite, garnet, hornbl ende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Jndi colite, kyani te. monazite, rutil e, si ll iman ite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Staurolite, titanite, tourmaline, xenotime, zircon, zoisite ...... 23-25
Iron ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Magnetite, ilmenite, leucoxene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Hematite, limonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
P yrite, siderite, ankerite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Authigenic minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Anatase, barite, dolomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Overall mineral composition of the Newark sen es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1a
Chapter II I
STRATIGRAPHY
I n tr od uct ion
History of
Difficul ties
the probl em 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o
of the probl em 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gweral strat igraphi c secti on 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tenninol ogy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 o o 0 o o o 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 o . o
Facies 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mineral zones 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o o o 0 o 0
Thi ckness 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 o 0 o
New Haven ~ o k o s e
General f eat ures
Distributi on 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 o o o 0 o 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Thi ckness 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Correl ati on
Character
Mineral hor izons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Southern Connecti cut facies 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lower member 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Upper member 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Central Connecticut facies 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lowe r member
Upper member
Meriden f ormat ion
General features
Distributi on and thi ckness 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Character 0 0 0. 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0
Ori gin . 0. 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0. 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
Central Connecti cut facies 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lower di vision 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Upper di vi sion 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Southern Connecticut facies .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lower di vision
Lower di vision, uppermost a rkoses and tuffs ( ?) 0 . 0 0 0 0.
Upper di vision ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
P ortl and a rkose . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
General f eat ures . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Distribution 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Th ickness . . 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 o. 0 0 0 .
Character 0 . 0 0 . o o 0 0 0 0 0 0
lVIineral horizons . . .. . . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4b
Page
29
29
29
30
30
31
35
37
37
37
37
38
39
39
41
43
43
47
49
49
54
57
57
57
58
59
60
60
62
63
63
65
6S
69
69
69
69
69
69
Chapter IV
PETROGRAPHY
Page
Normal sedimentary facies, central Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Great Fault fanglomerati c facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
l{egional petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7l
General character of the Triassi c rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7l
Distribution of lithologic t ypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Basic make-up and t: nd members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Definition of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Grade-size distributi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Angularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Maj or constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Detrital minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 83
Chemical mineral s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Accessory minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Amounts present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Mineral suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Detrital non-opaque mineral s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Authigenic non-opaque heavy minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Coarse clastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fanglomerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
General features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Color, structure, and texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
The East Portland outcrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Conglomerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Medium-grained clastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Arkoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Color, structure, and texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Composition .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Feldspathi c sandstones and Redstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Redstone type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Other red sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
\Vhite and gray sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Dark-colored sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4c
Page
Fine-grained cl astics . ..... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOS
Siltstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOS
Shales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Calcareous rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ...... .. . 106
Limestone at Northford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
General features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOG
Limestone layers with al gae (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Limestone at Shutt le Meadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . llO
General features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . llO
Microscopic study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lll
Petrography of the pyroclastic and contact rocks at Reed Gap . . . . ll2
Location and section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll2
Normal dolerite and basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll2
Tuffaceous (?) layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll3
Gray arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
No rmal red arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . llS
Chapter V
STRUCTURE
General features and historical review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll7
F'rimary structure of the Triassic basin of deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . ll7
Post-depositi onal deformation 121
Chapter VI
CLIMATE OF THE NEWARK EPOCH
General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Definition of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Histor y of the probl em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
Semi-aridit y vs. humidit v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Sununary of the sedimentary record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Climatic criteria and their value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Geneti c significance of arkose deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Conditions under which arkose deposits can form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Factors controlling the formati on of arkose deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Rate of chemi cal decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Rate of erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Factors retarding erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Factors favorin g erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Horizontal vs. verti cal erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4d
Topographi c control and seasonal rainfall as the real factors in
arkose formati on . ... . . .. .. ... .. . .. . ... .... ... .. . . .... .
Practi cal applicati ons ..... ..... . ...... . . ... .. .... . ..... . .. .
Geneti c signifi cance of continental red beds . .. ..... . .. ... ... .. .
Ori gin of the red color . .. ... .. . . .... . .. . . . ...... . ... . . . .. .
Climatic signifi cance of red soils ...... . .. ... .. . . .. .. .... . .. .
Depositi on of red beds . . ... . ... . .. . ........... .. ......... .
The tropical piedmont- typi cal site of depositi on for non-arid red
beds . . .... . .. . .......... .... ... .. .. ........ . . .. .. .. .
fnt erpretati on of the Tr iassic sediments . . . ... . . . . ...... ... .... .
Fanglomerates ... . .... .. ...... .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . . .
Arkoses and sandstones; significance of differential mineral
weathering . . .. . ..... .. .... .. .. . ... . ... . .... . ......... .
Hed beds . ........ ... ..... . .. ..... ..... .. . . .. . .. .. .. . ... .
Dark shales and limestones .. ... . .. ... . ... . .. .. .. .... .. .. . .
Climati c signifi cance of desiccati on marks . .. .... .. .. .. . . . .. . .
Climatic significance of soluble salts ........... .. ... ... . . . . .
Possibl e climati c signifi cance of the lava fl ows ... .... . .. ..... .
Evidence of glacial acti on . . ... . ... . ....... . ... . . . ... ...... .
Evidence of eolian action . .. .... .. .. . ........ . ... ... . ..... .
Triassic faun a .... . . . . . . .. ........ . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . ... . . ... .
Character . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . ..... . ...... ..... . . . .. .... . .. . .
Signifi cance
Triassic fl ora
Descripti on . .. .. .. .. ... .... . ........ . ........ . .. . .. ... .
Climatic signifi cance .. . . . ... . ... .. .. . ... .... . .... . .. . .. .
General character of the fossil record . ... ... . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . .
Probabl e cl imate of the Newark epoch ... ....... .... .... . .. .. .
Introducti on
Chapter VII
SEDIMENTATION AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY
Page
141
141
143
143
145
150
153
154
154
157
158
160
162
164
169
170
170
170
170
173
176
176
178
179
180
183
1VIodern analogies for the Triass ic basin of Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . 183
Difficulti es of compari son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
The Great Va ll ey of Californi a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Owens Vall ey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Partial analogy onl y between the Ca liforni a and the
Triassic basin cf Connecti cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
, sedimentary processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
S ource area and drainage pattern
Helati ons of the different Triassic basins
4e
192
194
Page
Probable Newark paleogeography of eastern orth America . . . . . . 195
Environment and landscape of the Newark epoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Bibliography 197
LIST OF TABLES
Tabl e 1 Correlation of the clas5ifications of Davis and Krynine 31
32
34
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
2 General stratigraphi c section of the Triassic . ... .... . .
3 Lithology of the Triassic rocks .... .... ..... ... ... . . .
4A Textural analysis of a sui te of typical Triassic rocks from
Connecti cut ........ ..... ... . . .. . . .... . . . ......... .
4B Petrographi c anal ysis of a suite of typical Triassic rocks
from Connecticut ... . .... . . . . . . .. . . .. .......... ... .
4C Heavy minerals from the Connecticut Triassi c ...... . .
5 Zoning of the Triassic into heavy mineral horizons
6 Average frequencies of significant minerals in the New
Haven and lower Meriden beds .. ....... .. ..... . .. .
7 Pebble composition at Roaring Brook . ... . . ..... ... . .
8 Comparative anal ysis of Redstone and Lamentation arkose
9 Proximal correlation between Redstone and Lamentation
arkose
10 Long-range correlation between Redstone and Lamentation
arkose ... .. .. . ... .. . ...... . . . .. . . . ... . .
ll Lithology of Triassic rocks according to petrographic
types .. . .. ...... .. .. . .. ... . .. .... .. ..... .. . ..... .
12 Detailed gross lithology according to petrographi c types
13 Basic make-up of Triassic rock types . .. . .. . . ... . ... .
14 Comparative rounding of Triassic fluvial and lacustrine
sediments . ..... ..... . . . ........... . .... .. ....... .
15 Mineral compositi on of the Triassic rock types . . .. . . . .
16 Compositi on of graniti c (arkosic) detritus . . . ...... .. .
17 Distribution of chemi cal and authigenic mineral s .. . . . .
18 Distributi on of heavy mineral s according to sizes .... . .
19 Ratios between mi cas, non- ores and non-opaque heavy
33
38
38
40
42
51
55
55
55
72
73
76
83
85
87
87
89
mineral s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
20 Composition of some members o-F the New Haven arkose 101
21 Mineral composition of the sandy fractions of the lime-
stone at Northford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4
Page
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures
Fi gure 1 Index map of East Coast Triassic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Index map of Connecti cut and Massachusetts Triassic . . 10
"
3 Overall mineral composition of the Connecticut Triassic 27
"
4 Sections through fluvial , lacustrine, and swamp Triassic
e p o s i ~ s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
"
5 Changes of facies between southern and central Connecticut 35
"
6 Heavy mineral zones of the Triassic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
"
7 Distributi on of the typical localities anal yzed in Table 4, 37
"
0
0 Geographic and strati graphi c distribution of conglomerates 38
"
9 Geographi c and stratigraphic distribution of siltstones and
shal es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
"
10 Strati graphi c secti on of New Haven arkose in southern
Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
"
ll Fluctuations in coarseness in the New Haven beds . . . . . . 45
"
12 Channel deposits on Dixwell Avenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
"
13 Proximal relati onships between Lamentation arkose and
Redstone in central Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
"
14 Long-range heavy-mineral correlation between Lamenta-
tion and Redstone facies at the same stratigraphi c horizon 56
"
15 Strati graphi c section of pyroclastic and contact rocks at
Reed Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
"
16 Distributi on of principal Triassi c rock types . . . . . . . . . . 72
"
17 Distribution of red beds vs. non-red lithological t ypes . . 72
"
18 Summary of Triassic textural data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
"
19 Average overall composition of the main T1:iassic rock
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
"
20 Average textural hi stograms of principal lithol ogic t ypes 77
"
21 Cumulative grade-size curves of principal lithol ogic t ypes 78
"
22 Relati on between median diameter and sorting coeffi cient
in the principal rock t ypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
"
23 Comparative rounding of quartz and feldspar . . . . . . . . . . 82
"
2:1. Average compositi on of the arkosic (granitic) detritus . . 84
"
25 Total average mineral compositi on of the maj or Triassic
rock types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
"
26 Mechanical analyses of li ght and heavy minerals shown in
hi stogra1ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
"
27 Cumulative grade-size curves of t ypical li ght and heavy
fracti ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
"
28 Li ght vs. heavy fractions in the New Haven arkose . .... .
91
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Pl ate
I.
29
30
31
32
33
34.
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Page
Li ght vs. heavy fractions in the Portland arkose . . . . . . . . 92
Li ght vs. heavy fractions in the Redstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Ratios between micas, iron-ores, and non-opaque rare
heavy mineral s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Histogram of four typical Triassic arkoses . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Devel opment of the structure of the Triassic basin of Con
necti cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Lateral vs. vertical erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Sedimentati on on a tropical piedmont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Differences between red-bed formati on in California (re-
cent) and in Connecticut (Triassic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Double locus of chemical weathering and concentration
of erosion at canyon bottoms in the Great Fault scarp re-
gion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 188
Loose:1 ing of Newark detritus from the Great Fault scarp
region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Relative proportions of graniti c and clayey detritus under
steep topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Unsorted and mixed detritus forming the Redstone . . . . . . 190
Sorted and unmi xed det ritus forming pale chan nel arkoses
and red siltstones or shales on the flood plain . . . . . . . . 190
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plates
A Heavy mineral s, .basal New Haven arkose, X 47.
B Heavy mineral s, basal Meriden formation, X 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
II.
A
B
c
Ila.
A
B
c
D
Ill.
Subrounded zi rcon, X 267.
Twinned purple rutile, X 220.
Zoned zircon and striated rutil e, X 200 .- .. . .. . . ...... .. .. . .
Pitted p ink garnet, X 47.
Broken (corroded? ) garnet, X 145.
Broken zoned zircon, X 200.
" Potato shaped' ' zircon, X 121 . .... . ... ..... . . . ..... . .. .
A Stauroli te, basal New Haven arkose, X 215.
208
209
B Titanite, basal Meriden, X 152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21()
4h
IV.
Y.
A
B
Indicolite, augite, zoned zucon, X 146.
Indicolite 3nd brown tourmaline, X 140
A Barite, authigenic pore filling, X 52.
Page
211
B Well rounded muscovite and authi genic barite, X 52 . . . . . . . . 212
VI.
A Fractured and calcite-filled basal New Haven .arkose at Roaring
Brook, X 25.
B As above, crossed nicols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
VII.
A Sericitized New Haven arkose, below \Vest Rock sill contact,
X 32.
B Redstone from type loca lity, X 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
VIIJ.
A Lower New Haven arkose, X 23.
B As above, crossed nicols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
JX.
A White feldspathic s:mdstone, upper lVIeriden beds, X 46.
B As above, crossed ni cols, X 60 (see pg. 216) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
X.
XI.
XII.
A
B
XIII.
Sandstone dike, cutting trap sill , upper New Haven beds, Foxon
road, X 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Sandstone dike as Plate X, crossed ni cols
Mi crobanded lacustrine silty shale, Meriden beds, X 41jz.
Microscopi c cut-and-fill stratification, in dolomitic limestone,
Meriden beds, X 71jz .. . ....... .. .. ... . ... .......... .
218
219
A :Meriden limestone, Shuttle Meadow, natural and etched.
B Same, but from Northford quarry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
XIV.
A
B
XV.
A
B
Algal (?) spores from Northford limestone, X 25.
Oval organic ( ?) bodies, Northford limestone, X 25
Trap, 5 feet above Reed Gap contact, X 17.
Trap, 1J2 foot above contact, X 15 ........... ... . ........ .
4i
221
222
XVI.
A
B
XVII.
Lower tuff (?) 16 feet below main lava, Reed Gap, X 45.
As above, crossed nicols . ..... . . . ............. . ........ .
A Red arkose, 21 feet below main lava, Reed Gap, X 45.
Page
223
B Bleached arkose, 4 feet below main lava, Reed Gap, X 45 . . 224
XVIII.
A
B
XIX.
A
B
XX.
Bleached arkose as XVII-B, but crossed nicols.
Calcareous concretions in red si ltstone, Reed Gap, X 36 .. .. . .
Detrital iron concretion, Portland, X 18.
Fanglomerate from Lake Quonnipaug, X 5V
2
A Field exposure, lower New Haven arkose, Hamden.
225
226
B Field exposure of basal Triassic contact at Roaring Brook 227
XXI.
A Alternation between Lamentation and Redstone facies.
B Typical Lamentation arkose and conglomerate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
XXII.
A Intraformational unconformity between Redstone and Lamen-
tation a r k o ~ e
B Type locality of Portland arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
XXIII.
A Lower Meriden lacustrine red beds, Hubbard Park.
B Upper Meriden dark swamp beds, Kensington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
XXIV.
A Fanglomerate interbedded with dark siltstone, Lake Quonnipaug.
B Slickensiding and calcite-barite mineralization, Hanover Pond 229
XXV.
A Fanglomerate outcrop at East Portland.
B Piece of fanglomerate, Lake Quonnipaug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
XXVI.
A Coarse arkose and conglomerate lens of upper New Haven, age.
B Contact between trap dike and above sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
XXVII.
A Erosion and alluvial-cone formation within tropical foothills 232
4j
XXVIII.
A Sedimentation on a tropical piedmont savanna ; dried-up n ver
bed.
B Detail of interlayering of pale arkoses and red silts from above
Page
locality . ... ..... . ... .. . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
XXIX.
A Differential weathering of microcl ine, upper New Haven (Fair
Haven arkose, X 12.
B As above, crossed nicols.
C Arkose, high in schi st fragments, Shepard Avenue, X 13.
D Red siltstone, interlayered with (C) , X 29.
E Detrital hematiti c concretion from (C) , X 16.
F Detrital iron concretion and garnet from Portland brownstone,
X 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....... ... .. 234
MAPS
Geologic map of the Triassic rocks of southern Connecticut
In Pocket
4k
I .
ABSTRACT
The present report rlrscribes the southern part of the Triassic nren
of the Connecti cut Valley and the whole of the Pomperaug area.
The Connecticut Valley area is bordered on the cast hy a north-
sonth trending major fault. the "Great Fanlt". downthrown on the
western side nncl with a di splacement of from 17,000 to 35,000 feet.
The P ompern.ug basin is a dmn1fn.nltecl outlier di sposed thirteen mile3
"est of the main area. Triac::s ic section dips 10o to 15 east and is
broken up into nnmerons fault-blocks.
The Triassic sediments form a weclge-sha peel secl i mentary prism
built up of ancient conlescinp: alluvial fans which radiate
from the Great Fault. The thickness of the section near the GrQal:
Fault reaches 1G,OOO f eet; in the Pompern.ug a rea, 32 miles to the west.
it decreases to less than 1,500 feet.
The Triassic section can be divided into three formations :
l. A lower unit. the New Haven arkose, np to 8.!500 feet thi ck, a
relatively coarse fluvial sediment.. consisting of gray and pink arkoses.
conglomerates. red felclspathic sa nrl stones and subordinate red silt
stones and shales.
2. A miclclle nnit. the J\ferirlen for mation, 11p to 2.SOO feet thi ck, a
fine-p:rainerl seri es of lacustrine and swamp deposits consisting of var -
irgn.ted or clark-colored siltstones. shal es. limestones, light f eldspathic
sandstones, snbonlinate coarsrr ela!=:t.i<"s, and three basalti c laYa flows.
An npper unit .. the Portland arkose, up to 4,000 f eet thick, a
fltt, ial cleposit si tnilar to the New Haven arkose.
The rclati, e frequencit>s of nindeen non-opaque heavy mineral s
makn it possibl e to clivide these thnp formations into seven additional
m i ncral zones. Heel heel s form 52 per cent of the seet.ion. Lithol{l-
g:ically the ,:;ecti on contains 10 pr r cent of conglomerates, C\4 pee cent
of sandstones ancl arkoses ancl 2fl per cent of siltstones ancl shal es.
Neat the Gr eat Fault the normal sediments pass into f(tnglomerates
at all horizons.
Pf'trog raphi c:illy. the Triassic rocks consist of a mixture of three
end members:
1. An arkosic (graniti c) cl et ritns made of approximately 58 per
cent qnartz, 40 per cent feld s par (:31 per cent mi crodine, 9 per crnt
soclic-plagioclase) and 2 per cent mi ca.
2. A mixtnre of white and hematiti c clay consisting of approx-
imately 60 per cent knolin. (i per cent gibbsite, 12 per cent sericite-il-
lite and 2.0 per cent hematite.
3. A cal cite cement.
6 Connecticut Geological and Natural Hi story Survey fBull.
These three end members cnn mix in nil proportions to -form the
following rock types : pall> arkosrs (grny to pnrpli sh grny or pnl e pink,
r a rely dark grny) . red a rkoses, brick-reel clnyey feldspnt J1 ic s:mrl st ones
or "Reclstone", white non-clnyey f elcl spathi e sandstones, red siltstones,
r ed shnl es, hlnck shnJes nnd sandy limestones.
Two main groups of alluvial fans exi st: A cr ntrnl Comwrti cnt
gronp charadl'riwd hy indicolite, the scarcity of epiclote nml a rela-
ti ,-ely fine gro;;s lithology; and a sont lwm Connectinrt gron p chn ra <: -
tl' rizrd by the nbsrnce of inCiicolitr. almndnncr of r piclotr nncl a
relative!)' coa rse gross lithology. Tlw. absence of lateral minrral enn-
1nrnination behwen these hYo fan groups snggests a persistent drain
age on a westward slope. The drainage was cli sttrrbed onl)' li llr ing
Meriden time when a st rnctmal "arping of the snrface lNl to tlw fm-
mat ion of hnge S\Yamps. Almost all the clrtritns wrr s
c1 r rivecl}rom a sonrcc arrn extr ncling 3 to 10 miles enst of the strrp bnt
moderately high Great Fault scarp, whi ch was recurrentl y rejnvennted
d; rring: Triassic time.
A criti cnl evaluati on of the g-rnrti c signifi cn ncr of rlirnnti c cri-
t eria precede'S the palroclimnti r and pnlcog:eogrnphic intr rpretntions.
Thick beds of reel clay dt>rincl from a area brlong-
ing to the same climati c province ns the basin of clPposition (as in
the Triass ic of Comwct icnt). h 11ge S\Y:l m p beds and the eha racier of
the flora suggpst n !wavy precipitation and a high t rmp0rntnrr.
Fresh, nor1-\Yeathered arkose deposits nncl even fanglonwrntes clo not
cLf' ]WOYe thi s. for they arc known t o fMm Pven in the ecpmtorial rain-
f orest if a stee p topography favors violent erosion. A mixing o-f
i'resh ancl deeply clrrayNl n1nt erial is c- harnderi stic of se<lilllentation
nnder n hllmid tropical climnte in reg ions of st ePp topography.
torrents cut deeply inci sr d cnnynns ncross the lateritic coYer t o eroclr
fresh bedrock.
Desiccation marks. cn:;t.s of soluble salts. abnnclnncc of fossi l
tracks aml scnrcitv of skeletn l rr mains i mli ente a marked clrv sPnson
and also n high temperatnre bnt are nevr rtlwl t>ss compntiblr (even
hnlit e crystal s) '"ith a. high prrcipitntion dnring the miny season.
In conclusion it is suggested that the Triassic beds of ConnPcti cut
wore cl epositeclnnder a savanna climate. i. e .. a tropical hllmicl climate
charaeterize<l by a high a.ncl constant t ernperat ure nronnd
80 F.) and a hea,y precipitati on (abo,c :">0 inches) seasonably cli stri -
butccl, with a marked <l ry seasoll of possibl y three months' duration
or more.
No. 73_l Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut . 7
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL REVIEW
The arkof;p,.; and nd lwd,.; of Pa>'t<'l'll :-;,,rth .:\nlPrica r c-
onP nf thP most <xttn;.; in nnits of contirwnt al spr]inwntntion
known to _!!eology .
. \lthon!!h th<' ConnNticnt. Yalky arpa of thP Trin s,.; ie twrhaps wa s
stncli<'<l in rilOr<' cl<t:til than anv otlH;r Triassi< basin. ,.;t ill tht> PYidenee
n,nilnhl<' nntil the JH'C' SPnt tir;w \Yas hasNl on fit>ld " ork aud nwgn -
scopic in,.;pC'dion ratlwr than on cldail<'<l twtrogTaphi <" cxarnination.
Lark of pr<'ti s< petrograph ie kno'" lcdJ.rc' of t h<' ;.;<' i ntt> r<'f;ti 11!2' se<l i nwnts
hns perforce made of thC' earlil' r intcrprl'tations t entatin' .
. \.. fnrtlwr ob,.;tn.ciC' t.o a propPr nndpr,.;htn<ling of t he twcnliar sNli-
nr C'nta ry procPS'i\'c' of tlw p<riod \\'a,.; tlH lnck of kno\\lr dgp of
sNlilnPntnry and gPOlllorphil' procp;.;s\' .;; ont;.;icl P of tlw lwlt.
:\fost. of thP annlogi<;.; bronght f orth to explain
Trins;.;ic sc-d iiiH'!ltat.ion \\'C' I'O lnrgcly l>a,.;pc] on c: xamplC's loeatPfl within
tlw contirHntal rnitP<l Stat<s. ,.; nch as tlH' GrPat VnllPv of Califomi n
nr t hP ,.; ollthPastcJ'Il .\ppal achian ngion. Tn tiH' light stll!li(' s
of proCPSS<'S taking pine< in tlw Tropical Belt. until now
but litt!P kno\\'n to geologi,.;ts. a rl' stncly of tlw r<'cl arkoses of thC' Tri-
assic thro11gh tlll' applicntion of dl'l"ail<<l petrographic metl10cls ap-
peared to !)(' desi ra bl C' .
Sc-OPE OF " r OJ:K .\ Sil
The Jll 'C'SPnt impstigation wa,.; IH'!.!.'Itn in tlw fall of 1931 aml con1-
plC'tC'd in the \\'intPI' of 1 !1;) :) . Mo,.;t of tiH fidel \\'Ork \Ya s clorw in 1!1.3+.
part s in 10:10 a11<l 1 !1:):). TlH lahoraton \\'Ork \\'a s carriP<i on (llll ing
the acaflC'nJic of l!lii:L Jfl:lf an(l part of 1!):1:1. Dnring that per-
iocl thP \\Til<'!' \\'Oi'kNl l!fl (lPI' tlH ""l'l' t'\i,.;ion of P1nf<',.;,.;or Adolph
Knopf and thi ,.; opport.nnit.\' i,.; tnkl'n to PXJWPss tltP (l<'<'P !!r.atitnfk
whifh tlw \nitPr f<e ls for tlH tmfa il i ng interest ta k<n hv Profpssor
Knopf in thi s work. Tn acldition. thP wi slws to thank Profes-
sor Knopf for a thorough incnkation of the tnethmls of scientifi c l'P-
s<nr<h.
The \nit<'r is al,;o grC'atly inrlPht Hl to Pmfpssor C'. H. Long,wll
J'or lti s SYillpathPtic stqwn i,.;ion and for tlt< grPnt. nmonnt of timr and
f' ffor-t-. "< Yhidl lw :-; ppnt in hi s gui(lan<"<' of the \\Titer's work.
To Professors C. 0. JJnnlJnr. H. F. Flint.\\". E. Ford and t o Doc-
tor -:\1. 11 . Thorpe t he \\Tit er '"i,.;Jt p,.; to l'XprP,.;s thanks for theit' _kind
[uggesti on,.; , ltC'lpftil criti ci,.;nt nn<l the g<'ncral assistance whi ch they
8 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
nr.Yer beQmcb:ed him. The writer al so wants to thank Professors A.
?IL Huntington, R. S. Lull. C. H. \ Vanen
Doctor G. R. "
7
iel-and for many favors r eceived during the cours!". of
the prP"ent investigation.
Financial assistance received from Yale Universitv in the form of
two Dana f ellennhips greatly helped in bringing thi s to conlple-
tion. Finally, the writer wi slws to thank Mr. P ercy Morris of the
P eabody Museum 5taf for helping with the photographic work.
Throughout tlw inf'nbati on and typing periods of the mnnuseript
the ''Titer was helped and inspired at every turn by his wife. Josephine
Doyle Krynine.
During a later revisien and preparation of the manuseript for
publi cation, in 1945, considerable assistance was receiYed from Mrs. R.
0. Hotton and ?lfrs. V. S. vYestlake.
It would not be proper f or the writer not to mention t he cleep in-
fhJ encr of the late Professor J osrph Barrell upon thi s presr nt " ork.
Indeed. any student of continental sedimentation must be strongly im-
pressed by the pioneering work of Barrell.
Barrell introduced or der and sensible syst em into the study of
continental sedimentation. H r showed how to r eplace hasty general-
izations by critical analysis and the presentation of pertinent proof
based on a uthenticated fact s. To get all that can be gotten out of
Barrell is not easy, for many of hi s most significant statements are
ext remely concise. No wonder that Barrell has bren mi sinterpreted.
di scussion of the effect of topography on sedimentati on, specifi-
ca ll y r estrict ed to mature topog raphy. has been misappli ed to cover
all phase:;; of the geomorphi c f'ycle. Hi s concept of seasonal precipi-
tati on has been transformed into a dogma for limited rainfall. His
brilliant expositi on of a cherni cally non-reducing environment on a
slope of deposi tion has remained bmi ed and but little known in the
depths of hi s paper on the Mauch Chunk shale.
It is the writer's t hat in hi s attempt to solve the problem oi
the Triassic of Connecticut, he has bern able t o follow faithfnlly in
Barrell 's foot st eps and employ the methods nsecl by him: a critical
dissection of a problem into its component elements; a careful stucl y of
aU the data and especially of such parts ns appear to be conflicting: a
very criti cal r eview of environments whid1 conlcl have had>ored the
process r esponsible f or a given sPdirnentary feature; and finally. a
present ation of conclusions on the basis of t he available authentic facts
even if such conclusions are at Yariance with previously accepted
tl'leori es.
GEOGRAPHY, ToroGRAPHL Dn.\IKAGE A:"D C LHL\TE
The Triassic basin of the C'onnrcticut Ynlley is a member of a
series of essentially s imila.r basins di stributed along the Atlantic coast
No. 73] Tri assic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 9
of Nor th Ameri ca from Xova Scoti a to Routh Carolina (Fig. 1). T h l ~
t otal length of tlw Triassic belt reaches L200 miles; its maximum
widt h (in Xorth Carolina) approaches 100 miles. There is a striking
resemblance' behn' en the different arr as in respect to li thol ogy and
st ructure.
5KETCH 0F ThiA5.SIC R ~
0!' EASTERN N0RTH AMERICA
F igure 1. Index map of the T ri assic belt of eas t ern North Amer ica (after
I. C. .Russell a nd]. K. Robert s) .
Thr area covered by Triassic sediments in the Connecticut V :Liley
l.-..: tcuds from :Kew Haven Harbor almost to the boundar y line bet ween
Massachusetts and Vermont (Fig. 2). A minor Triassic basin
the P0111 peraug basin, is di sposed 12 miles west of the main Triassic
area. Tlte Connecticut Valley area is 108 miles long and from 3 to
22 111iles in "iclth, lG t o 18 miles being t he average. The di stance
het ,,cen the western boundary of the P ompemug basin and the east-
ern boundary of the main area is 32 miles. The surf ace of the Con-
necticut Vailey area is estimated at 1,311 square Iniles, that of the
J ' omper aug area at lcl: square miles.
The Connecti cut Valley forms a long topographi c depression run-
Jl ing north and south and bordered on both sides by highlands
tno\\"n alll l lllp: Connecticut geologist s as the Eastern and \Vestern
Hi g hlands. The region of the valley lowland is underlain by weak
lO Connecti cut Geological and Natural History Survey
-------
u
u;
"' 0

......
LEGEND
Arkose and Siltstone
@
Granby Tuff

L::::d
Basal ti c Lava
1!11
Dolerite Intrusions

Crystallines
_ ___:.15 Miles
!Bull.
Figure 2. Geol ogic index ma p or th e Triassic area in Conn. and Mass.
( Modifi ed after C. R. Longwell )
No. 73] Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 11
Triass ic sediments, the t"o highlands are formed by more resistant
cryst alline igncons and tuetamorphi c rocks. Resistant ridges of trap
rock ri se bolcllv several hundrell f eet from the fioor of the Yallev.
Tl w is thi ckl y settl ed. roads are abnndant :uul out r- r ops f ni rly
lllilltcrott s ancl easil v accessible. On account of the weakness of the
Triassic scclinlPnts. most outcrops nrc extremely poor. small in extent
:1ml badly weathcncl. Good nnd frr sh exposures ra n be obtained best.
front but the latter. unfortunat ely. nrc located within n limi -
t ncl strati g raphi c ranpy. Kew r oad cut s. if ,isit ecl shortl y after their
tonstrudi on, provicl e excellent exposures, but they clo not stay unwea-
t hered for l ong.
Tho. <lifferl!llt lithologi c memlwrs of the Triassic section nre un -
equa.l in thl ir rtsistance t o er osion: sili ceous siltst ones are most resis-
tant and fonn Jllinor ridges ; arlwse:- are next; aml cla yey sandst ones
and shall'S arc weakest nncl prO\idt no topographi c exprQssion what-
e,er.
'J'IH Connecti cut River chains the northern aml centml parts of
the nlln. to the lat itude of l\fid<lletmvn. where it lca\'es the valleY
through ;l 11a tTow gorge \:a rnd from rocks of the East ern Hi ghland.
The southern porti on of t he is drainc<l by sc, eral small streams,
the Quinnipiac Ri n r being the lllost important.
The dimatc of the r egion is humid t etllper ate. In the sout hern
part, at Xe\\' Hasen, the ntcan annual t emperature is 49.9F. (29.2 F.
in Januar v. 7l. !J F. in Jnlv ) nn<l the rainfall averages 43.77 inches
]Wr year. ri n ifot tnly Lli stribtited. In the northern port'i.on. at Amher!!lt.
the nt ean annual tentpcrature is -J6.8F. (23.8F . in Jannary, 7l.O" F .
in July) nml the precipitation a,ernges 44.17 in ches. al so uniformly
distri bntecl.
F or a contplde and detailed af' count of the t opogTaphy, drainage
nml uro:u l relati onships of the regi on. the reader is r eferred t o the
works of DaY is (1898) , Long \Yell (1932) and Flint (19:3 0).
PnEvt ous "'\Vmm: DnxE ON THE Rt :moN
.\. considerable literatnre (oYer 250 titl es) h:1 s heen pnbli;;;hecl on
the Trins,.;ic r ocks of the Connecti cut Valley. In addition, well onr
1,200 pa pers deal ' vit h the Tria!>sic of eastem Nort h Amer iea and
ruany of them bear sont e relati on t o the Tr iassic of Connecticut.
Most of the early papprs are of histori c: tl intPrest onl y. They
have been bri efl y annotatNl in Gregory' s ' Bibliography of Connec-
ti cut geol ogy" (1907) . Practicall y all our present knowledge of the
Connecti cut Valley Triassic been the result of the work of a f ew
ont.sta.n<li Hf! imesti gators : Sil!itnan, P erci,al , Hitchcock, Dana, Rus-
DaYi s and Hobbs in the 19th century; Barrell , Lull , Longwell and
Thorpe in recent years.
12 Connecticut Geological and Natural Hi story Survey
!Bull.
Silliman. The sandstones and traps of the Connrcticnt Valley
\nre first clescribecl by Benjamin Silliman in a series of papers pub-
li shed between 1806 and 1837. Sillirnan recognized the intrusive ori-
p:in of the trap and as early as 1830 empha.'sizecl the importance of
Llrtailed stncl y of the contacts betwetm trap and sandstone. These
principles Jatrr on were used to good advantage by Davis in solving
the structural relati ons of the area.
Pmcival and ..\n ol!tstancling contribution to the ge-
o]c,gy of Connret icnt was made by P ercival (1842). The keenness ancl
accmacy of hi s observations have hardly been surpassed by l ater obser-
vers. E ,cn nm,. P ercintl 's clescriptiom; are the onl y ones
for certain portions of t he State. P erci ,-a] assigned the Connectieut
reel beds to the "srcondary' ' (New Red) sandstone. formed in l ocal
depositional areas and " a ppa rent.ly independent of any more exten-
sive formation " ( p . .J.i\0). He apparentl y uelie,ed that all trap rocks
\Yere dikes. As :1 whole, his approach is clescripti ,.e a.ncl he attempts
but little to interpret the facts which he obsen ed so \Yell. Percival 's
Yrork is one of the g reatest classics of fi el<l geol ogy.
P erciYal's 'York in Connedicnt was <: ont(\mporaneous with Hitch -
cock's studi es in Massachusetts (1 83!5, 18:1:1). Hitchcock was especial-
J:v interest ed in the paleontological asjwds of the problem and in his
' Ichnol ogy of Ne\Y Engla.n<l " ( 18M3) he made t he stncly of f ossil
tracks a full-fledged branch of paleontology.
Dana rmd H;t ssell. The Triassic rocks of southern Connecticut
\\ere studiecl fo r itlmost fifty years (184:!-1892) by J. D. Dana. In
the later part of thi " period I. C. Unssell described the Newark sedi-
ments of New J ersey and synthesi zed the current knmdedge of east-
e-rn North America.
Russell atTiYecl at the condusion (1 878. 1880) that t he rlifferent
Triassic areas were fo rmerl y mnch larger in extent and probably are
the remnants of one single, large depositional area, subsequently di s-
sected (the so-en !led "broac 1 terrane hypothesis," 1892).
Following in the footsteps of Lyell. who. as early as 1842. had
compared the Comwcti cnt Vall ey re(l brds with the sediments of the
Hay of Fnncly. RnssPll (1879) beli end in an estuarine origin of t he
Triass ic f ormatio11. In t he matter of Tria ssic climate. Russell thought
that these r ed becl.s were depos ited i n <L " " arm hmnicl climate" (1892,
pp. 52-:)3 and 1889, p. 4G) from "clebri s of lands that had been l ong
e\posecl to the action of a warm, moi st at mosphere."
Many of Russell 's vi ews were not accepted by Dana. On the basis
of hi s experi ence in sout hern Connecti cut, Dana objected (1879 and
1883) to the broad terrane hypothesis because t he area in question hac!
too prodigious an extent for one single estuary and also because the
fl'Gquent presence of coarse congl omerates near the borders indi cated
indi,iclual basins of deposition. Dana. accepted to some extent the
estuarine theory of origin for the Triassic, but in hi s later papers his
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 13
of the pro(' esses invol v!:'cl a.l most suggest s flu vial.
rather than typicall y est uarine conditions; he said ( 188:3: p. i384-) :
" Triassic deposits . .. in the Connecticut Valley correspond . .. to those
of fiuvial and estuar ine ori g in. " I solated pebbles and cobbles (''up to
ii in('hes in dia.n1et er") in finer sediments were interpret ed by Dana as
good evi dem:e for ice fl oes and the fanglomerates of the eastern border
"ere consirlerNl to he stratifi ed drift. Thi s led Dana to assume a gla-
C" ial elimate for tlw latter pa rt of the Newark epoch.
Dana rathC'r vigor ously charnpionecl t he theory of intrusive origin
of thl' trap. Thi s led him into a prolonged controversy with Davis,
,,ho IIminbined that n1 ost of the trap bodies wer e extrusive (flows )
rnther than intrusive (si lls ).
Dauis aud II obus. A detailed survey of the Triassic rocks of
( 'onnect icut was c: arri erl on for a period of 20 years (1879-1 898 ) by
\ \ ' . Da vi s. In addition to almost a score of progress reports, the
final resulb 'wre presented in 1898 in "The Triassic formation of
Con11 edi cut," 1rhich formeu part of the 18th Annual Report of the
L!. S. (i eological Sun ey. This classic III Onognt,ph has remained until
today the funllalllcnta l work on the Connecticut Triassic.
Davi s prcnw l the extntsive character of most of the trap bodies.
Uf'.'ing the three bt1a flows as key beds, he divided the Triassic strata
into four lila in hori zons. lln fortunately, he r etained Pereival's some-
''"hat unwieldy (anterior , main, post erior trap, etc. ).
Then. '"i th the aid of t lw same la va flows and of two horizons of fos-
s i life{ons bla ck shales, he soh ed the compli cated st rncture of the Con-
necticut Triass ic basin and pro1ecl it to be a monocline, bordered by a
lnrge marginal fault on the east and extensively broken up by block
faulting.
Davis also showed that Triassie sedimentation began on what he
cleseribed as a pre-Triassic peneplane and t hat the processes at work
IH're essentiall y those of normal continental deposition. The broad
t PtTane hypothesis '"as r ej ected ( p. 191) ; "no great original extension
of the f ormation is necessary to the east or west of its present l imits".
Hr>WPH'I', the possibilit y of a small extension of the Triassic beds west-
wards, possibl y as far as the Pomperang basin, was not deni ed.
To aeconnt for the great thi ekness of the Triassic strata (est.i-
lll:ttl'd by hin1 at 01 er 10,000 feet) Davi s suggest ed the continnecl sink-
ing either of a trough produced by clownwarping, or of a block boun-
ded by fa 11lts. He favored down folding rather than a graben, the
Ia tter being t he explnnation ad vancecl by Emerson ( 1898 ).
In the 111atter of clinwte Da1is adopted Russell 's Yi ews (p. 39):
" .. . t he pre1ailing r eel color of the Triassic strata is best explained
as a result of slow and deep weathering in a mild climate". H e deemed
that the conglomerates wer e not of glacial origin.
Connecticut Geol ogical and Natural Hi story Survey
J Bull.
Finall.v Davi s gan a hi story of the post-Tri assic tilting, the Cr r -
ta <' Pons pene planntion nn<l tlw subSl' fJlH"nt elevation and erosion whi ch,
modifi ed by glaeial acti on. produ<' eLl the present topography .
Hobbs publi shed in 1U0l a stnrl ,v of t he Tria!=:s ic r ocks of the Pom-
peraug Yall Pv. Thi s pa per wa s ins pire<] by work. but, deai i ng
with a small area. was rlluch rn ore cl Ptaile<l. In a<ldition to st rati-
graphi c a nd ]Wtrographi c <l Psc riptinns. Hobbs pla rccl parti cnlar em-
phas is on stn!<'tur<'. H e att<> ntpt t> d to shmY that the Pnmpcra11g basin
had been fra ctu re<l into se \ Pra l It nn<lre<l f:urlt bloeks \Y It ich he r ather
ingeniously reeonstrnded. His conclusion \Yas that such an r xtrcme-
ly complicat<<l structure \Ya s to br <'Xplaine<l hrst by assuming a r ec- ur-
rent ( cl onl>I P) e<nnpress in lltonnt ent in an nlmost east-\\est 800 \V)
direction. st ructural intl'l'prdati ons arc op<> n t o some clouht
and h a \ e been questioner!.
B aJ' rr11 and ];ull . Harnll ga n 1nuch att<.nt.ion t o t he r elation be-
tween clinutt e and t eiTPstrial <l e.posi ts ( 1008) . H e a rri ved at t he con
elns ion that the Triass ic rP(l lw<l s " c n former] under senti-arid con(li -
titll1S. a Yi e\Y "hi eh has influence<] stmlPnt s f or manv vears. L at er
( UH5) Barrell presentecl a brilliant pi etnn of "Cent'rai Conneet icnt
in the geologi c pnst " in \Yhi clt he <l<:ntonstrated t hat Triassic sedimen-
t ation wa!-' cont. rollNl by the <llnession of a \YP<lge-shapecl block along
a g reat norntal fault '"ltidt f ormed the <.a ;.; t r rn border of the basin.
H e. also eardnlly described t he post-Triassic gcologic hi st ory of the
n gwn.
Lnll \not e a classic stucl v on t lw ' Triassi c life of t he Connecti cut
(l91;J ). Tn adclitiori t o thi s ntonograph he publi sh ed a seri es
of other f n ncl:unenta l \\' orks on Trias.; ic pa ltontology a ncl t he int ernre-
t ati on of f ossil tt acks. 1 n the 1nat.t< r of clintnt e. Lull r eli ellrnostly on
setlint enta.ry l.'\i<.l ence ns interprde<l 1>.\ Darrell.
E J,I t!./'8011. Ctego ,y, Nice, Foyr> . S 11rn' .\'S of liffer ent p arts of the
Cm1nc>ct icut \"alley Tria ssic " e n nta<l P l>v Ent c> rson i n 1\iassa.ehuset t s
(1K9S. Hll:i ) nnd. by H.i c<' and F oyp in .cent ral Connecti cut . mostly
around 1\fi<.ldl etO\m (1D:.!7) . ]{, ice an<l Gngory cooperated on the
" Manual of the geology of Connect ieuf ' (lUOu) . All these papers are
0 11 the \\'hole purely <.l eser i pti ,e.
L onr; WI II nnd 7'lun'Ji r> . To L ong\\ell we are i ndebt ed f or a syst e-
!ll ati c '<tudy of t lt e compli<' atPtl strudttral nl: tt i<>n ship of the Ttiass ic
arPa (1!>:2:2. 1.9:2 8) an<l for a. JIH)(lern dcsnipt.i on of the strat ig raphie
sequence (1933 ). H e a l.so sho\Yccl ( Hl:.!:!) the exi stence of Triassic al-
ln\i al f nns cxt l' n<lin!!' wt sbutr<l s fr01n the G reat F a ult. F inally, in
J' <' IHiting and <ons idPrabl y Prtlarg ing .T. D. Dana's guide t o the geology
of Ne \\. Hann ( 19:1:.!). Longwell made antilal>l<. a ma nual of the most
important fiel cl fn ets to l>e seen in the Triass ie l>elt of Connectieut.
'fhorpe, in additi on to hi s paleontol ogi cal work on t he Triassic
f auna, i nereasccl om kno,decl ge (1927 ) of t he strati g raphy of the up-
per part of the Triassic section.
Bussell r111d Hoin. " ' L. l{ns;.;t>ll pnLlisht>cl (1 922) an exhausti1e
st!Illv of the Great Fanlt. H e coufirnHcl Barrell 's ideas of the ree ur-
r t' nt of thi;.; fault dnriug Tria;.;s ir times.
G. " ' ]hi 11 ( 1 !J:\:2 ) d(;.;cri l>P<l t Jw northern a rPa of tlw Triassie
ba,in in and espPcially tlw Triass ic-crystalline eontact.
at Toby. HP ad n11Wl'cl tlw idea that oYer-thrusting ratlwr than
uormal fanlting had taktn plaee along tlw Prtstrm border of the Tri-
ass ic area. He also ;., uggesteLl that tlw Tria::;sic trough \Yas bordered
on the east by high , glaciated, matnJp] y mountains. These
iLkas han not lwen widely
\Vhen tlw present il1\rstigati on was begun the following fact s
ha Ll Lern establishe<l by pn,ious stu<lents of the Cuunecti cut Triassie :
1. A general desniption of the st ratigraphy based on fi eld r ela-
tions had l>Ptn lllade by na,i s ( ! HDS) and refined by Thorpe (1928)
and Long11< ll ( 1933).
:2. The Xew:nk sediment.arv mcks of tlw ConnPeticut \ 'n ll ev were
sh0\\"11 t o IJe proba!Jly of t pp;r Triassic age. Tlw;.;e rocks eon.si st of
arkoses, congl on1 erntes. fanglonHrat es. shahs and ;.;nhordinat e lilli e-
stones. Most of the seclin1ents are red in color. Their t otal thi ckness
apparentl y naclws 14.000 feet. They are interbedded 11ith three basal-
ti c ltl\a fl o1Y:o and are intru<lPd by <lol eiiti e s ill s and
dikes, the lnrgest sill (-!00 feet thi<"k) ocemTing nt>ar the base of the
Trinssie section.
:1. Tl w .ue of non-marine origin.
4. Thr Trias:oic oasin of <l epositiotl \\"a s honl(re1l on the east by fi
major f ault. F anglomerates are pnsPnt along thi s fault and nllmial
funs appPar to radi:\.te IH'St.IYarcl fro111 the fault (LongwelL 1923).
The following points were <lou!Jtful or eont ro1e rsial :
1. \\hcther the el imate pre1a iIi ng during the X e\Ya rk epoch
was senti-ari tl (Barrell), humid ( l{aynwncl), or possiiJly neither one
of these.
2. \Yhet lwr the relief of tltP ltighlan<l east of the Gteat Fault
was low, n10derate. or high (Rnin).
3. \Vhether most of the secli ment a rv detritus was cleri ,eel from
the East em Highland (Ba rrell) or cqL;ally from IJoth sides of the
ba sin (RohC'rts). Thi s in1pli es a reeon;.;tructi on of the Triassic drain-
age pattern.
-!. \\'hether the Great Fault is a normal fault (BarrelL Longwell)
or a r e1er se overthrust ( Bain).
16 Connectic::ut Geological and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
Finall y no data werr nntilabl e on the foll owing subj ects:
1. A detailed kn o1detlge of t he petrography an<l mineralogy of
t lw Tria,sic sed i 111 entary rocks.
:l. An ltll<l ersta.n<ling of the int<' LTelationships between the mem-
bers of t he major sedimentary uni ts (lensing, facies, O\' erlap, etc.).
The present in Yestigation 11as undertaken to obtain the necessary
petrographic, mineralogic and fi eld evidence and on the basis of thi s
information to attempt to soh e t he following problelll s :
1. l'rouable clinwte of the Nrll'ark epoch.
'!.. Character and Jl<' <td inri t ies of Triassic sedimentation.
:3 . Location, shape ant! extL'nt of the source area whence the secli -
IIJPntary <letrit.ns originated.
+. Original shape and extent of the Triassic uasin of deposition.
5. Prinmry strueture of the saJil e basin.
G. Cha ra ctl'r and of subseCJnent deformati on.
7. Pa lcogpography of Pastcm North America during Newark time.
J\fETHOO OF \VOHK
In addition t o the usual f irld \\'Ork (mapping and especially thor-
ough examinati on of the better ex posm es ) :mel the study of 1:25 thin
seetions, an investigation of the 'heavy miner:}l s was made according t o
the usual t echniqnP desc ribe<l in Milner a]1(l other works on sedimen-
tary petrography. It \\'H S found that in dealing with nunt eri cal val-
ues, an aeeuracy than one per cent wn,s not. justified, in "'iriew of
the g reat variability of the continental deposits under study. Each
scdili JPnt l! Sttall y \\':t S a problem in itself and certain modifications of
t r-chnique \H're al\lays necessary.
Heavy minerals \\' ere hi ghly nduaule for purposes of correlation
a nd strat ignt.ph ic work in general, bnt thi n sections proved to be es-
sential \\'hen attempting to reconst ruct the genesis and hi story of a
rock. The r esults are based fundamentally on thin-section work.
A typi cal work schedule, in addition to megascopi c stndy and
investigation of the thin section, consisted of :
1. Crushing (not gr in<ling) of a sample. A quantity as small as
:20 gmnt s was found to fre<jnentl y 10,000 or more heavy mincr:a l
grains. The an10unt crushed depends upon the kind of work contem-
J)lated (ntechanical analysis requires more) and the coarseness of the
rock. The following amounts yielded as a rule enormous cr ops
of heavy lllineral s: eonglontemtes and coarse n,rkoses --100 to 150
grams; medium-grained sandstones- 50 to 100 grams; fine sand-
stones, siltstones and shales - 20 to 40 grams.
No. 73J
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 17
2. Cleanin:.r of the crnshecl sample. If no calcite or ferri c o":ide
\Vere present. ordinary " ater was sufficient. Otherwi se, cold or b0il-
ing dilute HCl ( 20 per <:ent) was used. Much of the troublesome reel
f erri c oxide is contained in the finest clayey material and can be r e-
moved by simple repeated decantation in water prior to boiling with
acid. The addition to the acicl of a verv small amount of sta.m1011S
<' hloricl e greatl y expedit es the r emoving the feni c oxide coating on
1nineml gmins.
0. If a. mechanical analysis was r equired, then first the clay con-
was dct ennined by settling the sa.mple through a 15 em. water
colmnn. Thi s r esnlted in t he elimination o particles finer than 10
mi crons which were decanted aft('r 20 minutes. After drying, the
sample was cleaned with acid and the soluble portion determined.
Freq11 ently tlwse two operations could be combined if a study of the
thin section an<l the lack of calcareous material indicated that the fer -
ri c. oxide was in the form of ferruginous clay. The dried insoluble
r esiclue was r un through a mechani cally operated set of sieves and the
following fra ctions \Vere separated (after \Ventworth's scale):
Grave l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ca ught on 9 mes h ( 1.985 111111 .)
Very coarse sand . . . . . . . . . 14 mes h ( 1.068 )
Coar se sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 mes h (0.495 " )
Medium sand . . . . . . . . . . . 60 mes h (0. 245 " )
Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " 100 mes h (0.147 " )
Ve ry fin e sa nd . . . . . . . . . . . " 200 mesh (0.074 " )
Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pas ses 200 mes h (0.074 " )
Cl ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . separ at ed by elutri a tion.
To bring out the differences between petrop:rnphi c end members
(see p. 73) Tabl e 4A shows under one heading the ratios of cement
and clays to entire rock and under another the mechani cal ana.lysis
of the sanely and silty fractions only (minus clay ). In all other tables
and graphs, the combined results of acid treatment and mechani cal
a.nalysis including clay have been r ecomputed on a 100 per cent basis
for the original rock.
4. Hca.Yy rninera.ls \\'PI'(' obtained throngh bromoform separation
from the mixed sand:v fractions whi ch passed the nO 11l('Sh (uncler 0.2:1
111111.). and \Yhen necessa ry another crop was obtained from the nwcli-
um sand fra cti on (0.5-0.25 111111.). All the correlation work was
clone on the ba.sis of the heavy minerals derived from the f ine. verY
fine and silt fraetions ( 0. 24ti-O.OH nun.). Sometimes the finer
fraetions " 'Cl'e cl i H('rentia.tecl a ncl sn hj ect ecl to a separate bromoform
treatment. It '"as fmmd that the proportion of heavy minerals to the
totn l weight of the sample \Ya s a. fnnetion of the general coa.rseness of
the sampl e : tlw fin er the sa.ncl , the more abundant the heavy mineral s.
Hence, the ratio of the heavy mineral s to the total snmple cannot be,
used as a criterion for correlation in continental clastics, and
in fluvial scdimPnts, whnre coarse arkoscs and fine-grained siltstones
mav he intimatelv interh('clcl e(l . T lws(' arkoses and siltstmws may lw
ide.ntical in origi.n as seen fr om their heavy-mineral assemblages and
Connecti cut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
minernl frr qnrncies. hnt they '"ill possess Yastly (]ifferent ratios of
heavy mineral s to the total sample .
.\fa!!nrti c concrntration wa s n"e<l when nqnire<l and tlw h e n Y ~
minerals " ere prrllla nently mon nt t'(l i 11 Can a cl a balsa Ill ( n = l. i)-l )
or in piperine (n = 1.68) when in,rstigat ion of minerals \Yith very
high nfract in' i nclicrs was clrsi r<><l . Frrqnencirs werP <]pt ermi necl by
counting (HOO to 600 gmi11s). ~ o significant improYrnJrnt in accur-
acy was obserwd wlwn the count. wa s raised from H:>O to 1.000 grains.
A(lflitional auxiliary llJethocl s reqnirecl in some sprcifically !lifficnlt
instaJWPS an trPatecl in the section on petrography.
No. 731
Triassic Sedimentar y Rocks of Connecti cut
CHAPTER II
Y
Trrr RocK-rnrnrr:-.;o
Quartz
19
The qna rt z g-rains an g-rnrrally ang-ular. Prrfrctly pitt<>d
an<l ronndrrl g-rain,.;. npparPnth rler in<l from an ol<l<r. prr-Triassir:
serlinwntarv eonr. haYP. hPPn obsr rn<l in tlw lmYr rrnost Triassic heds
at. Da\Yson.LakP. Otlwn\ise tlw a n!!nlar ity of thr f]llar tz is Pxtrenw.
Tlr r !.!rains Ynry crreatlv in sizP. tlw lar!!"t' r mws hein!.! sonW\\hat
bE>ttPr ror.nr de<l. 'rl;e i" ('olorhss. rnilk.'.--\\'hite. or
Under thP nri crosco1w 11111\'h of the quartz shows nnilrilm:e extinc--
ti on of Yarying <lPgrees of inh-nsit,v. SottH' l!l'ains sh ow pmnnfnl lln-
clulose extindion an<l tlwir st rain-slr:rdm\,.; prrsr nt such a crennlated
or sr rTat Nl as pPct as to gi \e to tlrP grain an almost apprar-
anr r. Such !!rains of extnnre nrdantorphi(' origin are especially com-
mon in t he lo\\' er part of tlw ,.;edinn. Other grains (deriYed from
g raniti(' bodi es ) sho\\' only the " ra kpst of strn.in-sharlo\\"S.
All quartz grains contain inelusions. llSitall y in tlw form of el ong-
ated subpnralld ro\\'S and (' hains of black specks. nt i(' rolit es aml bubble
Ca\iti es. Inclus ions in tlw sh:tpP of larp:Pr <T.vstal s of biotite. zircon.
titanite. tourmalirw and rntik an also coutnton at sorne plac<' s. Thus
all t lw types of inclnsion,.; dPs<Tilw<l Ca.vr nx. and Gilli gan
are present and a contpiPx il!nPotrs and tlllta nrorphi c oril!in is indicated
as a result. Graphi c an<l nrinop< rtltiti(' intrrgnmtlt \Yith fPl<l sna r i!'!
enn Jmort in cert a in localiti rs.
of SP<'on<lary si li ca in tlw sh ape of sha rp termina-
tions and pyranridal fa ('p,.; on d!'trital f]llartz g rain' ar r. \r r.v rare.
ha \e bren obsetT<' <l in lps,; than 1:'5 prr cent of the Pxarn inP<I
sal1lp1Ps. _\lnr ost tlner-fnnrt hs of t lwsr st>con<lary f]trartz drnLop-
nwnts arr the t es rilt of contact at Hl lt\'<lrotlw tntal action and t hr bal-
anrr is rrstrirtP<l to thr la (' tt ,.;tlinr bed,; of the formation.
TlwsP anthi!leni c oc<tttTl'll ('f?s are <l rs<' ribed on some detail in the
chapter on Petrogtaphy.
F eldspar AtHl Its \Yeathering
.Although the fplfl s pa r grains a re a ngnlar or f'll b-ange
lnr. t he.v sho\\" ne\Prtlwh,.;s a mnch gnatrr rnmHling than t he f]llflrtz .
. \ t sorne pla cPs eYrn \YC'll-ronnrlrrl fr lds par grains arl? fonnrl. Some
of the a.ngn la r gra ins " eJ'(' f ormP<l t hr rPfractnring of ronncl rd
grains alonl! d ea vagr planes. qn:llltitati,e treatment of thi s rmmrl -
ing is g i\en in Chapter IV (Pet rography).
[Bull.
The felcl sp:u is eitlwr pink (mostly mi crocline) m colorl ess (mi-
crodinc or plagioclase).
_ mi crocline possesses at. l0ast three apparently different gricl-
twmnmg patterns:
l. Rectangular pattern
2. Diagonal straight pattern
3. Diagonal wavy pattern
Each of these patterns may be fine or thi ck. thus g; i 1ing ri se t.o ar.
least six possibl e ntriPties. :Mi croperthiti c intPrgrowt hs and indu--
sions in the shape of rpwrt z bl ebs :tt'P common. Orthoclase is rather
rare.
Plagioclase is mostl y all>ite (An 2-An 10) , less commonly sodic
oligoclase (An 14) and very rarely sont e of the more calci c t y pes.
l\fi crocline prerlontinates over nll other types of f eldspar. Thi s
predominance is clue, howeYer. not only to its superi or r esistance to
decay, but. also to the mnch greatPr relati ve abnndancc of mi crocline
among; the crystalline rocks of the source area.
As a whole the feldspar is f resh. but all degr ees of weathering anrl
alteration can be found. Most of thi s alteration is primary (pre-cl epo-
::-: itional). some is post-depositional bnt pre-diagenetic, some i s cliap:c-
uetic-sNonrlary (se ti citization) a ncl some is recent, clue to the ''"eather -
ing of ontcrops. Heplacement h)' calcium carbonnte is wicl esprParl .
Althoup:h micr ocline is less susce pt il>l e to sub-aerial decay t hnn ortho-
clase and the plagioclases, it does not seem to resist hydrothfrma1 nr
at l0a st unclcrp:rounrl replacetmmt b_v calcite any bett er than pln!li0-
da se ; on the contrary, it appears to he a trifle more susceptib!P. Tlw
differential weathering; of f eldspars is di scussed in some r]Ptai l in the
cit a pters on P etrography and Climnte.
Micas
arP abnnrlant in the finer-p:rainPd rocks. They
form f rom one-half to six per CPnt. of the sandstones 11nd up to 50 per
cPnt or more of some shales. They occur gener ally as larp:e
flakes from two to fifty times brger than the average grain size of
the otlwr constituents. Mi ca-flakes up to 1 em. and more in diameter
arc eomnton at all levels of t he Triassic section.
1\fuscovitr is infinitely more conspi cuous than biotite Jn outcr ops
and hand spec inwns. bnt in thin section. it is seen that biotite forms as
mnch as one-thin! of the total mi ca content. The micas, especially
bJOtite. catTV a lnn.re number of inelusions in the form of small crvs-
tnl s of zirCOn. SIII:I'OUndPfl pleochroic halos and. leSS COmmonly,
magnet ite. tonmwl i ne ancl rutile. The perfect irliomorphi sm and lack
of " ear of many zircon pri sms mny be clue partly to their transporta-
tion as protected inclusions 'vithin mi ca flakes.
No. 73]
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 21
The biotite, like the feldspar, shows all degree of alteration from
perfectly fresh flakes to deeply rlecayccl and oxidized ones. Various
degrees of alteration may be seen within the area of one single thin
section.
Clay Mii1erals: Kaolin, Gibbs ite and Hematitic Clay
All specimens contain son1 e clayey matter which generally is made
up of kaolin , althoul!h in some speeimens there ma y be eonsidemble
serieite anrl illite. Furthermore, a certain portion of the clay fraction
is not kaolin. but one of the member s of the bauxitic group, presum-
ably gibbsite.
1
Much of the clay is stained reel by very fine-g rained hemati t e.
P11re hematit e is rare outside of coatings on quartz or feldspar grains.
The amount of hematite in the day Yari es considerably. Two
chemical analyses shom'd that in a very bright reeL typic<ll Herlst.one
(specimen 3G) 0.01 per cent of F ec0:
1
is present, whereas a moderately
r ed arkose (spccin1en 10 from the Fair H aven quarry) contains 2}1!)
per cent of
These fil!nres inrli eate that \Yithin t lHse speein1 ens the amount of
lwrnatite present in the "lwmatiti c clay" is a round 25 per cent of the
day total.
Calcite
Calcite is present in approximately 35 per cent of the examined
spec imens, hut is abundant i n not more than 10 per cent of them.
the exc<'ption of t he all!al ( ?) limestone beds of the 1\fericl en for-
Illation and some hil!hl y ealca reous la cust rine shales. also from the
Mer iden beds, calcite is generall y seconda ry, cliagenet ic. or more pro-
bably, of post-diagenet ic origin and its occurrence in practically every
ease is related to thr immediate vicinity of son1 e mai or fault t hat pro
vidr,rl a large circulation of soluti ons, possibly of late- or post-mag-
nrati c origin, related t o the trap bodi es.
1\Iineral Aggregat es and Rock Fragments
A cr. rt ain porti (n of <:'ach specilll en, especially in the coarser s izr.s,
of rock fragments and mineral aggregates. P ebbles of gran-
Jte, graphic g ranite. granite rwgrnatite. chloritE' schist, various t ypes of
mica sehi st. quartziti c sehi :ots an<l a few g neisses and numerous vein
quartz aggregates are present throughout the sect ion. The metamor-
phi c material is especially abundant near the bottom of the Newark
anrl agnin , ,,ery locally, in ce rtain portions near the top.
'Semiquantitative X-ray tests were run in December 1945 by Dr. T. F. Bates
o f the Pcnnsy h;lllia State Coll ege on th e fine fraction s of samples 13 and 36.
Doth samples p roved to cont a in gi bbsice in amount s es tima ted at between 5
and 20 per cent of th e c layey matter found in each sample.
"Mrs. R. 0. IHotton of The Pennsylvania State College, analyst.
[Bull.
THE AccESsORY HEAvY MIKER.-\LS
Detrital Minerals
Ap.-ztite. This mineral has been observed only rarely. This iack
may haYe been partly due to the cleaning of the iron-stained sands
with hot HCl, a process during which apatite may be destroyed.
Augite. A locally abundant mineral occurring as irregular cleav-
age fragments sh o.wing a vivid green color and an extinction angle
between 38 and 50 (Plate IV-A).
G hl01i t e. A common but not abundant constituent, mostly in
eh lorite-sch ist pebbles.
Epidot e. Occm s as bright colored, vivid g-reen idiomorphic crys-
tals, pri sm fragments. or rarely as rounded grains. Usually transpar-
ent. Inclusions (bubbles and specks) are uncommon. Pleochroism is
weak. l\Iany grains show a r emarkably strong di spersion: P V. Thi s
is a cha ractC'r isti c species of the southern Connecticut facies of the Tri -
assic section (Plate I -A) .
Fluorite. Occurs as colorless, usnally triangular, cleavage flakes
a ncl fragments .
Gmnet . Thi s is the most common and one of the most im-
portant minerals of t he Connecti cut Triassic. It occurs usually as
hroken fragtn.ents of larger crystals and ra.rrly as small dodecahedrons.
The size is variable, with grains up to 0.7:) and 1 mm, being present.
There are two main color varieties- pink and col orless. Doop
rerl grains are ver.v rare. The rati o of pink to colorless garnet is im-
portant in the correlation of stratigraphic horizons and geographic
fa cies.
The surface of the garnet is frequently etched, pitted, grooved and
pueker ed. Refraction phenomena at places give to such pitted sur-
faces a bluish tinge (Plate IIa-A) and at others make it appear al-
most black.
A few of the garnets nre altered and corroded as the result of
intras tratal changes, parti cularly close to the lava sheets (Plate Ila-B).
Inclus ions arp common h11t not abnndant. Thev consist mostlY of bub-
bles or of sorne nnori entccl black specks. -
The slwl et.al or drnsy development mentioned by Gilligan (1919,
p. 2G;)) is a feature of many garnet grains. Some grains have a true
skclPtal apprarance.
H o1nblcnde. A rare constituent, present mostly near the base of
the section. The color is yellow-green to bluish-green, the extinction
usually low ( 8 o to 12 o) . Fibrous, actinolite-like varieties are very
rare.
No. 73J
lndicoli te. This blne variety of tourmaline is one of the most im-
portant Trias<>ic minerals. It always occurs as angular fragments of
largPt', broken-up crystals and never as icliomorphic prisms. Some o:f
these fragments exceed 0.5 mm. in diameter. It is always d ear and
limpid, ,,-ithont any inclusions. The pleochroi sm is very strong, the
pleochroi c formula being:
X.- Pal e to deep mauve
Z. - Pale to deep indigo blue
The extremely marked pleochroi sm apparently makes this an ab-
normal variet y for, according to Milner ( p. 248) : ' ... blue t ourmaline
(Jndi colite) is invariably weak in this r espect. "
The in<licolite is of great stratigraphic signifi cance, being an e:x-
ceJlont horizon and locality marker (Plate IV-A and13).
J(ymYite. Occurs as irregular or r ectangular cleavage fragments
(Plate I-A) colorless or grayish in color. Hounded pieces are rare.
A1 onaz'it(' . Occm s mostly as r ounded or equant grains (Plate I-
13). Some, hmYever , are subangular. The color varies from almost
colorless to the usual light greenish yellow or yellowish green of vari-
ous degrees of bri ghtness. Dark borders are typical. The surface
tu ay be S(Tatched and pitted. Inclus ions are r a re , consisting mo:::tl y
of gas filled caYities anrl clark dust. F ew of the grains give good
interfer ence f igures, but the positive sign and a small optic angle can
be (leterminoLl in any resirlue where confusion \vith epidote is possible.
Hutilc. Thi s mineral is nt some places very abundant and it oc-
curs in a variety of forms and colors : f oxy-re(l , amber-yellow, and
very rarely, purple. Fragments of pri sms, or \Yhole squat (1 x 1) to
very slender ( 1 x 8) pri sms, fr equently exhibiting Yery good idiomor-
phi slll , n.re the usual habit. These prisms may have striated surfaces
(Plate II-C). Very r arely they nrc etched and r educed almost to a
8keletal appearance. Twinning (Plate II-B) is common, geniculated
twins being the vctLi et y usually present.
S i llimanite. Hardy found as long slender needles, or needle-ag-
gregates.
,'.'tawoz.it c. Occurs in a variety of colors : from very paie yellow
to Jeep golden yello\\, with " 'eak or strong pleochroi sm. Present as
irregular, angnlar or su ban gular grains, some of which contain num-
erous tlark inclusions. The surface may be etched (Plate III-A).
T itan-ite. May be very abundant l ocally. Varies in shape, from
\\ ell dmeloped, typical rhombs and prisms, through partly idiomor-
phic fragments (Plate III-13) to almost rounded grains. The color is
grayi sh-brown. A surficial film renders many grains almost opaque.
At certain places some of the titanite is imprisoned as inclusions in
large qnartz grains which thus prevent a good bromoform separation.
24
Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey
!Bull.
Tom'1nrtline. Ubiquitous at all levels of the section. Occurs as
three di stinct color varieties which do not grade into each other.
1. Bro\Yll tonnnnline " ith the following pleochroic formula:
X.- Colorless: pale yellow, sepia
Z.- Pule yellow, sepia brown, black
Occ urs almost excl usively as well developed small idiomorphic
pri smatic gra ins, rarely as broken, basal or random sections. Size
varies from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. The following types of inclusions were ob-
se n e(l.
a . Srnall irregular eaYitics and black dust.
b. Clouds of minute black dust, apparently carbonaceous mat-
ter.
c. La rgc ronnclcd redlli sh or greenish bubbles and fluid cavi-
ties.
d. S mall, equant or prismatic crystal s of rutile and zircon.
e. Slendnr needles and acicular crysta ls t oo small to be suc-
cessfully identifi ed.
The color an<l type of inclusions have a definite bearing on the
pronna nce of the mineral. It has been found that the tourmaline of
the Con nretic-nt schi stose rocks of low metamorphi c rank (phyllites,
chlorit e-sc-hi st s and some mi ca-schi st s) is generally very pale colored
(X- colorless. Z --pale yellow) and contains an extremely abundant
amount of inclusions of Type b \Yhi eh gin to it a cloudy, almost
opaque appea rance.
2. Pink tourmaline, with the follmYing pleochroi c formula:
X.-Pink, reddi sh, chestnnt Grown , reddi sh brown
Z.-Redcl ish black with greeni sh fringe across borders
Oc-en rs usuall y as broken fragments of larger prismatic crystals.
The ~ : m a l l idiomorphi c prisms clraracteri stie of the brown variety are
almost ne, er present. Inclnsions as a. " hole are also rare,
8. Green tourmaline, with the following pleochroic formula:
X.-Pale green, ,ery pale pinkish green
Z.- Decp f!T<'l'll , IJluish green
Occ nrs rnostly as angnlar basal or pri smati c fragments . Icliomor-
plti c pri srnati c crystals are rare, but less so than in the case of pink
tnnnnaline.
In addition, pn rple tonmraline. a. ,rry rare variety, i s present only
in the sedirnents of the Pomperaug basin.
Blm totmnaline IJelongs to the deep l>lne indi colite vari ety and on
the uasis of its di stinctive morphology and great stratigraphic signifi-
cance dese rTes to be rntecl as a.n individual species (see indicolite).
X enotime. Thi s mineral is li st ed onl y t entat ively. Its presence
suspected .from the fa ct that certain of the zircon-like mineral s seem
to posscs a reli ef apparently below normal (they appear blue in pipe-
rine). Also some of them a re covered with a thin semi-opaque buff
film, ''"hich may be the C'erium oxidizetl film often present on t he sur-
fa ce of xrnotiHH'. The fa ct that normal zircons possr ss inclusions of:
uwnazitr - a fact whi ch them cerimn-bearing- does not all ow
the use of spectrographic or microchemi cal methods t o separate posi-
ii,ely xcnotime front zircon.
Z ircon. Thi s interesting and alnmdant mineral occurs in anum-
Lcr of types. T"o main color varieti es can be disting ui shed : colorless
(often water-clear) , and deep-colored blui sh, smoky, or pinki sh blue.
If Briti sh practice is foll owed and the zircons are subdiYided on
the basis of their inclusions. f orm, zoning and idi omorphi sm, then as
many as twel ve or fift een t ypes or s nlwarieti es of Triassic zircon can
Le distinguished. H owever , inasmuch as all these t ypes come from a
small petrographi c province, some of them are found to grade into
each other. Hence in atliliti on to the d ear-cnt twel ve or fi fteen end
types, an ewn longer seri es of intermediate suLtypes is also present.
Thi s makes the establishment of a <l efinit e 11ircon class ifi cation diffi cult,
although fnr from impossible.
The zircons nre ns1w.lly i(liomorplri c pri sms bordered by pyramids.
The t enuinati ons ma? be sharp or appear t o be almost rounded due to
the multipli cation of vicinal faces (Plates III-A ancl II-B) . True
l'uunding- is rare. Cap ped crystals haYe been observed t wi ce.
I nrl nsions mny be cnti rely absent or on the contrary extremely
a bnndnnt. These i nclnsions consist of:
1. Hnbbles, often ve1y large and irrq:rnlarly shaped.
:L Slender rod-like non-i dent ifiable crystals, often ori ented after
the ontli nes of t he pri sm.
:3. Chains and rows of black dot s. dust and small caviti es, typical-
ly ori ent ed ac ross zircon pri sn1 s 'although they may occ ur at. an
angle t o it or be bnnche<l together, or r arely even par allel t o
the C-axis.
4. HeC' og ni znbl e crystal s and mi t: rolites of zircon, rutile and mon-
azite.
Many crystals are perfectl y wned (Plate III-A) .
Some zircon /!ra ins show irregular nnd pit t ed surfaces, the ori6rin
of \Yhi rh is somewhat obscure. It may have been due to corrosion, or
possibl y t o breakin!!. n pon impact of fra ct ions of the onter shell s in
t he zone<l Yari r.t ies (Plate Ila-C and Ila-D) .
A rare col orless mineral , showing t ypical ultra-blue bire-
fringence. Occurs mostl y t ogether with epidote.
26 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
Iron Ores
M aqneti t e) Members of this senes are un J
versally present, ilmenite being the most abundant.
H C"7Wlit e and limonite. Hematite is the most char:teteri stic Tri-
assic constituent, being the source of most of the red color of the for-
mation. It oecnrs mostly as finely di sseminated pigment, but at some
locali ties (Portland) it forms large concretions. Yellow limonite iP
wmally the product of recent weathering of magnetite, pyrite, or ferro-
minerals.
Pyrite, side1ite, ankerite. Pyrite is very common in the dark or-
ganic beds. It occurs as small cubes of various sizes.
Sicl eritP and ankerite arc usually associated with dolomite. They
as well shaped brownish rhombs.
AunnGENIC 11iiNEHALS
Anuta.e. Occurs either as an alteration of ilmenite and leucoxene
forming small outgrowths on the latter minerals or as isolated crystals.
The 011tgrowths on ilmenite form very small cubic aggregates. The
is0late(l crystal s occur either as cubes or as octahedrons and
perfect idiomorphi sm and striated faces. Two main coior vari-
eties are present: yellow and blue or greenish blue. Zoning and "g;eo-
met.ric patteming" are uncommon. Although it is found at all levels,
anatase is especially abundant in the immediate vicinity of the lava.
flo" s.
!JriJ' i f ('.. Thi s mineral occnrs in two main varieties. First. as well
deYelopecl Hsually broken into cleavage fragments. Thi s var-
iet.v is gcnerallv colorless and limpicl and either does not contain any
inchJ sic1ns or e.lse possesses a variable amount of inclusions, mostly
small specks di sposed irregularly or roughly oriented in rows dia-
gonally to the cleantge sur:faces. Second, it occurs as very irregular
gT:Lins. serT<l tRd and coated with a semi-opaqne or dark film.
The barite is generall y colorl ess althongh some grains exhibit very
pal (\ yellowi sh ancl blui sh tinges (Plate V-A).
The Larite is serondary and is especially abundant at places where
<H' <' l'ss wa::; cas.'' f or Gi rculn.t ing solut ions : along cont act planes and
fai:lt pl :mcs. An extreme abundance of barite in a sediment generally
;;nggpst s the presence of a fanlt in the immediate vicinity. A fault
.r.onP in Cheshire gave origin to a commercial barite deposit. Barite
is also very common in the lake beds of the Meriden f ormation and at
some piaces f orms well sh:1ped crystals up to 5 mm. in diameter.
Dolom.itc. Fonnclrarel y in the Meriden beds, either as relatively
large. cleavage fragments, or as very small , perfectly developed idio-
n: orphi c rhombs closely associated with ankerite and siderite (loc. 29).
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut
0\'EHA!.l. :MrNEIL\L OF
'1'1-IE NEWARK SERlES
27
By combining the data of Tnbles 3, 4B and 4C and Figures 26 and
27, it is possible to arrive at the frequencies of occurrence of the prin-
cipal minerals that form the Triassic of Connccticnt. These freCJuen-
represent the properly weighted, Yolumetric mineral r elationships
exi sting within the Newark. antl were arrived at by multiplying the
mineral composition of t he principal lithologi cal units of the Triassic
by the geographi c and stratigraph ic di stribution of these rock nnits
th ronghont tlw Newark section.
\Yeightecl result s, surpri singly enough, are almost identicaL
for quartz, feldspar and the micas, with the simple mean average of
all examined samples. However, as shown in Figure 3, sizable dif-
ft>rcnces appear for the clay minerals and calcite between a simple.
arithmetical mean and a correctly weighted average.
60 Mean of
oo
so 4S 50
40 40
30
2.0 z.o
10 IO
,.,
L
"
.;
..
.,.
.,
'L
0..
d
,... t
of)
g
..

0

Ql

u
:2
0
u
0
Qj
\,)
4:
u..
v
&0
AveVt1.9e oo
so
.for secT ton 50
40
40
30 30
zo z..o
10 10
Figur e 3. Overa ll mineral composition of the Conn ect icut Triassic : above,
mea n ave rage of a ll samples; below, wei g ht ed a nd coiTcctccl frequencies on the
bas is o-f the rela tive volumetric, i.e .. geographi c and stratigraphic, distribution
or the different rock ty11es.
28 Connecticut Geological and Natural H i ~ t o ~ y Survey [Bull.
The overall average weighted mineral CQmposition of the entire
Connecticut Tri:tssic section is as follows (possible margins of error
indicated in all cases):
Quartz .................. . . . . . .... . .... . .... ... ..... . 44.3% (3.0)
Feldspars ............ . ........................ . . .... 30.6% (3.0)
'\J icroclinc .... . ........... . .... .. ... . ........ . 16.2% ( .2.0)
O rthocht ;; c ....... . .... . ......... . .... . .... . . 4.0% ( 1.0)
Albite (.'\b 94) .......... . . .. .. ......... . ... . 6.0 % ( 1.0)
Sodic oligoclas e (Ab 86 ) . . . .............. . . . 3.4% ( 1.0)
O li goclase (Ab SO) .... . . . .... . ... . . .. . . . . . 0.7% ( 0.3)
A ndes in e a nd calcic types ... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . 0.3% (0.2)
?If ica,; ..................
6.3% ( 1.0)
Muscovit e flakes .... . .... . .................. .
Biotite flakes .......... .. ..... ..... . .... . .... .
Chl orite flakes .. ...... ... . ...... . .. . . . .. . . . . .
Seri c it e-mus covite-illit e paste .. . ... . .. . ....... .
2.0% ( 0.5)
0.8% ( 0 2)
1.0% ( 0. 2)
2.5% (0.5)
"Hematitic" a nd "whit e" clays (minus mi cas) . . ....... 15.7% (:-+:3.0)
I<aolill . . ...... . ... . ....................... .
Gibbsi t e .... . ... .. .. . .. . . . ......... . . . . . . ... .
J-l emati t e
Carb onat es
110% (:::2.0)
1.2% (0.6)
3.5% (0.5)
2.5 % ( 0.5)
Calcit e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 % ( 0.4)
Dolomite, siderit e . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 0.2% (0. 1)
Accessori es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 2% (0.3)
Barit e .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . . 0.1% (0.05)
i'v!agnct it e, pyrite, opaques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5% ( 0.2)
Non-opaque heavy minerals (anatase to zoisite). 0.6% (0.2)
CHAP'l'ER III
STRATIGRAPHY

History of the Problem
The Triassic rocks of the Connecti cut Valley ha,e been assigned to
the Ke\\ark group. a stratigraphic nnit so named by Redfi eld in 185()
aml re<l efine<l by I. C. Russell in 1879. The t erm Newark or
seri es, is appliPLl to the Upper Triassi c continental deposits of eastern
North Ameri ca. The age of these rocks has been variously estimated
t.0 rang:r fron1 Mi<lclle Triassic to Lo\Yer tlnrassic. bnt the present con-
sensus of opinion is that on the basis of their fauna. and flora. , the
Ne\Yark series is probably of Upper Triassic a.ge.
The Triassic rocks of the Connecticut Valley have been divided
into three general "sections" by Perci,al (1842-, p. 4i32):
"The secondary rocks of the Southern basin in the large
Seconclary forrnation. present, as has already been stated,
thn c clistind sections or rnnges, namely a. \Vest ern Sandstone,
a :\fiddle Shale a.nd a.n Eastern Sandstone range."
P erci,al does not give the exact stratigraphi c r elationship between
tlwse "st ctions." He remarks that the sedi ments are closely related to
t.r:tp ridgrs and he al so mentions (p. 429). that "The Shale apparently
Ira " a 1110rr intimate connection " ith the Trap than the Sandstone."
The trap ridges were named antPri or, main and posterior, accordi ng
t() thei1 position \Yh en approached from New Haven.
Davi s (1 898) j)l'O\ ecl that these trap ri tlges \Yere lava fl o\Ys and,
using them as key horizons, divided the sedimentary rocks into four
formation<: to whi ch he unfortunately applied Percival's unwi eldy
t erminology ( nncl<r sandstones, antt' ri or shal es, post erior shales, upper
anterior laYa, et c.). Davi c;'s classification has been in use
lll11i l 11 0\\'.
The present inYestigation sho\YS that a division of the Triassic
seclin1ents into four 11nits is less justified on natural grounds than
Pmcind's ori gi nal three-fold divi sion.
Di ffi cnlties of the Problent
The Triassic sedimentary r ocks of Connecticut are continental
cla stics, extreniCly variable in coarseness, sizing and composition. The
Yariations arc not only stratigraphi c, bnt also lateral , both along a.nd
>teross th0. strike of the formations. Thi s is clne. as will be shown
later , to the fa ct that the greater part of the sect!on consist s of coa-
lescing alhiYial fans. As a result, at any given horizon within the same
30 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [BulL
fan, the mineral composition r emains the same, but the visible t exture
(i. e., coarseness and sizing) varies greatly from apex to periphery.
Conversely, two different horizons at any given geographic point. of
the fan may be rather similar megascopically, i. e .. in coarseness and
sizing, bnt may differ considerably in mineral composition.
\Vhen dealing with major fans, or with two groups of fans.
the possibility also arises that each one of these fans came from a
l:'eparate !': ourcc area. These source areas may have differed in their
r elief and in the lithology of their rock masses. Hence, the sediments
whirh orirrinated in these two source areas will differ not onlv min-
cralogical(y, bnt also in their degree of coarseness, the coarser niaterial
coming from the region of higher and bolder reli ef. Finally, if these
two separat e fans are deposited over the subsiding surface of a de-
pr-c!':sed trough, the possibility arises that the rate of snbsicknce may
be unequal. in both places, with r esulting differences in the character
of the drainage and hence the sizing, sorting a.ncl coarseness of the
sediments will also be different in both places.
It has bepn found that all these theoreti cal continrrPncies are actu-
nJl y present in the Newark of Connecti cut. As a r esnlt, when desc rib-
ing the Triassic sediments, it hns been necessary to differentiate not
only between stratigraphic horizons, but also between facies of tho
same hori zon: longitudinal facies between different fans and lateral
fa cies within the same fan, from apex to periphery.
Different facies of the same hori zon have an entirely dif-
f erent appearance, so different in fact as to defy correlation on a lith-
ologic basis. Successful correl ation is then possible only on the basis
of mineral composition and especi ally the charact er and freq1.1ency of
the henvy minerals, which have been found to be remarkably constant
at the same horizon.
GEXF.P.AJ. S TI!ATTGTIAPIIIC SECTI ON

The Triassic rocks of sonthem 'Connecticut cnn be divided into
thrre unit s on the basis of thei r lithology. According: to the !o-
r aliti es where t hey are exposed best , these t hree Jormations have bee11
named the New HavPn (lower Ne\\'ark), the l\[eridcn (middl e New-
ark), und the P ortlantl (upper Ne\Yark) .
Tnble 1 shows t he correlation between Davi s's classifi cation aml
the ierini11ology proposerl in the present r eport. As can be seen, the
New Haven arkose includes all sediments under the l ower lava sheet,
the Mericl en f ormation contai ns the t hree lava sheets and all sediments
in bet\veen, and the Portland arkose comprises the sedimentary rocks
nbove the 11ppcr la.va flow. Table 2 presents these three formations
in Jurther detail.
p...
;:J
0
p::
0
~
p::
<
:s
'-<1
z
TABLE 1
CORRELATION OF CLASSIFICATION
DAVI S 1898
KRYNINE 1936
PORTLAND N nrmal
Upper sandstones
facies Great
ARKOSE
Fault faci es
Posteri or trap sheet
Upper lava flow
Upper Normal Great
Post eri or shales
MERIDEN
sedimentary fa cies Fault
divi sion facies
Main trap sheet
FORMATION
Middl e lava fl ow
Anterior sandstones
Lowe r sediment ary
<tnd shales
di vision
A ntcrior trap sheet
Lower lava flow
Under sandstones
NEW HAVEN
I Upper di vision
ARKOSE Lower division
The New Haven arkose is a r elatively coarse fluvial sediment, con-
sisting mostly of gray and pink arkoses: congl omerates, conglomeratic
sandstones, Jn eclinm grained bri ck-reel f elcl spathi c sandstones :md sub-
ordinate layers of reu siltstone and shale.
The Meriden formati on is a r elatively fine-grained series of
sediments, largely of lacustrine or swamp origin. It consists of fine-
grained variegated siltstones and shales (red, black, blue, gray and
green), limestones, dolomites, medium- to fine-grained white feld-
spathic sandstones, black and gray arkoses and subordinate layers
of ordinary pink and gray arkoses. It is interlayered with three lava
flows.
The Portland arkose again is much like the New Haven arkose ex-
eept that near its base it contains, locally, swamp heels of the Meriden
type.
These three formati ons form r ecogni zable anu mappable units,
which, with a little practi ce, can be differentiated in the field without
making use of t he lava s as a guide. Three t:vpical sections an ' gra!)hi-
cally r epresente<l in Fignre 4. The t y pical O\'crall li thology of the
Connect icnt Tri ass ic is shown on Table 3.
Facies
Each formation varies in habit in the different parts of the basin.
F ~ l l r lllain facies can be di stingui shed : Two longit ndinal fncies, to be
r efe. rre(l to as the southern Connecticut and the central Com1eeti cnt
facies and two lateral facies, to be called the normal and the Grent
Fanlt f:t cies.
T l ~ e lateral facies arc caused by the passing of the norn1al scc1i-
ments mto fangl omerates as the Gr eat Fault is approached. These fan-
32
[Bull.
TABLE 2
GENERAL STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION OF TI-JE TRIASSIC
Normal Sedimenta ry Faci es
Southern Connecti cut
i
Central Connecticut
Q
1-o
Medium and coar se r ed ar-
C)
koscs, with s u! JOrdinate
L: '"'-i
c.:::
-<UJ
0. 0
con g lom era t cs a nd r e d
--1 0
:::JN
Generall y absent (fault ed
s ha les 2,000 ft.
f-<V -- out) ; when present, same

1-o
as 1n cent ra l Connect icut
Fine- a nd medium- g rained
v <!)
red .arkoses .and silt
" -<
>
......
0
0
I stones, su:tlordinate dark
.....l
N
shal es ncar base 2.000 ft.
-
U pper lava flow so - 150 ft.
Red fi ssil e s hal es 100 ft .

Red siliceous ,.a nd y sha ks
0 Dark wit h arkof'e
IC0- 1.50 ft.
;;;
a nd conglomc1ate lenses
:;:

375 ft.
Dark s hal es w ith arkose
z
>,
Red silt s t o nes and fi ssil e
and limes t one len ses srJ-
- ...
ISO ft.
0
I ;S;
s hales int crhcddccl wit h
.....,
black s ha les a nd g ray fcid-
f-< "'
<
E s pathic sandstones 200 it.
Red fi ss il e s h a 1 <' s. s il t --
..,..
":::l .
st o nes and sa ndy sili ceous ...... <!)
Fine-grained g rayis h

<f) ar-
shal es 600 ft .
c
kosc wit h a littl e sandy

s hale 400 ft. -+-
p,
z
lVIiddlc lava flow 300 - 500 ft.
:.J

0
Q
0
Coarse pink or gray 1111 ca- Red fi ss il e s hales a nd silt-

.....,
arkose with s ha!y 175 ft.
(.)
"'
CCOUS s t ones

;r.l
lenses 600 -800 ft.

... -v

<!)
>,
Dark 75 ft.

-<
,..
Dark laminat ed s hales with
0
...
::::
"' limes t o ne laye rs 6::> ft.
--1'2:
1-
ft. :>
w
"'
z
Coarse pink .arkose
0-100 I aroon
fiss ile s hales 75 ft .
v
ft.
"-'
"'
Lower lava flow 100- 250 ft.
----
I
\V c s t 0 f E :t s t o i
Coarse PI NK arkose with
Meriden ;\Jeri den
numerous conglomerat e
I
0
lenses forming two t11(ll !l F ine-g ra in- Coarse (1-2
w
u;
hori zons : the base and ed (0.25-0.5 mm.) pi nk- near
Ul
>
t he subordinate 111 lll. )
,. c d
ish
0
v
nc;u- t op : g ray ar-

...
layer s of m1caccous shaly lllll"lCC'Ot1 S
ko"c
( ' 'La -

<!)
sandstones and shales 4,000- fcldspat hi c mentati on)"
c:.
<.
c:.
5, 500 ft. sand st one wit h cong lo-
:.::J
(" Reds tone"')
mcrat c lay-
7,
'"-1
4.000-4,500 er s 2, 500
>
ft.
ft.+
<.
Coar se WHITE, GRAY or
....., ::::
MOTTLED arkose \\'ith
Coa r se
""
0
:s
.V:
cong lomerate and SL1bonli
gra y i sh :1 1'-
>
nate mi caceous shaly sand-
kose wi th
v
st ones and shales. Many
I
sub ordinate :l\ot exposed
z
...
"'
fr agment s of metamorphi c
bl ack s hales
;:
rocks (phyllite) 2,000-
1,000-1,500
0
...l 3,000 ft.
I it.
Light g ray basa l cong lo merat e and congl on1 cr at ic c1 rkosc
:l00-300 ft.
glomerates have been observed through a stratigraphi c range of 6,000
feet in the Portland arkose and Meriden formation and it is permis-
sible to infer that they are also present, although not exposed (except-
ing immediately below the lower lava sheet) in the New Haven arknse.
The fangl01nerati c Great Fault facies has a narrow geographic distri-
bution (not over 2,000 feet) , but coarse conglomerates can extend as
far as one or two miles away from the fault. Most of the seclinwnt.s
belong to the normal faei es an<l , nnless spec ific mention is made to the
contrary, nll descriptions ref er to the normal facies .
. : : . .... .:
.. 0 0
COV RED
BY

RED
.. .. . .. .:
RED
: .: . . .
.. ..
:
:::: . . '.
. . . .
. .. .
COVERED
BY
TALUS
: c;"
=
' ....:. ..
LOC. 16
IU:D
R0
LNSS
YLUVIAL DEPOSIT
NtW HAVCM ARttOS
G-RN
'
BLU
COVERED
BY
T ALU.$
LOC. 29
DEPOSIT
LOWER MERIDEN
fORMATION
CONGLOt.tERATE-
D ARKOSE & 5AMDSTONE.
SHA.LE SANDY
AND SILTSTONE
LIMESTONE
LENSES A.ND IWPURITIES
f!:ET
0 2 4 6 8 10
LOC.30
SWAMP DEPOSIT
UPPER MERIDEN
rORt.tATK)N
Figure 4. T hree t ypical field sect ions showing diff erences between fluvi a l,
la custrine. and swamp t ypes of depositi on in the Connect icut Triassic.
TABLE 3
NORMAL SEDIMENTARY LI T HOLOGY OF THE TRIASSIC
Locality
Ge neral
Southern
Connecticut
Central
Connecticut
General
Southern
PERC1\L\GE R,\TIO oF RocK TYPES
New Haven a rkose
1\Ieriuen formation
Portland ar kose
Lower New I-I a \en ar kose
Uppe r New Haven arkose
Lower .Meriden format ion
Uppe r :vieri den formation
Portbnd arkose
T"'Jwer New Haven a rkose ( Basal)
Lowe r New Haven a rkose (Higher up)
Upper New Haven arkose ( \ V-a rea)
Upper 1\ew Haven arkose (E-area)
Lowe r :vieriden formation
Uppe r 1\[eriden formation
Portland arkose
Co nglomerate
9
8
13
5
12
?
15
12
20
2
0
8
Traces
13
Sandst one
76
38
57
67
75
?
J J
60
80
85
70
90
-
?" _ , )
58
Siltstone
13
11
23
22
12
8
16
8
23
2
3
25
24
PERCE:-.iL\GE Ri.TIO oF RED BEos I:\" DIFFERE:\"T RocK TYPES
Total Cong lomerat e Sa ndstone Si ltstone
New Haven arkose 45 - 40 100
Mer iden fo r mation 52 - 60 90
Port land a rkose 63 61 100
PERCENTAGE R,\TIO OF STRATA BL\RIXG A:-.:BL\L TR,\ CKS
Shale
2
40
7
6
1
?
21
12
3
5
1
95
51
7
Sha le
100
'1 6
iO
Limes tone
2
3+
2
I
L imestone
Red Gray Silt - .Maroon Dark
Cong lomer ate sa ndstone san dst one stone shale
Connecticut Uppe r 1\ I eriden formation 0 10 19 so 28
e;.,
>!::.
l.l
0
::l
::l
(1)

(=)"

C'l
(1)
0
0
crq
(=)"
e.
"" ::l
Q..
z
"" 8"
...
e.
g;
(ll
0
...
'<
(fJ
>=
:;J
(1)
'<
.......,
O::l
>=
-
The northern and southern facies can also be diffPrentiated bv
the r elatiYe coarseness of the sediments. As a whole, thP seuiments iil.
southern Connecticut are much coarser and thi cker than the ertuivalent
horizons of central Connecticut. This change in facies is shown in
Figure i). In addition, it has been found that there is a notable change
in mineral composition between these regions.
Mw /-Iaven
Lo ... a F/o >v.r
-
F ig ure 5. Gener a l north-south sec ti on s howing cha nges of fac ies betwee n
southern a nd ce ntral Conn ec ti cut. Note clccrea,; e in coat se ness going from Ne w
H aven (south ern Connect icut ) toward l\ [ cri dcn (ce ntral Conn ec ticut ) .
Mineral Zones
A furtlwt fljyi sion of the tl11ec main Ttia ssic formati ons into
members on the basis of fi eld evidrnce alone is possible, but tliffieult,
excepting for the Meriden formation. ''"hi ch can be convrnientl :v c1ivi-
ded into a lowcr ancl an npper sed imentary member by the middle
lava sheet. It has been fonnd that a cli,ision of the ~ w Hanm arkose
and the Portland arkose into several nwn1bers ca n be accompli shed hest
by a zoning on the basis of changes in lwaYy minerals. It has al so
lJrcn fonml that these mineral zones can be gene rall y correl atecl with
lithologi c cha nges observable in the field.
The central Conneeticnt fa cies of all three of the Tri assic forma-
tions is cha1act erizcd by the presence of indi colite (deep blne tonrma-
lme), whi ch is n birtn itons at all horizons and was present in every spe-
cimen examined, without a single exception. The southern Connecti-
36 Connecticut Geologi cal and Natural History Survey [Bull.
cut facies is charact erized by the almost complete absence of inrli colitc
3
and by the presence, within the stratigraphic range of the New Haven
beds, of epidote and a hi gh ratio of pink to colorl ess garnet, whereas
in central Connecticut, the reverse is true (no epidot e and a l ow ratio
of pink t o colorless garnet).
SOUTHERN
CONNECTICUT
No lndicolife
Epidote and Pml<
Garnt:"f tn N<!"w Havt:"n
BPds
POMPERAUG
AREA
Both lndicolife
andEpidofp
Pn"S<>nt.
0 1000 2000 $Cr.JO
FUr

CONNECTICUT
lnd!colife af All
Honzons
No pidote { little
Finl< Garnet 1n New
Haven Beds.
Fi g m c (i. zones of th e Tri ass ic in di ffe rent pa rt s of Conn cct; cut,
showing poss ibility of corr elati on a nd di ff er ent iation throug h th e nsc of heavy
Illi i l L' r a i s.
Tabl e C shows the tnineral composit ion of a suitt' of t v pical r ock
and Tabl e:). t lw zoning anind at on the of thr. mineral
of Table -J. C'. F igure G shows t he sanH' zoning jll"PS('Ilted in
graphi c form together \\"ith a stratigraphi e di stribut ion of tlw Jomli-
ti<' s of Ta blc +. . Fi gure 7 shmYs tlw geographi c (li stri buti on of thesr:
loc: a I it.ies.
Further detail s as t o the zoning of t he diff<'rPnt fomtntions ;ue
g i1en in the respectiYe desc riptions of tl wse f omwti ons.
'Onl y 4 g r a in s of indi coli t e obse r ved in southern Connec ti cut a nd a t the only
two hori zons ( basal New Haven a nd lacustrine lower when t he dra in-
age patt ern favor ed a s uppl y of ma t eri a l fr-om ce nt r al Conn ec ti cut. Sec chapt er
o n Sedimentatio n.
No. 731
Thiclme.ss
The thi cknrc;s of t he Triassic rocks of Conncct-i ent is Yari able :
They rPach an aggTPgat e t hi cknec;s of 1G,500 or 17.000 feet in t hr Past.
prn part of the bac;in along the Great F a ult nnd dcc rpase to L!:iO f cf' t
in the Pomperaug- area, near the westernmost extremity of the origi-
Fig-ure 7. Geographi c di :; tribttti ott of t,pica l loca liti es a nal yzed in Tabl e 4.
Localities at which quantitati ve angu la r ity s tudi es we r e made (see Figur e 23)
are marked by bl ack dots.
nal Tria ssic tron! . .d1 of sC' climent ation. The large Triassic h omocline
ha :=:: lwr n hrokrn np l1llllH' I' Olls block faul t s alH1 thi s makes a measur-
ing of t he exa ct thickness very diffi cult. However, a deep well
chillecl on the g rounds of the Winchester Repeating Arms Co. , went
throngh 4.000 fpet of Tria ssic rocks and cl i<l not r each the crystalline
basf' ment (Gregory, 1904, p. H7). As this well was drilled at a l o(al-
ity the thi ckness of t he Triassic section has been estimat <>d t o
only arnnnd :),ClOO f eet, it seems t hat t he g reat thi ckness postulated fo r
the Tri assic rocks is r easonably accnrate. A generalized description
of the section and t he estimatecl thicknesses ure given in TaLl e 2 an<i
Fig:ure 5.
Nmv HA YEX AHKOSE
General F eatures
Di3t?'ibution. The K e\Y H :H cn arkose (the "" T estern Sandstone"
of P er cival) occupies t he west ern part of t he Connecticut Val ley. It
38 Connecticut Geological and Natural Histor y Survey [Bull.
is devel oped most full y in t he New Haven region. Because of the (li f-
f er ence in facies. it is lWCPssa. ry to provide more than one type l ocality.
In sout hC' rn Comwcti eut the N P \Y II a ven beds are <' X posctl UL'st a long
the west ern slope of IV est Hock ridge (uasa.l conglomeratic arkose, locs.
lD ancl 21 ); in I-Tmn den, at the northern end of " rhitncy A,ennc (prde
arkose and red sil t,;tmw. lllidcll e part of t lw sedion, Joe. 17): on tlw
H artford Turnpike, next to tlw New Haven Count ry Club (<'on;.do-
merate anll Yer y coarse pink arkose. 11ppPr part of tlw sedirm): ;Jn<l in
the quarri es of Fair Haven (pink 11ppt> r part of the seet. ion , loc.
These four expo;,: nres represent t he fonr t y pi cal lithologic va ria

twns of the New Haven beds in southern Conn<:>ct icnt.
I n central Connecticut, thP basa I conp:lomerat ie a rkosc can be """n
at Roaring Brook in contact with the nn<IPrlying crystalline rocks (loe.
;1!) ) , and the balanc-e of the sect ion, ma<l e np of interfi nge ring co:trse
white arkose and fine bri ck-red sand stone, is typically expose<l at
Hanover Pond, south of Meriden.
Tllicl. 11 ess. In central Connect icut. west of :.\lt>ricl en. where there
is apparentl y no dupli cati on of strata by faulting, the thi ckness of t ho
--LEGEND--
D PO"TLANO FOIII:l.AATION l UPPER NlW HAVEN AlllKOS
4 LOWER NEW HA. V lH ARKOSI:
Figure 8. Geogt-aphi c a nd strati graphi c di stributi on of cong lomer at es.
Number s indi cate what percentage of a g ive n format ion is made up of conglo-
merates in that particular r ectangle; and symbols aroun d numbers indicat e t he for-
acco rding t o t he legend.
No. 73:1
Trias5ic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 39
Xt> \' . Hann arkose can lw lll t> a,..; lli 'Nl a.t :),000 t o :) .:)00 fld . In t he New
H a \en region, the a ppart> nt t hickness is much greater , 0,000 feet in
t he 111 e<lia n pal't of t he \alley, bu t a certa in part of it i s probably due
to repet it ionb.v fa 11l ting. H owt> \'t' r. a t hil.' knt> ss of (5 .;)()0 t o 7,500 f eet
is probai> IP f or t he pa sh r n porti on of the ana tmered t he New
Hann lwrl s. i. t> .. in tl1 e 1\lontm\ e:-; e-Northfol'!l <li:-; tri('t. The tl1i cknr ss
of t he lmri e<l port ion of the Ha \e11 arkose near t he (ht>a t F nnlt
poss ibly may ex(' eed 8,:)00 f PPt .

@
@
e
8

,.
, ..
2 3
v
- -LEGEND--
(Q PO"-TLANO FOAlr.4AT IO N 0 UNDIF'F" EAENT IATED
0 Ullll[ft MERIO[ W F'0R )r.4 ATI O N ...!_ U PPER NE W HAVEN AAMO :i.
( ; ' tLOWE" l.t EAIDEN FORUATION
_,
6 LOWER NEW HAVEN ARKOSE
F igure 9. Geogra ph ic ;w d ' t ra t ig ra ph ic di , tr ib ut io n o f silt s t o nes a nd shales.
Nu111b er s in d icat e what percen ta g-e of a g i ven fo rmat ion is ma rie ttp of th ese i in c
c las tics in tha t pa rti cul a r vicini ty; :11 1<l sy111 ho l' a r L' t111 d nu mb er s indi cate th e for -
mation a ccording t o t he legend.
0 07' 1'f! icd't OII . T he Ne w I-Ta.\pn arkose a ppears t o be t he stxnti g ra -
phi c eq 11 i \n lent of the Sngn rl oaf arkose of Emerson i 11 fassaclmsetb
a.nd of t he South Britain of H obbs, in t he P omperaug
basin.
r' li mocta . In t he rep:i on of it s t y pical cleYcl opn1ent. . i. e., in s;ou-
t heLn Connect intt. t lw Ne\\. I-fann al'lwse is r eptesent r rl mostly by n.
coa rse arkosp of dwnging- color. ang ul ari ty, s izing and sorting, wit h
interbedded subordinate l ayen; of a f ine-grained r eel micaceows s-i lt-
Area
Southern
Connect icut
Central
Connecti cut
Pomperaug
TABLE 5
ZONI NG OF THE TRIASSIC I NTO HEAVY :MI NERAL HORIZONS
SIGN IFICANT AvERAGE MI NERAL FREQUE:'<CIES
..>: -

'-'
g_
<J
u '-'
Horizon
;:
CJ
.2

"'
;;;
o -
"'
0
0
N 0
"'
"' .2
....
- "'
u

"'
v;
:...
:.a 0
"'
"
-- 0 a. >. 0
"o - .... ;:I
0:: ,:)
r..r.1 :L I v: (/) N 0 t:o e:::
[-,
0 -
u Cr,
::: :::
N <
;:
Upper - 4.6 0. 1 0.1 0.2 0.1 - 44.6 19 1.9 30.6 6.3 -
Lower 0.2 0.1 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.1 0. 1 0.5 - 3.8 59.8 14.0 -
L! pper l\ ew Haven 3.5 lA 0.1 0. 2 1.1 - - 69.0 32 0.5 6.2 2.2 0.4
Lower New H aven 0.1 14.8 0.3 2. 8 4 . .3 6.0 0.1 1. 5 29.8 37 2.2 14.0 13.8 0.2
Portland arkose (E.) 1.5 6.5 - - 0.5 - 0.2 1. 0 720 20 2.0 13.5 0.2 -
Portland arkose (W.) 1.5 - - - - - - - 56.0 3 7.0 33.0 0.7 -
Upper Meriden 5.0 - 2.0 -- - -- - 0.3 - 19.0 67.0 6.0 0.3
Lower Mer iden 0.7 1.0 0. 2 0.4 1.6 5.8 0. 2 1.0 11.4 - :3.0 32.0 17.8 0.2
Lppcr Ne w H aven 2.5 - 2.0 -- - -- 4.ll 22 5.5 60.0 1-U -
New Haven 1.7 - 0.7 0.1 - 0.1 0.3 - 50.7 6 5.0 31.0 8.0 -
Lower Ne w Haven 13.0 2.5 - 1.4 3. 8 6.7 0.3 0. 1 2.1 13 3.3 42.3 14.7 6.7
Lower !1-l cridcn - - 0.3 0.3 - 2.0 - - 12.0 0 5.0 5.0 7-1.0 -
Upper New H a ven 0.5 - 0.4 0.1 -- 0.7 - - 1.)85 R 3.0 15.5 11.0
Lower N cw 1-1 a vcn 3.8 0.3 3.3 0. 2 0.5 1.1 - - 30.0 9 4.7 4.2.3 11.0
Rati os of iron Rati o o f tour-
a r e s t o r a r e mali nes: brown:
minerals pink: gr een
45:55 69: 6:25
52:48 23: 30:38
30:70 47: 12:41
40:60 so : 14:3:1
23:77 80 : 7 :13
22 :78 90 : 2: 8
- - 89: 1:10
-- 62: 13 :25
4i' 5.2 87: 5: s
18:82 87: 5: 8
62 :38 73:10:17
77:23 HJ: 0: 90
33 67 77:13: 10
51 :49 77 : 10:13
..,.
0
n
0
::l
::l
(1)

;:;

0
(1)
0
0
crq
;:;
e.
:
::l
0..
z
:
....
=
[.
:I:
u;
0
--<
(Jl
=

(1)
'<
r--1
to
=
-
-
No. 73]
Triassic .Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 41
stone, which frequently, but rather l oosel y, has been r ef erred to as a
' shale". Generall y, in the lower part of the section, the arkos< is gray-
i:oh. whiti sh purplP, or mottl ed: in the upper part it is generally pink
or red. Dells and lPnses of congl01nerate are locally a.bnll(lallt, espe-
cially near the Yery base of the section and again dose to the top.
In central Connecticut the pale-colored basal conglomeratic arkose
is ul so presPnt. bnt the greatest part of the section ( 4.000 + feet) con-
sists of an alternation of coarse, in places conglomeratic, grayish-white
or pink arkose am1 1nedium- to fine-grained brick-reel clayey feldspa-
thi c sandstone. The bri ck-red sandstone predominates " est of Meri-
den, the pal e arkose east of l\Iericlen and in the Yi cinity of the
both types arc inti nmtely i ntcrlaye red.
As a whole. congl01nerates form !) per rent of the New Haven ar-
kose ; arkoses a,ncl sa m1stoncs, 7G per cent; siltstones, 13 per cent; and
shales, 2 per cent . Forty-five per cent of the section is reel . Table 3
gi1es more detailed infor111ation on the lithology for the different
facies and horizons of the fo rnnttion an<1 Fignres 8 an<1 D prese nt. the
geographic variations in li thology (sec also Figures 1G and 17).
Cross-bedding is a\mll(lant and mnd rracks and ripple marks a,re
comn1on in the finer-grained beds.
hmi2ons. It is possible to divide the Nrw Ha,ven arkose.
aCCOrding to its litho[Oi-!)' , into an npper ancl a lower III P.Illhl'r, wit,h a
lwsal coriglomeratie layer at the botton of the lmwr memlwr. The
san1e divi sions can be made everywlwrP on the basis of t he heavy min-
cr:tl contPnt and in addition, in centra l Connecticut. it is possible to
divide t.lw npper lllcmber into two additional mineral zones, thus pro-
viding a threefold cli1' ision of the formation.
Tabl<' (i summarizPs the changes in the frefjnenr ies of the more
important mineral s. It shows t hat the especially significant changes
in frequPncy occur in the garnet. on the one hand. a.nd in the InPtamor-
phi e group of lllinemls (kya.nite, hornLlende, staurolite, sillimanite
and zoi site) on the other.
As a resnl t, it is possibl e to cliYi fle t he New Han'n arkose in south-
ern Connect icut into t1Yo pri nci pal zones:
1. A lower mc1nhcr ehara<'terized hy a nwdPrate amount (30 per
eent) of gamd ancl a notablt. amount (L3 per cent) of metamorphic
minerals ; and
2. An upper member characterized Ly a very high amount (60
per cent) of garnet and an almost complete absence (1 per cent) of
metamorphic minerals.
In central Connecticut a triple divi sion of the New Hav0n arkose
is possible:
Connecti cut Geological and Natural Survey
1. A lower member characterized again a notable proport ion of
lll et.amorphic minera Is ( 12 per cent) and a low a niOunt ( 2 per cent) of
garnet .
2. 1\. nlenlber by a high garnrt cont ent ( :il
per cent) and no metamorphi c Ill inerals.
3. An upper member eontai ning 1ery little garnet (4 per cent) , no
metamorphi c minerals a nd a hi gh a lllf>l!nt of tournmli ne (GO per cent).
The pre.sence of incl i<:olite cha l':t(-tPri z<>s all horizons in CPntral
Conmcti c: nL whereas t lH absence of thi s mimra l is eqnall,v t y pi cal of
sonthern Connect icut. In addition. tlw. Hal'(n beds nf sol!tlwrn
Connecti c11t are chara <'t<> Jizecl by epidote and a nl:ttinly hig-h mti (l of
pink to colorless ga.rnet ( 3- per cent ), w herPa.s i n centra 1 Conncct. ictLt
ther e i s no epidote in the section ontside of Hoaring Brook ruHl the
ra.tio of pink to colorless garnet is much lower (lil per (ent).
TABLE 6
AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF SIGNIFI CANT ERr\LS
1:\f THE l\E\V H AVEN r\ ND LOWER :-.fERTDE:\ BEDS
1-:vanit c
Garnet
Epidot e
1 Iornb lendc
Stil. ur olit e
Tourma line
7. ir cnn
Aug it e
J.( -,;mi t e
Epicl ot<'
Garnet
Hor nb lend e
lndi coli t c
St aurolit e
Tourmalin e
Z ircon
l(yanit c
Garn et
H ornbl ende
Indicolite
Staurolit e
Tourmalin e
Zil con
Lower Upper Lower
Nc 11 ]Ia ven arkose Sew H a ven a rk ose \ I cridcn ionnati on
Southern
2.8
Connect icut
0.1
29.8
14.8
4.3
6.0
14. 0
13.8
6.7
1. 6
2.5
2. 1
.1 .8
13.0
6.7
42.3
1-1.7
0.4
30.0
0.6
4.0
1. 2
42.3
11.0
68.5
3.5
0.2
1.1
6.2
2.3
Cc nt r:l I Conn ec t icut
:-.Iiddl e
0. 1
50.7
1. 5
0. 1
31. 0
8.0
Pompcraug Bas in
0.1
69.0
0.7
0. 8
15.5
11.0
Upper
0.2
4.0
2.5 .
60.0
1-1 .5
0.4
0.5
0.1
0. 2
0.9
59.8
14.0
0.2
0.-1
u ( ri ses at
t opto43%)
l. (i
0.7
"
.), V
32.0
17.H
0. 1
12.0
u
4.0
74.0
_ Table G al so shows t he abrnpt. <' hangt in 1ninPra.l frecpwnciPs (.hat
takes place between the top of the ew Hu ven arkose and the base of
No. 73] Triassic Sed imen tar y Rocks of Connecti cut 43
lh0 formation. The decrease in garnet, the reappenntncP of
the tn et:ut1orphi c group and tlw in the frefJlH'ncies of tour,na-
line aml zircon are 11otable. Ve ry si111ilar changes take place in the
Ponqwrang basin.
Thn rea son for tlw differenee between the lower and upper New
HaYen horizons is probably due to the fact t hat some time during the
111 iddl e of N Pw Ha n n ti tne, eros ion i n thP source a. rea. stri ppecl off the
con r of tnetlunor phi e ro<: ks (Bolton schi st ) from the igne-
on-.: intrn>'ions and their pegmatiti c aureoles (Stony Creek granite,
Glastonbnry gra11ih-gnei ss, Lighthouse granite. etc.) , Th e n e xt
change bebnen New Haven and Metid< n 111ineral frerptc11eies probably
resnlt Lcl from a disrnption of t he drainage during the earl y
lacnst rine period.
Sonthem Conuecticut Facies
membcl'. The lower New Haven arkose. 2.000 to :1.000 f eet
thick, consi sts of a coarse ( 1 to 3 mm.) white, gray a11cl mottled arkose
with subordinate la yers of a finer grained (0. 25-0.:"5 111111 .) red mi ca-
ceun,; shaly or sil ty sandstone 1 to 10 fP!'t thi ek and lor:tll,v. nry Sl11all
lens-shaped t hinlayPrs of flark or re1l only a. few inr.hrs i n thick-
ness. .\ for111 G7 per ceut of the s!'dion. :) per
cent an d the shal y sandstmws. nncl shales 28 1wr <' l' nt. .A
genemli zecl strntigraphi e section of tlw NP,r arlm::;o between
Mt. Carmel an<l New Haven is shown in Fi!!ure 10. Thi s seetion is
ltll<:: Or rected fo r possible dnpli cation !,y fanltin!! nml the total thi r k-
ness is probably bet ween G,GOO and 7,500 rather than t he apparent D.OOO
het shmrn i 11 the sect ions.
A mnch coarser arkose t han t he a' erag-e is present near the base.
In places it passes i nto a couglOIIJ Crate with cobbles up tn 10 em. in
lliameter , t he an.rage !wing 3 to:) em. These basal bell s urc r xposrrl
at Dawson Lake. where the unconfonnahl e contact bebnt> n the Tri-
assic aml t lw ol<l c. rystalline floor was ,isible SOIII C' years ago during
the construction of a dam, but is now covered. At the present time
a Jmrpli sh-gmy aud bri ck-1-e.rl conglollwrati r. sancl stonP is exposP<l in
the gorge of " rest Hiver, just below the 1lam. Thi s outcrop (Joe. 2.1)
is loeate<l ;-);)() f eet east of the near<':::t ex posure of Orange phyllitL and
stratigraphi call y not on r BO feet abme the buri ed contac- t.
P ebbles up to 10 em. in diameter. tnost ly f]Uartz (milky, el enr or
smoky) are abnndant. The sandstone is very eoarse !:;"ra i twd, angular
and poorly sorted ( Fi gtll "l' 11). The rock is made up 111ostly of qna r tz
(88 per eent) 'rith a litt le feldspar and fragments of f]llal'tzit P.
quartz is eit her angular. oftl'll showing freshly broken edges
(prerlo111 inating t ype), or opa<]ne, 111ilky "hite, us11ally "nbangular,
but showing all deg-rees of rounding. Sevrml small , pel"fedly roJtnrl-
ed and frosted quartz g rains were found in the medium sand (0. 5-0.25
mm.) fraction. The heavy mineral assemblage (Plate I-A) is charac-
44
Connecticut Geological and Natural Hi story Survey
rnull.
t eri11ecl by a floo(l of epidote and a notable nmonnt of othc1 nietamor-
phi c minerals (kyanite, staurolite, etc.) .
. -:: . ..... -.. .
. .
9,000' 1 , 750 ' - Z, CX>O '
e,ooo' 000 ' -
7,000
1
1,500' - 1,750
1
6,000' 0 - 300
1
. .....
... . ... . .
s,ooo'
... ... ... c:-:._; 300
1
- 1,500'
... ... . ...
4,CXX) I
100' - 1,ooo'
200 I - 3(X} I

soo' - soo'
e,ooo'
. .o .. .,.
900 ' - 1, ooo '
1,ooo'
300
1
- 450
1
i FAI P. HAVEN
I COARSE ARKOSE l
l Al!D Cotl'GLOllEHATE l
'- -
i FIVE l!ILF.
L JSTO!IE
r COVERED HY
L RECOl T SAU DS
Contaimt Ru5s O Street
conglomerate
STATE STREET SIJIDS'!aiE
r EAST
I Afl D
!
l ARKOSE
...
CC'I ERED
DII\IT.LL ARKOSE
CHERHY HI LL -,
1 SMJ')STOtlE 1
_,
. ..,
: SliSI'ARD !..VENUE I
1
1
ArJ!J D\RlBAR HI LL 'I
._ PEBALY ARKOSE.') J
llETH.lJI! GAP SA!IDS'I'OOE
oo'EST ROCK DOLERITE
[
DA TISO:I CON GLOIIERA TE-
ARKOSE
Includes Hartford Turnpike
conglomerate
NortJ1orn (typical ) facies, and
Southam (Sprine: Glen) faciea
I ncludes Westwood s eries
llorthern (Shepard) Phyllitic
f aciee; and Southern (Dunbar
Hill ) non-phylli tic faciee
Figure 10. Compos it e stra ti graphi c section of the New Ha ven arkose in
t l:e New H a ve n r egio n (southern Connec ti cut ). T he thi cknesses o ( the di f fe r ent
member s a r e appa r ent a nd in ma ny cas es may be excessive, due t o dupli ca ti on
of beds by faulting.
From there on there are very f ew more notable conglomerat es un-
til the very top of the New I-Ja.,en f onnation, where small il'regllb.r
pocket s of conglomerate begin to appear again. The basal conglomer-
ate ancl conglomeratic arkose are less than .300 feet thi ck. Their upper
limit can be assumed t o be the Lase of t he \Vest Rock sill.
At 1\{onnt. Sanford (Joe. 20) a gray sandst one, 300 f eet above the
Lase of the section and 20 f eet belo" the sill of \Vest Hock Ridge,
No. 73J
Tri assic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 45
shows considerable hydr otherlllnl (?) alteration an<l totDl replacement
of the fdd spars by sericite (28 per cent of t he rock Plate VIf-A).

30
2.0
/0
8 o t--IHI--RI---+ -+--l- -1-+--1- 1
10 t--H-+-+-1---l--1-+-..J-.--l
60
..50
40
:}0
20
!0
ao
70
60 r4-+-+- l--1--/--/-
.s 0 r4-+-+-l--+-+-l- -l- -l-l
40

30
20
/0
F igure 11. Hi stogram showing extremely r apid fluctuat ion s in coa r seness
in t he sa me arkose layer wit hi n a 9-foot str ati g ra phi c range of the basal Triass ic
( Joe. 21) .
above the \Vest Rock sill, the number and thickness
of fine sanely, silty ancl shaly layer s increase considerably and for ap-
proximately BOO feet t hey constitute no less than 05 per cent of the sec-
tion. Thi s zone of r elati vely abund:wt fine-grained members is diffi.
cult to describe or to differentiate with prPcision. hut it appea rs to be
present on the east ern slope of \Vest Rock Ridge from its southern end
to Bethany Gap.
The rest of the l ower New Haven beds consist of the t ypical pale-
col or ed arkose with subordinate r ed silty and shaly m.ember s. This
ar kose weathers to a peculiar pnrpli sh gray. There a re m:my l ocal
variations. bnt t hey a. re a.ll due to lenses which o-racle into each other.
hoth st ratigraphi c:"Lll y and geographi call y. The upper part of the
l ower New H aven, especially in its northern area (roughly north of
an east-west line running one mil e north of the junetion of Dixwell
anrl \ Vhitney avenues in Centerville), is characterized by the
of numer ous fragments of chlorite or phyllitic slate, which, locally, as
in t he outcr ops on Shepanl Aven ne (loe. 17) , constitute as n1.nch as 15
or 20 per cent of t he rock (Plates XX-A and XXIX-C) .
This part of t he sedion contains several interesting exposu res. in-
cluding a GO-foot outcrop on Dixwell Avenne ( rast side, near \Veyhos-
set Street) which exposes an ancient Triassic ri ver channel (loc. 17a).
46
Connecti cut Geological and Natural History Sur vey
rBull.
Fifteen f eet of strata are exposed. The dip is l-1 to tlt e SE (lJ0).
The beds are cross-beLlded, and show prominent cut-and-fill stratifica-
tion, with out, taking place both longitudinally and laterally.
The surfaces of the layers are erodetl and fi ll ell with con<rlomeratic
pocket s. The angl e of 'cross-bedding is 35. The main as in-
General Plan
E
s....,...,.., j,/'
------ OIXW1..L ... VENU r;
0
------
-------- w ---------
N
Talus
; 1 j'l
I
//):; /!r,;. ).
East West Section <l BJ
Port of North - South So<tion (C- D)
Zti
Fi g ur e 12. Sket ch of .:xposur c o f I a riw se at Joe. 17a on Dixwell
!\. venue. O ut (crop is on east side of st r eet a nd s hows t wo t y pes of cro'S-beddin g.
The prin cipa l cross-b edding indica t es a ma in westwa rd curr ent wher eas the
ordinate erossIJedding suggests a minor eastward reversal of the current. (The
main current arrow at top points enoneously eas t instead o-f west.)
dicateJ by the cross bedding, "as south westwa n1 or ' restwa nl , but
minor r eversals to the east , as shown at one place by pebble imbrica-
t i n, took place. A sket ch of this channel is shown on Figu re 12. See
also section on page 47.
Organic 111aterial is less uncomnton in t he lo\\er New HaYen ar-
ko:oc th7tn is generally realized. However, it always as very
black shaly pocket s ancl lenses which lose thei r color rapic11 y.
upon weathering. A typica.l occurrence of that kind is the outcrop at
Dnnbar Hi ll (lor. 18 ) where a section wh ich dips 1G
0
to the SE (1:)0 )
is exposed. This section (shown below) r epresents not a t ypical
fluvial deposit, but rather one of a semi-lacust rine character (possibly
a small
Upper membe1' . The upper New Haven arkose (4,000 to 5:000
feet thi ck) consists of a coarse (1-a mm.) pink or red arkose carrying
frag ments of Stony Creek granite and other granitic rocks, with sub-
orclinate la:vers of llli caceous shaly sandstone. Numerous lenses of
conglo111 era tcs arc present. These lenses can be roughly assigned to
Section a t loc. 17a, Dixwe ll Avenue, Hamde n
till
f. Pinki sh white, medium (0.25 - I mm. ) ang ular arkose, locally coarse (I -
5 mm. ) Cont ai ns abundant muscovite a nd bi otit e. Pebbly (quart z, white
granit e g neiss, feldspar, sc hi st) with pebb les ave rag ing 1-2 em. and up to 3-4 em.
Handed 1-3 em. Overli es unconf ormabl y r es t of sec ti on . .. . ... ... .. . .. . . . 3 ft.
e. Mottled ( pink, with white a nd pale green) a rkose, medium-grained
(av.. 0.5 nun., up t o c.5 mm. ) , angul a r , with much biotite. Conta in:; man y pelJ -
bics of g ree n ci it v r:clc sc hist a nd i11 s mal ler ;uuounts g ra ni te g n"iss, quartz an:!
fclcbpar and very large mi ca f lakes. Int er bedded with severa l len ses (E5 aiH!
E 7) of a dark f ine silt y s ha le, f inely but irregul a rl y laminated. Shal e beds 6 t o
20cm. thi ck, show black core and carbonaceous matter and r eddish exteri or. Over
lies unconf ormably next member. Thickness vari abl e (l ensing ) . . 1 ft. 6 in. - 5ft.
d. Coa r se, whiti sh a nd pinki sh a ng ula r a rkose. cr oss-bedded at a 35o ang le.
Cont ain s a len s ( dl ) o f fin e banded r eel a nd whit e, which pin ches out to the
so nth wc st . Variable thi ckness ... .. .. . . . ... _ . . .. _ .. . ..... . . . . ........ 2 - 3 ft.
c. Va ri egated, pink, r ed, white medium (0.5 - 1 mm.) a rkose fin ely banded
(layers 1 em. wide), separated by clark ferruginous bands 1 - 2 mm. thi ck. Light-
er in color and coar ser (1 - 3 mm.) nea r top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft. 6 in.
h. Con g lomera ti c laye r with pebbles up t o 6 em. in di a meter ( han ded whit e
g neiss. white g r anit e g neiss, q ua rtz, feldspar, chl orit e-sc hi st). Pebbl es r ounded
a nd flatt ened .. . . .. . ... . . . ....... ..... . .... . . .. ..... . . .. . . ............. 6 in .
a. Vari egat ed whiti sh, g r eeni sh, or purpli sh-pink, coar se (1- 2 mm.) arkose,
soft , di sint egr ates easil y into sand. Poo rl y banded (2- 4 em.), becomes coar ser
II Car t01) .......... . . . . . . ........... . . . . .... . . . . . . . . .... ..... . . . .. ft. (l i11.
T otal thi ckness exposed ...... . ... . .. . .. . ...... . ........ . ... 15 ft.
Section at Joe. 18. Dunbar Hill , Hamden
Top covered
f. Coarse (2 - 3 mm.) pebbly white, purpli sh nea r t op. Contains pebbly
layers; sli g htl y micaceous ; irregularl y j ointed ; wea ther s t o a dirty g r ay
color .... . ... . .. .... . .. . .... .. . .. .. . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . __ .. . ... _ . . 2 ft. 6 in.
c. Hla ck s ilt y shale, sandy and mi caceous, thin ly lami nated, ve ry fr agil e,
weathers t o a n a shen g ray color, turns r eddi sh upon drying . _ . . . . . . . . . . 4 in.
d. Yell owish-whit e, loose, poor ly consolida t ed sand, fine t o mecl ium- g tain ed
(0.25 mm.) ... . ................... . . . ......... . . . .... ... ... _. . . . . . . . . 3 in.
c. Reel, micaceous sandstone, medium-grained (0.5 - 1 mm.) faint ly rippl e-
ma rk ed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... _ . . .. .. 1 it .
b. Black shal e, as in (c) .. .. .. . . .. ...... . ...... _... ........... 1% in.
a. Red sandstone as in (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . 2 ft.
Base covered
T ot al thickness exposed . ... ... . .. .. . . . ....... . . .. ..... 6 ft. 2 1/2 in.
rBull.
two horizons: a lower one passing through East Rock, North HaYen
and \ Vallingford and an npper one near t he very top of the New
H:l\'en formation , stretching from Foxon Park to Northford. There
a1e also se,eml intermeclia.te conglomerate pockets which, hmyever,
appear to be concentrated either in the Foxon Park-East Rock region
or in the East \Vallingford-N orthforcl district. The poss ible infer-
ence from thi s is, that besides two general periods of conglomerate for-
mation, two rather important and relatively swift drainage courses
may ha \e existed in these areas Juring most of npper New Haven
time. The upper New Haven becls weather to a rod or purplish color.
Glacial t ill
Section at Joe. 16. vV cstwoods Avenue, Hamden
( sec also F ig. 4)
Coarse conglomerate .. . ...... ..... . .... . .. . . . ... .... .. . . .. .
Coarse whiti sh arkose massive or layered into bands 2-5 mm. thi ck
Red si lty shale .......... . ..... .. . .. . . ......... . .... . . . ...... . .
1 ft. 6 in.
3 ft. 4 in.
2 in.
Fine to medium, layered (2-3 em.) gray arkose, weathers reddish ..
Red shaly sands t one, passes into real shale near base, layered (1-2 em.)
ft.
8 in.
10 in. Coarse whitish massive arkose . . .... . ... ... ........... . . . ... . . . .. .
Red shale, lenses out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ft . 6
Coarse gray massive arkose .... . . ... . .. . ..... ... . . . . . ....... . . .
Red shaly si ltstone, lenses out ... . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . . ... . . . .. . .
Coarse gray massive arkose ... . . . . ... . . . . ... . .... ... ... . . ... . .. .
Talus .... . . . .. .. ......
Red sandy shale . . . . . . ... . . . . ... ...... . .. . ... ..... ....... . .. . . . .
Coarse, pebbly, gray arkose (as at Joe. 17) , layered (2-10 em. ) .. . .
Red shaly si lt stone .. . .... . . ............. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . ... . . . . .
Coarse, pebbly, layered, gr ay arkose .. . . .. ... .. ....... . . ... . .. . .
Medium to coarse gray arkose, contains many small r ed shaly lenses
(35%) ... . ......... . ... . . . . .. .......... . . .. .. .. .. ......... .
Red shaly si lt stone .......................... . ..... . ..... . ..... .
Talus ............ . .. . ........ . ...............
Coarse, layered, g r ay arkose, interbedded with shal y lenses (20% of
in. to 6 111.
1 ft. 8 in.
1 ft. 3 in.
1 ft. 3 in.
10 ft.
2 ft. 6 in.
7 ft. 1 iE.
1 ft. 3 in.
10 ft.
5 ft.
10 in.
7 ft. s 111.
the rock) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ft. 7 in.
Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 ft . 1 in.
Section at Joe. 13b, Russo Street, Foxon
Pebbly arkose ........... . .. .. ...... . ............. . ..... .. . . . .... 10 ft.
Cong lomerate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft. 6 in.
Pebbly arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft .
Cong lomerate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft . 6 in.
Pebblv arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ft.
Conglomerat e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft.
Pebbly arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ft.
Conglomerate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft .G in.
Pebbly arkose . . . . .......... . . .. . .... .. . .. ......... . ............ 30 ft.
Total thi ckness ... . . . . . . .. . ............. .. . .. . .... . ... . . . . .. . 1) 1 ft . 6 in.
A transitional zone between the lower n.ncl npper liWmber of t he
New Hann arkoses extends t hroughout Hamden east of \Vhit.ney Ave-
nue. A typical outcrop is present at \Vesb,oods Avenue (loc. 1G)
dipping 16 SE (140). A sketch of this prototype fluvial locality
is shown on Figure 4 and the section is described on this page.
No. 73]
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut
The t_vpi cal upper NP11 Hann nrko:;;e is exposed hest in Fair Hn-
\rn :-m(l t he conD:l omHati e brds north of East Roelc and in Foxon.
The Fni r Ha\en. quani rs (loc. 10) expose a real " tHtbook" type of
ar1.wse. cnti nlv grani t ic in appParnncc aml in cOJupositi on . trnceablc
through its heiwy minerals ( monazite and large smoky zircons) to the
Stouy <'reek !tranite. Finer beds of silt c;t mws and sandv rip-
pl f! -ll.larkrcl mml-n:-wke<l. are prPsent. A skeldon of Stegomtt8
mr:uattts was discovered in these qnanies.
A good ontcrop on the Hartford Tnrnpike (loc. 13a) ea"t. of the
New Haven Count ry Club shows a remarkable developnwnt of laqre
lenses and pockr ts (np to 7 feet thi ck ) of conglOJII emtPs in a. coarse
arkose. AnotiH'l" good o11 t crop on Russo Street in Foxon ( loc. 13b)
shows, as described on the preceding page, an alternation of arkose
and real congl omerate beds.
East of \Vnllingforcl, thi ck bri ck-reel sandstones interbeddecl with
are present. an(l at some plnces the)' are alo:o interbed-
ded with coarse conglomerates and grayish arkoses. This alternation
is somewhat similar to the alternation of red sandstones and white ar-
kosrs around Meriden, to be flescri becl l n.t er on.
Central Connect icut Facies
J: o 11 (' r mrmbcr. The lower beds of the New Hann arkose. n.p-
proximat r ly 1.000 fpet thi ck. nre made up of white or !!'ray arkoses.
nmglomr rati c nenr t he bnse. At Ronring brook (loc. 39) tlw l>asal
Triassi c br(ls onrliP. nn('onformablv. the old crvstalline floor. Tl1i s
classic locality is the only place in Connecti cut "\\;here thi s undistnrbed
contact cnn be always obsen ecl . The crystalline floor, built np of
t rllll<"a tNl. stePpl_v tiltecl (7;'\ ") l ayp rs of Hnrtlnncl schi st. is oYr rlnin
cl ippi ng (8 to 12 to the SE) Triassic beds (Plate V-I-A) .
Fmm tlw clip nncl thr local gromorphological charact<-r of t he \Yest-
Prn Highlanfl. Longwell condndrs t hat a. lnrge fn.nlt is present in tlw
H n rt lancl sch i<;t 1N'st of t lw contact. The ontcrop PXt Pnds. with some
interTn ptions. fo r mer 1.000 f ert. nl onu: Ronring Brook ancl an agp:rr-
gate thi ckness of more tlwn 100 feet of basal Triassic beds is exposed.
Tl w r rartlan<l sc!Ii st belmY t il e conta<.:t consist s of :
1. _l\ f_i caceo11s lll l' lllbr rs- gnrnet iferons 111i ea-schi st composed of
la.rge folmt ed and crumpl e<l lllli SCovite and biot ite flaln s. wi t h red
ganwts 11p to 2 llllll.. standing ont on weathered snrfaec;:.: _ The heavy
reo:idne is charaderizecl by a flood of sta urolite (both clPar anrl cloncl\r
pes wi th ca rbonaceo11 s iuclnsi ons) and an apprecin ble a.111ou nt <;f
non orPs and anatase.
Q11artzitic members - ,-cry fine-12Tainecl CJilartznse mien-schi st.
;d ;no,-t iniJWrceptibly layered. The heavy resiclne is characte ri zed by
a f loocl of idi omorphi c lH'O\YII t01 mnaline. by a hi gh per<'Pn tage o.f
eolorl e::;s ga rnet :lllcl by a not able scarcity of iron ores. Toiii 'IIla lini z:t-
t.ion incl11<:e<l by pegmatites close by sce111 s to be the cause of this.
3. P egmatiti c quartz veins, consisting of g rannlar qnarh, either
(water-dear) or dull white. sprinklrd with and 111\t S-
<:ovite flnkes an<l a Yet-y few crystnl s of epi<lote. The qnnrLz shows
nrv \\"1-' ak strain shadows and contains rather scn rce inf'lnsions c;on-
sist:ing ni ost ly of minnte gas or flui<l ca.viti<>s. some with hee Lnbbles.
oft<>n elongated and arranged in or iented chains or ro\YS.
The micaceous members do not efrervesce with cold H CI, but
upon boiling ''"ith H Cllose a certain amount of ferruginons material
(not coni[llttrcl quantitatively ). The f]Uartzitir llirmlwrs Pfi'Pt Tcs<e
with cold acid. The loss in cold H Cl is 5 1/ 2 per cent (calcareous
cement) and a further loss in boiling HCl is 2 1/2 per cent (ferru-
ginous cement).
The basal becls of the New Hnxen arkose nst upon tlil' roughly
beveled surface of the Hartland schi st (Plate XX-B). They consist
of l ayer s and lenses of conglomerates. pebbly arko.-e and coarse arkose.
The prevailing color is a whiti sh yellow or whiti sh gray with infre-
quent r eddish browni sh stains on weathered surfaces. Tlwsc basal
Ne \\" Haven beds are made up of:
1. Conglomerati c layers composed of pebbles np to 10 f' lll. india-
met er. The pebbles consist of quartz pebblrs (7:) per cent ). gnei ss
anrl sC'bi st pebbles (20 per cent) and large f eldspar (5 per
cent). The quartz pebbles are mostly I'C'I"J' bnt one in fi teen
sho"s excell ent rounding. The gnC'i sse;:; nncl sC' hi sts are all sotnc\\hat
r onnde<l and flatt E' necl (Tabl e 7). Tlwt"C is no apparent sizing. ;:;o rt-
ing, or layering. Son1e of the llli I ky 'rhite qna rt.z pebb! C's a ppca r to
have bC'en cleriYcd from pegtnatite w ins in thC' un<lPrlyinQ: Hartland
schi st , lmt a mi croscopic stndy cli sprovcs thi s.
4
The qnart.z of the
pebbles shows nmch .more intense strain shadow;.; and more abun(lant
inclusions than the qnartz of the local veins. Tlw color an<1 translu-
cency of the qnartz depend upon t he abnn<lance of Jn inllt c inclnsions.
2. Arkn>'P. -pnorl v sized an<l sort ecl . Contains consi(lerabl c cal-
careous cement: 29 per cent of the rock is solnbl e in cold I-ICl after
Yi olent effervescence and 1 1/ 2 per cent is soluble in boiling HCI
(ferruginous or dolomitic matcrial). In a thin section, the arkose
shows the following composition:
a. Quartz, angular quartzite and mi ca-schist fragments intense-
ly llcformecl, angular grains of vein qnrrrtz 'vith moderately undu-
lose extinct ion and ori ented inclusions and a few rather c; mall rnnndec!
grains with no strain shadows. Total f]llnrtz in rode is :iO pe r
cent.
b. Mi croclinc a n<l plagioclase ( albitc-oligocla.sc). The f rid-
spars ntry greatly in freshness, most of them being sericitizccl aml cs-
T hi s ha s bee n r ccogni zcu by Perciva l. hut not b,, lat er observers. Per ci va l
(1842, p. 4.10) writ e5 : " Fo r alt hough a coar se con glomera t e JCca siona ll y occur s
in 1.h e \ Vcs t crtl pan of t hose basins. yet it s fra g ment s a re usuall y mor e ab!adcd
and less easil y referable t o the adjoining P rimary formati ons."'
No. 73]
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks nf Connecticut
51
T:\ BLE 7
PEBBLES FRO\ I LOC. 39. ROARING BROOK
Basal New Haven cong lomeratic a rkose dir ectl y above cont ac t with H artl and
sc hi st
I. Angul ar piece, 5 by 3.5 by :l em. , color less or pal e-gr ay quart z, brilli a nt
(gr easy) lust er. Cons ist s o f coa r sely g ra nul ar (2-5 em. ) ve in qua rt z with crys-
tal s of black t ourma lin e up to 5 by 2.5 mn1. Surface da rk g ray, suban gul a r ,
fa irl y smooth to the t ouch. T hin secti on M4-1 A- P l.
2. Angular equa nt pi ece. 10 by 7 em .. dull milky-whit e t o li ght smoky-gr ay
quart z. Coar sely gr anu la r (0.5-1. 5 em.) ve in quartz with a few fl akes of Jnusco-
vit e or bl eac hed bi otit e. Angul ar surf ace, in places coat ed with ferri c oxide.
Thin secti on M4- 1A-P2.
3. F lat tened pear- sha ped. somewhat r ounded pi ece 9 by 6 by 3 em. Quart z-
iti c mi ca-sc hi st or mi ca-gneiss compose d mostl y of dull- g ray qua rt z and musco-
vit e.
4. F la tte ned r ounded pe bbl es . broke n. prese nt si:'.e 7 by 7 by 3.5 em. For -
mer length pr obabl y up to 10 em. C0ar ,;e laye r ed qnart ziti c g neiss, somewhat
mor e quart zose than No. 3. Surf ace either smooth or rough, poss ibl y indented f rom
pr ess ur e of other pebbl es.
5. Sub angular equant pi ece 6 by 5 by 3 em. Brilli a nt s moky-gr ay qua r tz;
no inclusions vi sib Je : surf ace either smooth or r ough.
SA. Tri angul ar pi ece, equilateral sides 5 em. long, 2 em. thick. P al e smoky
g ray quartz. Corn er edges in pl aces r ounded, in other s a ngul a r.
6. Simil a r mat erial , pear- shaped, 6 by :l by 1. 5 em
7. E quant pebbl e, 3 by 3 by 2.5 e m. Rounded on 3 edges, angular on other
3 Banded (1 mm.). vVhite f eldspathi c qua rt zose gneiss, fine-grained. almost
a layer ed qua rt zit e.
8. Angul ar , tri angle-shaped pebble 8 by 4 by 4 em. Dull smoky-gray quartz,
coa r se-grained with s mall mi ca fl akes. Roug h surface.
lJ , 10. 11 , 12. Ang ul ar pi eces of dull smoky-gr ay t o blue ' !Har tz. Dimen-
sions fr om 3 by 2 up t o 6 by 4 by 2 em. Rough surf ace.
13, 14, 15. 16. Small angul a r or flat te ned pe bbles of milky-gray or smok\
quart z. Dimensions 3 by I by 1. 5 em .. a nd iess . The mos t fl att en<'d pehbfe
(No. 15) is 3 by 2 by 0.75 em.
17. \ Ve l! rounded quart z pebbl e, 3 by 2.5 by 2 rm. Rose or browni sh
smoky-gr ay quartz.
18. 19 . .A ngul a r fe ld spa r pebbles ( mi cr ocline or orthoc h se) . Br ol.:en. pre-
sent dimensions 2 by 0.5 by 0.5 em. , and 2 by 1.5 by 1 em. O ri gina l leng th b e-
li eved to have r eached 3 or 4 em.
20. Round ed medium- g r a in ed layer ed quart zit e pebbl e 6 by 4 by 3 em. Sur-
fa ce roug h.
SUMMARY
Quartz --IS pebbles. 1 we ll rounded. oth er s ang ul a r.
Foli at ed r ocks- 4 pe bbl es, all suba ng ul a r t o rounded a nd flatt ened.
Feldspa r -- 2 pebbl es, a ngul ar.
p c c i l l ~ r r eplaeccl by calcite. T ota.l r emammg f elds par is ar ound 20
per cent.
c. Calcit e, 25-30 per cent of the rock, r eplaces feldspars and
biot it e.
Some of t he qnart;r, QTains a re strongl_v f ractnred an(l t he f issures
fill ed with <.: alcitc (Pl ates VI-A and VI-B) . Iron- oxide stains in the
52
[Bull.
rock are dne to the running of iron ores. Under the binocnlars the
cleaned, loose grains appear to consi st mostly of opaCJue, milky qnartz.
t"o-thirils of them being snbangular to angular and the balan<:c eith0r
ve ry sharply angular or fairl y well ronndcd, some extremely so.
In addition to the minerals li sted in the heavy resiclne tahle (loe.
39) , perfectly fresh crystals of biotite were founcl preservecl in the in-
t erior of large CJUart.z grains. The heavy residue is charact erized by
an abundance of indi colite, brown t ourmaline and augite and by an
ext1cmely vari ed snite of zircons, many of them rounded (rounded by
abrnsion. not just apparently rounded through the multiplication of
Yi cinal faces ).
The New Haven arkose 60-75 feet above the contact (lor.. 38, ap-
proximntely 750 feet west from the previons locality ) shows good
stratifi cntion and cross-bedding indi cating- alternating westward and
0astwanl c; urrents. The color of the rock is white with vellowi sh
stains. The arkose does not react with cold HCl, but loses Ef per cent
upon boiling and decantation in acid (ferruginous cement, some kao-
lin and some seri citic matter).
Uncl er the mi croscope, the rock appears to be poorly sized and
angular. with an absence of t he wellrmmcled ?:rains fonnd in the basal
beds. The cement is not calcareous, but sericitic ancl nrgillaceons,
with some iron oxide. The rock consist s mostly of quartz ('<P.in
qnartz ancl mi en-schi st ancl meta-quartzite fragnwnts) , mi cr ocline
(two va riPti rs necorrling t o the sharpness of the g:mting). some of the
latter strongly altered, and plagioclase (albite-oligoclase). Large
mnscoYite flakes are bent and exhibit intense nnclnlose extinction.
Some of the qnnrtz gmins are weakly fractured nncl the thin fi ss nr0s
fill ed with sericite. The frn ctnring and mineralization, however , arc
much l<>ss well developed than in the basal layers. The hC'rtYy res irlll e
is chnracterizrcl by a floocl of barite (CiO per cent) with mtmetons dark
inclusions. Inclicoli te, brown tourmaline nncl especially augite arc
al so abundant.
The followinp: conclusion appear justifi ed:
1. The inj ection of the pegmntite veins into the Hartl and schi st
took place in the Ronring Brook region subsequent to the period of
meta ntorphi sm.
2. The Ha.rtlnml schi st was reclnc0<l to a verv fla t be fore
Triassi c deposition began . . Thi s penepla.ne \Ya.S covrrecl by a seclimen
tary cmer conta.ining some exeeedingly wr ll rounc1Nl material , pnrt of
\Yhi ch may have been of eolian origin: perfectly polished. ronnded
grains were di scovered in the medium sand fmction (O.i'l-0.2 mm.) of
tho basal beds nt Lake Dnwson. These ronndecl grains, however, may
hrt ve been al so derived from Paleozoic orthoquartzites ( n.
3. The existence of a large fault west of the Roaring Brook con-
tact , advanced by Longwell on physiographic and structural grounds,
to be substantiated by:
No. 73]
Triassic Sedimentar y Rocks of Connecticut 53
a. Int ense replacen1ent an<l l'a lcitization of the lo,nr Xew Ha-
Yen beds.
b. Fract nring of quartz grains in these basal beds and filling of
the rracks " ith cal cite.
r. Partial cal('itizat ion of the qnartzitie II ICIIJbers qf the Hart-
lane] seh ist ncar the ron tact.
At Bristol (Joe. il7) a north-sonth fanlt. with upthrow on the west
rnnning along thr <-> astrrn fa ce of Frdr ral HilL -forn1 s the rontact be-
t\\'een t.he Tria ss ie and tlw Hartland schi st. Th<-> -fanlt nlane was not
aetna lly ohs<-> JTrrl. hnt was i n-feiTPCl on strndnra I l1 nrl gcomorphi c
grounrl s (arkose clips into a Jill -fa cr of hill is vrry st er.p)
and also on the presence of quartz veins filling joints in the arkose.
Sampl<->s \Wn'. obtained from the I-Tartlnnrl schi st and tlw lower New
Ha,en arkosC' less than 100 feet apart at a point approximntely fiOO
f e.e.t north of the P eqnabnck River bridge. The throw of the fanlt
hns been con1pntcrl at 1.200 f ert in th e Bri stol mine. 0 mil es to the
north. .At F ederal Hi ll it is apparentl.v ]pss. The arkose is
gmined, of pal e gTayi sh-bnff color. " ell s ized (0.25-2 111111.). with onl y
a few rruartz grains anrl f p]rJ s nar grannl <->s snaringly rli ssernin-
ated thrott .!!hout the ror k. Thr rork is nta ssivc. anrl shows hanllv anv
bellrlinrr at all. Joints and fi ssnrPs arc present anrl some of thr lnttt.' r
are filled with quartz Yeins O.fi to 1 rn1. wide, with small quartz crys-
tal s growing inward fron1 both \Y:t ll s of the Yein. The hraV)' mineral s
of the arkose (analysis il7) show that it bt'longs to the lower member
of the fo nnati on.
At F or estville. 1 1/ 2 mi les cast. of B ri st ol and stratigraphi cal ly
approximately 1,300 f eet abo,e the bnsr. of the Triassic, is
an nnnsnal seri es of gray antl hl nck fin<.> -gmiJw<l frl<l snat.hi e snw] ..
f.' tonrs. s-iltstones and shales. cPntaining or):?:nni<' lll :lttcr. .\ 11 memhen;
of this seri es are fine- or nl ellinm-grained and all are strongl y mica-
ceous. The scetion, \Yh ieh clips 1'1 o east, is as follows :
Sec tion a t Joe. 37a, For es t vi ll e
Ta lus covers top ol' s ection.
Grayi sh, in places whiti s h, fe ldspat hi c sandston e, in places with ca rbona-
ceous matte1, th inl y bedded (2-S em.), with s ubordinate la ye r s of r ea
arkose a nd a littl e black shale . . .. . ......... . ..... . . . . . . .. ... .. . . .. . . 26 ft .
hi a tu s ... . .. ......... .. . . .. . ... . .... .. .. .. . . ....... . . .. 23 ft.
Re<1 t o maroon s ilt st o ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ft.
mi caceous arkose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ft.
Dark-gray fe ld spathic sa ncbto nc with o rga nic mat tn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S ft.
Black s hal y silt st one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ft.
Black fc lds path ic- sandst o ne v.' it h ca r bon i7.ccl wood fra g ments . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ft .
Grayi sh-whit e fc !ds pathi c sa ndst one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ft.
Talus cover s hase of secti on.
Secti o n 74 ft . thick out of whic h 51 ft. ar c visibl e.
Thi s sPdion is PXtrr mrly s itnilar to any typi cal sec tion through
the upper s\\amp beds. The he:ny minerals, lwwever, show
t.hat these beLls are of New Haven age. These dark shales can be seen
54 Connecti cut Geol ogical and Natural Hi story Survey
in exposnrE's for approxinwtdy one-fonrth miiP along the strike, but
pebbk::; con1ing from t lwse becls haYE' been pi ckecl np in lacustrine Plei -
stoeenc !.da(' ial sands n,.; far as fonr util E's :o ontlt aml onp nn cl onc-l ml
miles north of Forest\i i!P. Thi s may in<li<'at< that the swnmp-lwds
ontcr op possihl? extPn<l c<l f or fi ,e mil es or more in a north-south cl ir-
( 1-tion.
U ]'Ji t'l' me111brJ . In thE' Yi<:inity of Meri clPn the llJlJll'r <livis ion of
Ut e New liav<' n arko,.;e sho11,.; a rcmarkable ,ariation of frteics. Dne
to Yl' l'Li cal block fanltinu ''"hieh h1ing,;; to the snrf:tl'l' tlw same strati-
graphi c hori zons as far as s ix ini iPs :lpart atTnss the strike, vari-
ations can be ,.;h11lied.
Enst of l\fPridr n. lwhnp n tlll' tmYn an!l Lant Pntntion
the upper New Ha\"en beds are mncle up of a coarse, or
white arkose. in ni nny placE's eonglonwrnti c nn<l containin!! an ahun-
tlance of pink feld spar JWI>bles nn<l phyllite frngnwnts. Thesr l'Oarsc
pa.l e-colore!l strata will I>P nfcrrr.d to as the "IJanwntnti on nrkosc' ' .
\Vest of an<l lwbnen Sonthington an<l the
Hanging Hill s, the snme horizon eons ists of a fine- to medium-grained
bright r ed to bri ck r Nl. ntil'al'Nlii S fPI<lspathi e snndstone, in many
places interbedtl r tl " ith silbtorws an<l ,; hal es. Thi !' rock. to be ca1lc<l
the " Redstone" (fr0111 its type localit y on Rl'<lstOJw Hill). is totnlly
different from the Lament.n t ion arko,.;p in appearance. color an
1
1 si :, ing
(Table 8). Dne to t he softnes,.; of tlw rock (high clay content) , t he
topography of t l1 is a rea is sn htlllt'd an<l o11tnops :tre scarce nncl poor.
In the innnPtliatt ,ieini t y of and to tlw sonth nnd sonth-
west of thi s town all alternat.ing succession of interlaye reJ "Redstone"
and LanlPntntion arkosP is r xposed. ExcPII Pnt ontnops can be :-;el'n
i11 the town itself. in Sonth Meriden. at Hano,er Pond and along t he
highway sonth of the Qninnipiac Ri, er ( notabl y at Cheshi re Street).
At. I-TanmP I' Pontl. a cliff. :iOO fpet long: shO\\" S 2:1 frPt. o{
Redstone and 1:i ft et. of l'Oa rse grayish at kose in n cyclil'. seri es of
la yer s and lmrHk The photog raph on Plate XXI-A sho\\"::; the fol-
lowing sncee:..; sion :
Coar se g ray a rkose 6 ft.
Redstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ft .
Coa r se g r ay a r kos e with cong lomerat e at base . ..... . .. . . . .. .. 3 ft.
Re dst one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ... .... . .. . . . .... 6 ft .
..1\..t Cheshire St reet in the Qninnipiac Hin; r gorge ltighwn.y cnt
feet long: nnd 25 feet hi gh exposes n pproximatel y 220 fpct of
strata. The l ower 100 f eet consist of very coarse pnrpli sh-"' hit c La-
mentation arkose with numerous pockets and lenses of congl01mrat r
(Plate XXI-B). The upper 120 feet are made up of Redstone carry-
ing in its midst a 6-foot layer of Lamentati on nrkosc.
No. 73) Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 55
T ABLE 8
CONTRASTED COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL REDSTONE AND
LAlVIENTATION SPECil'viENS IN IMMEDIATE PROXIMITY
l\LECH:\NTCAL ,\NAJ.'{S JS
Pebb les
Gra\'Cl
Coarse sa nd
l\[edium sand
Fine sand
V cry fine sa nd
Si lt
Clay
c
21%
41%
25%
6%
5%}
1%
C = Lamentation conglomerate, loc. 34.
A = Lamentation arkose, loc. 32.
R =Redstone, Joe. 35 (close to specimen C).
TABLE 9
A
35%
35%
28%}
2%
R
5%
18%
15 %
12%
10%
43 %
PROXIMAL CORRELATION BETWEEN REDSTONE (RED) AND
LAMENTATION ARKOSE (LAM.) BASED ON I-I.EAVY RESIDUE
(CHESHIRE STREET, LOCS. 34 AND 35)
Chlorite . . . . . . . . ...... . .... .. . . .
Ga rn et . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......
Indicolitc ... .. ................ . .... . ... .
).Ionazitc
Rutile
Tourmaline,
Tourmaline,
Tourmaline.
/:ircon
Sillimanite
f(_van it c
brown .. . . .. . . . . .... . ... . . . . . . .. . .. .
pink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
gtcen
0. 0 .
TABLE 10
Lam.
3
54
2
1
5
18
2
3
10
tJaces
traces
LONG- RANGE \IUNER;\L CORRELATION
BETWEEN REDSTONE AND UPPER NEW HAVEN
(LAMENTATION) ARKOSE; SO FT. BELOW TOP
Sa nel y fraction
Lam. Red.
Anatase .. . . .. .. .. ... ... .. . . . . ..... . . 5 4
Ch lorit e . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . traces
Garnet .. ... . .. . .. . . ... ..... . . . . . . . . 2 7
Inclicolitc . . . . .. . . . . 4 traces
Kya nitc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monazite .. . . . . 2 2
Rutile . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . ...... . .. . 6 6
Tourmaline, brown .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . ... . 57 54
Tourmaline, pink . . . . .. 4 2
Tourmaline, g- reen .. .. . . ............. . 3 7
Titanite . . .
...... ... . .
1 2
Zircon . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . 15 16
Lam.-Lamentation arkose; loc. 32.
Reci.-Reclstone; Joe. 33 (5% m. west of 32).
Si lt y
Lam.
11
traces
5

5
47
I
6
l
23
Red.
I
56
7
20
I
!.
12
traces
trac;e s
fraction
Reel.
8
4
I
trace::.
4
12
42
l
4
1
21
5<) Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey
sor.
40 'i.
30?.
20>.
101'.
1-
.
.
i
<
SO:<

30'-
20"
10 "
1-
I
fi'
Jj
.
+
' .
3
1-
I
1/-

\
.
'
'
"
17\
-
1\
f-
_ ,
'
'
I
i\, 1/\
v
--
-
--
/'
......
1\ i
---
I---
-

br

-
I
I
.
"'
I
r.1-
I I
''
!-1
I
I
I
I
'
I
r---
f\. --
[Bull.
J7igur e 13. Proxima l relat ionshio;o het ,vec n L amentat ion (--- - ) a nd Re el -
stones (---) facies of the New Haven a t'lwse at Joe. 34 (see Tables 8
and 9) .
T op: i\[ec ha ni cal a nalyses. Not e wide t ex tura l and megascopic diffe r-
ence, indica ting mark ed var iations in the r elative int ensit y o f depositi o nal
processes.
Bottom: Heavy. miner al om-relation, show in;; complete ill entity in rom[JO-
sition. thus proving a comm0\1 sour ce ar ea ior both fa cies.
A
f-...-.'
- -
-
[.\
,_
--1-
- ---- - -
t/\
30V.
'
'
2. 0y.
1-
"
1-
c--
# 1\
I! .,
A'
J/ / \

...;::_ ....
rJ' k
-a:-
':2
.
1'\

.
c
. .

.:.

!
:
! +
0 0 0 c
0
c
2
0 E L

..!!
c
c
;; ... 0
u L-"
"'
0
g
- E
0 E

0
c -
c :c 0
'ij
"
,

0
=
<
()
t? ..: t 0::
;;:; ::::;;
rigure 14. Long- r ange heavy -min eral correlati on (sec Tal.-l c 101 bet wee n
t wo different fac ies of th e New H ave n a rkose. namelv thc Lament ati on arkosc
at loc. 32 a nd the Redstone at loc. 33. about five a nd Ol.l e- half mil es wc;;t.
Lamentat.ion nrko.se, sandy fraction
Lamentation arkose, silty fraction
Redstone, sandy fraction
Redstone, silty fraction
No. 73]
A m iero::;eopie stndy of the Redstone and the Lamentation arkose
r enmls that JIOt\Yithstanding their totally different aspect, both these
rock types are identical in co!llposition tLil<l provenance at any given
horizon. Samples from Cheshire Street-localitie:;; 35 and 34---clisposed
:J.30 Je:t apart and 100 feet away stratigrrLphi ca.lly show identi cal as-
semblages of heavy lllinerals (Table D). It must be added that these
assemblages not only possess the same frequencies, but also have in
cot; unon the same two types of zircon and the same three subvarietiec.
of brown tourmaline.
A successf ul conelation can also be tnade over :>lj
2
miles of teni-
tory the strike between the type locality of the Lamentation
:trkose (loc. 32 on Route :)a) and a H.edstone locality in Shuttle
Pass ( 33). !3oth these exposures are approximately 50 feet
below the lo" er la nt flow, but the outcrop is 51;2 miles north
of west from the Lamentation locality. Megascopically no greater
cldlerence can be itnagineJ between any two rock types. However, a
<.;areflll study of the heavy minerals of both the sandy and the silt}'
fract ions from both specimens reveals again an identical co111 position
and a COIIlllton source. (Table 10 aml Figures 13 and 14.)
The following concl11sions <.; all IJe nwde on the basis of the lith-
olcgy, cotnposition and <li st ribntion of the different facies of the uppPr
New Ha\' en arkose in central Connecticut:
1. The lledstone and the Lalllentation <trkose, although totally
different in aspect, arc nc\ertheless identical in mineral composition
and provenance at nn,v giYen horizon. The Lamentation arkose enu
IJe defined as sand and pebbles and the Hedstone as the same sand
ancl red day.
2. The !led stone tm<l the La mentation arkose were lleri \'eel sinml-
tattcously from the sa me source area, an a rea poor in rock types (one
pegmatiti c granite and one phyllite or chlorite-schist) and very
limited in extent . 'fhe Glastonbury granite gneiss and the Bolton
sehi::; t east of Middletown appear to be possible source rocks.
3. The Lamentation adwst> with, its numetous pebbles and
boulders su!.'l.!.ests Yiolent erosion. The Redstone, with its 40 per cent
of .ferruginous clay, points strongly to intense chemical decay. Both
these proresses were Laking place simultaneously over the limited area
of tlw region of origin .
.::. 'fhe streams whi ch deposited thP upper Ne\\' Haven beds were
flo\\'ing front east to 'Yt>st with no eviclence of a north-south longi-
tudinnl Llrainage, a:; no foreign illlported material is visible in the
finer-grained sediments .
.l\fEJUDEN !<'ORMATION
General Features
Dist1'ib1ttion and The middle member of the Connecti-
cut Newark forms a rather narrow belt of relatively soft rocks which
occupies the central and east-central part of the Connecticut Valley.
58 Connecticut Geological and Natural Hi story Survey
!Bull.
It is exposed at its best between l\IP!'idPn and Britain. Thi s
formation (the " Middl e S hale" of Perci ntl ) <ons ists of t he
three lan1 sheets and the sedi1nentary rocks lwtwetn. Thl'
of the se<liu1entary 111 enilw.rs ntri es fr0111 LL>O feet IH'ar to
:2,000 feet east of New HanJII. The three la.1a. sheets are fro111 -1: :10 to
H:}() f eet thi ck. A luiYer and au upper di1ision (Da1is's anttrior and
post e rior shales ) , separated by the 111 iddle bt ,.,t sl!l'd. are pn'slllt. 'I he
t11o t y pe localities are :
1. F or the lowe r divi sion, the outnop on thl southern s horl' of
S huttl e r esenoir, betln'en Me riden and :\"e,, Britain (l< w; .
:2!.> and This is the lnc; ustrine em ironn!l'nt pmtotype ( Fig. -l ) .
2. For the upper <1il"i s ion. a quarry 011 a <ount. ry road in Kt' li ' '
ing ton , 1lj
2
1nilPs south of Be rlin ( Joe. :27). Thi s is till' s \\"HIIlLJ prn-
t ot ype ( Fig. 4).
0 hwactel'. In centnd Connedi<"ut the loiH'J" d i ,. is ion <onsi st ,- o1"
;\()() feet of exceedingly lalninated fi sf'ile f'hall s (so ca!l<d
' paper shales' ') showing a.Jt excPptiuna lly well de1eloped fill l' hand i li !...:
and layering. The l ower 7iJ f tet consi st of red- or rathPr t:lai'O<lll ---
f-i ha.les and siltstones 11 eathering to a yellowi sh broiYJl. Thl'n follo 11
a pproxinmtely 60 f eet of <lark s hal es. in placl' s -bearing plant.-; a nc1
li s hes. These form the lower blal"k s hal e hori zon of l>a1 is. Ho\\"I 'I L'I".
f t: 11, if a ny, of these shales are reall y ula ck. They are dark to light
g ray, blue or gr eeni sh g ray, and IYeatlwr to a r ust y yell o1Y. Tlw d nr k
s hall' s contain, near their base. se1era.l 1ery ha nL thin ( l f oot ) laycr,:;
<f a s ili ceous blue an<l near their top. SOIII C thin (H tcl -J.
inc hes) bands uf a pink dolomite anLl dolomiti c siltst one. Then. is an
abrupt <: hange in color. Ullt - no apparent tlnconfOl"lllit y at t he uppe r
tontacii of the clark and the npper 11:) f r et of the l n1Ye r
den betls consist s of r ed paper shales, 1 er_v sin1 ilar t o Hw first 7:) f eet.
TLG upper di1i sion is somell"hnt coarser. The 11ta.roon pape r shalts
I!Tacina!!.'i become more sandy and sili ceous. and are < oarse r -b:ttH1ed.
This is rather gra<1ual. After GOO feet. the ttpper dark s h:ti e
h orizon, :,u to 150 f eet thi ck. malns its apptaran<t. Thest up] ll' r d<il "k
shales are r eally a Yery compl ex 11nit. consisting uf black ant1 ul m
s hales, in parts fossilifer ous, dark s ili ceons lmi est ones, and snbon1 i-
na te arkose and red s hale layers.
The nppermost liiO f eet of the -:\le ri<l en fonnation is uwt1e up
ha rcl s ili <:eons r eel sanel y shales, llllll"h rnore resistant to erosi on than
the UIT d y ing sandy me111l>er s of t h e l'ortlanll ;ukose. \Yhen t lJCse t \n>
.fonnntions are brought in contact by the up]Wr
shal es stand ont and f orm \H' ll <1efine<l fat1lt-line sca rps.
In southern Connecti cut the bottom of the fonnatimc
cannot be di stinl,!ui shcd at son1e plan's fron1 the uppcnnost )/"e ll
Ha1 r n arkosl'. on the basis of litholog.l". Tt is the sa111 e pinki s h. coarH
arkose. Ho\\ e,er. thi s arkose. ll"hi ch is only locally present . cl oes not
exceecl 100 f let in and pa.sses rapi c1ly into a. fim- grainP<l
No. 73 1 Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 59
hi 1-dlly 111i caeeous plat y shale whi ch underli es a blue Iitnestone 1 :i fePL
t hi ck. Thi s litnestone i::< \\el l exposed in a f]llatTy 1war :Xorthford, aml
lt as traeeLl for a Lli sta nce of 1'/
1
ntile south. Presumably, it ex:-
tPtHi s lltUc: h fart her 11orth, atHl is t he equi\aJ.ent of t he lower
layers of tlt e lm\er cla rk shales of central Connecticut. The
lilllestone is fo ll o\r e:l by approxin1a.tely 7:i f ed of dark shales, les,.;
\r ell lat11inatell their central Con nect icut e<l'tindents. The t op
of the lower Meriden l' onsist s of kOO f eet of a g ray ish p ink, partl)
red, arkose of di lfltent degr<'Ps of interbecltlc<l with l aye rs
of yellow sandy shall-.
The change ill lit hol ogy uetween the lO\r er a nd upper ui\i sions
is di stinct, and tak<s place illllll euiately above t he middle ]ant flow.
The arkose becomes llllt eh finer (0.25 mm. or less), assuming a light
g ray or white color anll containing layers of sandy shahs. It weathers
to a li g ht yellO\Y color \r ith rust y streaks which appea rs to be typical
of the npper arkose in uoth t he southern and cent ral Con-
necticut tueas . . \ft er feet, the arkose passl's entinl.\ into :1 eonJ -
plex seri es of nd and ulac: k silt stone;:; ., a rkos<:'s. and sha les. :iOO to GOU
f eet thi ck, \rith sn tral foss iliferott ,.; dat k shal e hori zons. The t op 10(;
f eet of t he section !'onsists of red sa 11dy li ssil e shales, when exposell
away fron t the fault (Lake a ncl of fa nglonterat es if
o11 t cr oppin,r lll'ar the fault (Lake Quo11ni pang).
Origin. .\ s a whoh , the ::\ltriden stdit!Jl'nts a re very 1ine-gmine<1
( 51 per ce11t of shal es a11 cl silt stom s) atHl do not indicate Hnrial <It--
position. Their most. notabl1 f ea.t u re is t he \\i<les prea.<l JH' esenee of
uark organic aml fossiliferons heel s, eotnmonly referred to as the
"bl ack shale" horizons.
Thi s term, introd11 cecl uy Da\ is, includes not only t rue black
shales, bnt also bl11 ish gray a ncl dn rk gmy shn l es. 1 i tn esto11es. clolo-
nti tes, grayish and greeHish siltstones, and \\'bite. gray a11d black f el ds-
pathie sandstones, all of \Y hi cit a re i nterbedded to some extent witb
r eu ttrko.-cs, siltstones. a n<l shales. and i n the vici ni ty of the Great
Fault eYen \rith conglotnemtes and fanglot11 erates. The bedding, how-
e\cr, is rather thin nn<l the li ner, dark-colored secl ituent.- are a feature
of almost ever y outcrop an cl permit an i llllll ecl iate i(l enti fi cation of
the series. Deposits ot t hi s ty pe arc nni\ersall y prese nt at least at t \YO
major horizons i n t he ::\ferillen fortuation: illllll ecliately a bon tlw low-
er la,a 13heet and in tl!C' llliddle of the npper cli\ision of the Meri clen
!Jell s. These two major cla.rk shale hori zons fo nu a. eontimtous co\er
over the whole Triass ic basin of Connecti cut, i nclulling t he P omper-
aug Valley, and t heir outnops can be fonnd without a single excep-
tion at the places \rlHte st ratigraphy and st ruct nre require their pres-
ence. Thi s continuity i nLli eatls that the Connect icut basin of deposi-
tion was entirely blallkd ecl at least twice uy dark sediiiiPnts. Tlw lO\Yer
horizon eonsist s to a \er y large l'Xtent of lacust rine 1leposits : per-
f ectly banded and laminated dark and r <:'d shal es, limeston<:'s , an d very
fine siltstones, partly organi c, partly calcareous, partly (to a very
mi nor degr ee) dolomitic. These lacustrine deposits extend from North-
[Bull.
ford to New Britain, ancl are also present in the Pompera ng area.
They gradually pass into less perfectly banded and coarser vn ri egatecl
siltstones and arkoses.
The upper "black shale" horizon does not h:we such a marked
lacust rine eharacter , but consists of a be\\ilderingly eontplex jllxtapo-
sition of beds front litnestones to arkoses, very lenti eula.r in eharactl:'l\
but homogeneons in their in the JlllnWJ.'otJ s exposures
from Branford to the north of Massachusetts. Mu1l cmcks in some of
the black shales intlicatc sub-aerial exposure and suggest that the
bodies of water, although numerous, were discontinnons and shallow.
ThE- general scareity or even absence of definit e laeustrine or f-ltt\ial
features in these beds s11ggests that they are prouably of swantp or
marsh origin. An enormous, poorly drained marshy lmdnncl eorn-
posed of s" amps, minor lakes, sluggi sh meandering streant s, and
patches of clry ground seems to have covered the Triassie basi n during
a large part of Meriden time.
The organic content of the ulack shales is \"C ry high. Sonte of thl,
layers are strongly carbona ceous 01' even bitnminous (the "fPtid" heels
of PerciYal). Thi s has leLl to unfounded hopes, and resttlted tlnring
the 1Dth century in se,end attempts ucing ntndc to mine eoal or obtai1t
oil from the Meriden beds. These ill-fntel l enterpri ses, Jnost of whi clt
took plaec in the P0111 perang n, rea, ha vc been dcscri be<l by P crei val ,
Davis, Hovey ( 1892), ancl Houbs ( 1901).
Central Connecticut Facies
Lowe1 d'ivision. The lower lava flow is overlain in central Con-
necticut by a seri es of laminated, si li ceous, maroon sha] ps 7iJ feet
thick. The shales are yery fi ssil e when slightly \Yt>athcrcd (so ('allPd
" paper shales" ), but when fresh, they are lul1'll , eompact , and Yery
difii cult to crush. There are se\eral orders of magnitude in the band .
ing. The finest laminae are front 0.1 to 2. 0 mm. thick, averaging o.n1
mm. These laminae unite into wider bands approximately 3 mm. thick.
The latter finall y form layers 1 to 3 cm. thick along \Yhi eh the rock
breaks into hand speei mens. The finest laminae often show cross bed-
cling, l ensing, ancl a cut-and-fill stratifi cation. The planes of stratifi ca-
tion are marked by flakes of mnscovite. Shallow mud cracks, 2Ji to ;)
em. wicle, and rill marks arc present. This description can be appli ed
to almost all the red shales of the Meriden formation.
These basal red shales arc o\elain by a seri es, at lea st GO fed
thick, of clark (black, gray, green, and blue) pededly ban<lell slta lPs.
" ith subordinate siltstones, and a thin limestone layer nea r the Lase.
The typical sect ion of loeations 2() and 30, nt Shuttle Me:vlow reser-
voir, between Meriden and New Britain. is gi,en belo\Y (graphic
representation on Figure 4). The composition of these rocks is c] js-
cussed in the chapter on Petrography.
The layering of these series is so perfect anll rhythmi c as almost
to suggest varying. They show no desiccation marks and appear to be
cldinitely of lacustrine origin.
No. 73] Triassi c Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 61
The lJalance of the section is represented by pink and r ed silt-
stones and shales, " ell layered although less perfectly so than the dad
be<l s. They shmv freq nent rippl e ma.rking_, eu rvecl lan1 i nations, ancl
ntu<l cra cks, snggesting the presenee of less permanent water boclie:"
than those in whi ch the darker beds were deposited. A section at
Hubbanl Park r ese noir, Meriden (Plate XXIII-A), near the top
of the series is described below.
Secti on at locs. 29 and 30, Shuttle l'vi eacl ow rese rvoir
Note: Ail 111 ember,s show perfect fine banding, a lmost a varve-like effect.
See sket ch on F ig. 4. Thi s is the lacust rine prototype.
Talus
1- Fine-grained maroon s iltstones and shales. In places show
fin e cross-bedding and cut-and-fill stratification. Faintly
ripple-marked .. . . .. . .. ..... .. . ............ . ...... . .... .
k- Greeni sh sh a le, in places cross-bedded and weakly con-
torted. Contain barite and pyrite crystals (1-3 mm. in
cliam.) a'.ld mi ca flakes on bedding planes . . . ..... ... . . .
i- Black s:1ale . ..... . ......... . .. . ..... ....... ... ... ..... .
h- Pinkish-gray dolomitic silt stone, with deli ca te, microsco-
pic, cut-and-fill stratifi cation. The pl anes of the latter
are marked by the concentration of heavy minerals (s id-
erite, indi coli te, brown t ourmaline. zir con , titanite , etc.)
g- Dark greeni3h. g ray la minated (0.5.1 mm.) fiss il e shale,
finely cross -bedded. Faintly ripple-marked. Contains
pink calcareous laye r s up t o 3 em. in thickness .... ... .. .
f- Blui sh-gray shale, so:newhat les::. regularly banded than
r est of '' ertion (obliquely curved laminae faintly cross-
bedded). Contains much carbonaceous matter, some pyr-
ite, anc1 a little cal cite .. .... . .... .. .. .. .... .. ... .. ... .
e- Bluish. gr::q shal e, with poorl y preserved fish remains . . .
d- Talus and break- approximately . . . . .. ........ . ...... .
c- Black shale ...... . .. .. ... . . .... .. .. .. .. ...... . ... .. . .. .
b- im.]Hlre lime s t one, layered, curved, and
contorted .. . .. . . .... . .. ..... ..... ... ... . .. . . . .. ....... .
a- Dark.gray shale .. . .. ................. . . . .. ... .. . . . .... .
Total thi ckness exposed ... . . . . .
Sect ion at Joe. 28, cast o f Hubbard P ark reservoir, Meriden
14 ft.
2 ft.
4 ft.
2 ft.
2 ft.
6 ft.
25 ft .
2 .ft.
1 ft.
2 ft.
60 ft.
2 in.
6 in.
8 in.
Note: All layer s are dark red or mar<oon in color, and contain s mall mud-
cracks .
Talus
g- Si lt y, in places m1 caceous sha le, fllle ly laminated (0.5-2
mm.) .. . . . . . .. ..... . .. . ... .. . ...... ..... ........... ... .
f- Fine-grained hard s ilty sandstone, interbedded with shale
(10%), 1ayer,s 1-6 em. thick . . .. . .. .. . .. ... .... ... .. . . .. .
e- Fine shale, crumbles into :-;mall fragment;.; , contains in
the middle a sandston e l ayer 4 inches thick ......... . .. .
d- Silty shale, as (g) . . ..... . ..... . .... . .. .. . . ... .. ...... .
c- Fine sandstone, with shale layers\ as (f) ....... ...... .
b- Fine. grai!1ed sandstone, with no shale . ... . . ........... .
a- Fine .sandston e with sh a le layer s , as (f) ...... . .......
T.otal thickneS\'3 exposed . ....
5 ft. 8 in.
1 ft. 8 in.
3 ft .
3 ft. 4 in.
2 ft. 6 in.
1 ft. 8 in.
1 ft. 3 in.
19 ft . 1 in.
62
Connecticut Geological and atural Histor y Survey
rBull.
f 'pper division . ::\Ton than hYo-thirds of the upper :Meriden beds
(GOO feet) consist of fine-g rn ined siltstones and fi ssil e siliceous shales,
rather sintilar to the reel basal shales of the lo\\' er divi sion. They are
exposed in many small ontcrops between l\fericl!:'n and Ne1Y Britain.
Tlw upper part of the se<-ti on contains a seri es of <lark shales, arkoses,
an<llimestones (the "upper black shal e horizon" of Davi s). An excel-
lent Pxposure is present on the conntry road , 1% nyil Ps sonth of Berlin
and 1/ R of a mile \\' est of Belcher Brook ( loc. :n; section follows,
illust rated on Fig. 4 and Plate XXIII-B). The di stincti1e features
of these dark becl s an thuir lensing, tlw small amonnt of desiccation
tuarks, and thei1 gPneral heterogeneity. suggest ing shifting bnt per-
ntatwnt \Yater boclies (swa ntp environment).
Sect ion a t Joe. 27, Kensi ngt on. 1 'h miles south of Berlin
Glaci al till
o- Dark.gray, very hard, impure siliceous limestone, banded
(2-4 ern.) and irregularly interlayered with a dark larnin.
ated shale (0.5-1 mrn.) and in places with a black mica.
ceous arkose. Limestone fonn s 75 per cent of the roclc
Under the microscope it is to consist of a dark or-
ganic calcareous and micaceous paste rich in disseminated
pyrite and very fine sand grains, and containing lenses and
layers of somewhat. coarser sand grains and large mi ca
flakes .. . . ........ .. .. . ..... . ... .. ..... .. .... . ...... . .. .
n- Purplish-brown to maroon, very hard, very fine. grained
siliceous siltstone, finely banded (0!25.0.5 rnm.) , in places
rnas.sive (almost a chert) , not fi ssile, slightly micaceous.
Under the microscope appear,s. to consist of a red c'layey
fe rruginous and somewhat sili ceous mi caceous paste (85 per
cent) in which are imbedded poor ly sized grains of quartz,
mi cr ocline, plagiocl ase, and quartzite fragments. Banding due
to concentrati on of parallel mica Rakes, with secondary calcite
following these bands ...................... . ..... . .... .
m- Dark-gray calcareous sandy siltstone, almost a n impure
limestone (calcite 40 per cent ) , banded into 3 equal layer s.
Contains abundant gr ains of quartz. mi crocline. and oli-
goclase. Banding due to contorted layens of organic mat-
shale, very hard ...... . ................ . . . . ........... .
1- Dark-gray lami nated. mi caceou s, pl a ty ca lcareous sandy
shale, very har.d . . ......... . .... . . . . . . . .. . ............... .
k- fine.grained rna[jsive arkose. Poor part.
ing caused by parall el mi ca flakes a nd flat bl ack clay gall s.
Shows cut. and.fill stratification on a small scale . Under
the mi croscope seen to consist of 48 per cent quartz and
52 per cent feldspar (mostly albi te-oligocl ase with very
little microcline, somewhat kaolinizccl), pyr ite, and large
muscovite flakes. Grains closely packed toget her with no
matri x. Variab le thi ckness (lensing) ....... . . . ......... ,
i- Black lam.inated organic shal e .................. . ..... . .
h- Dark brownish-red laminated tshal e, fissile, in places al-
most a shale". Under the microscope seen to con-
sislt Of a dense, irresolvable micaceous and ferruginous.
past e of somewhat variable coarseness. These variation.s
in coarseness seem to cause the banding (varved effect) .
6 ft.
8 ft.
2 in.
2 in.
2 to 4 ft .
6 in.
1 ft. 6 in.
No. 73] Trinssic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
g- Very dark.gray, almost black, weakly cal careous shale, la-
min ated and contorted, faintl y mud- caked .. . ......... . .
f- Black, ver y fin e. grained micaceous feldspathi c s ands tone,
almos t a 2iltstone. Very hard. Under the micmscope ap.
pear s to be a mi croconglomerate with angular grains ( 45
per cent ) of quar tz (thr ee-quarters ) and i resh unweather ed
albite (one-quarter ) imbedded in a matrix (55 per cent)
made up of a dark organic paste, with a s mall amount of
calcite . ............. ...... .... . .. . ...... . .. ... .. . . .... .
e- Black laminated s hale
d-
C-
1> -
a-
Maroon fine. grained rock, in places a contorted micaceous
siltstone (soft), in places a sili ceou.s. -shale (hard). Under
the mi cr oscope seen to be made mostl y o f a r eel f errugin-
ous past e (GS per cent ) in 11hi ch are imbedded quartz and
feldspar grains. Se;:ondary bands of calcite follow the
planes of s tratification . . . . .. . . . . .... . .... . ......... . .. .
Purpli s h-r ed s iliceous s hal e , ver y ha rd
Black calca reous s hal e. massive or in p laces laminat ed
anrl contorted Shows small r onnd depress ion s genetic-
ally dubious, gas bubbles rather than rain-
pits (?) ... . ..... .... ... . ...... . .... . . ... ....... ... .. . . .
Black or ver y dark or gani c shal e. Lower 3 feet massive,
with a c0nchoidal frat: tnie; upper 2 feet laminated (0.5-1
mm.) . Contains s mall and irregular veins and pockets of
calcite. Ripple-marked. Poorly preserved fi sh remains.
are present. Under t. he microscope seen to consfs t of a
dense da rk organi<:. pa rtly mi caceous pas te. the fis s ility
and parting being dne to the parall eli sm of the mica flakes.
Very few imJHP"i t ies (mi ero-lenses of minute quartz gr ains)
ani! s omewhat larger Jensetl of calcite .. . .. . . ... ..... .. .
Total aetna! th ickness . .. . .
63
7 in.
8 in.
1 ft .
2 ft.
I ft . 6 111 .
1 ft.
5 ft .
31 ft . 6 in.
The top of tlw sect ion ijn o\"l'r I :)0 fl'l't i,.; Ill:llh 11p of tine
shales and ,.;iltstune,.; . a,; a rule nr_v hard and resista nt to erosion , much
more resi,.;l;Lllt- than the lo\nr red s iltstm1r and finp sandstmws of the
o\c rlying Portland for111ation. Thi s nwkes it po,.;s il.Jle. in some in-
stances. to clilferentint e t lwse two fommtion s. when they are in
contact by l"a11lting. the :\fPri llen s iltstones then fonning fa11lt-line
scarps in the sh:LJ1C of 111inor rillges.
IH>rn Conn(d ient Facies
Lowm di,ision. The lO\\cr lan1. How is generally followed in
southern C'mlmct icut iJy a coarse arkose. whi ch. in a. haml specimen,
is hardlY ll ill"ennt. fron1 the arkose un<kr the sa.n1e lan1 How. 011tcrops
of t hi s imn,.; t men1ber of the 7\Leriden fomwtion nre scarce, and fresh
exposures non-exist ent.
A speci nwn collcr-tecl 2. 1 miles northeast of N orthforcl (Joe. 11)
shows the ror k to be a coarse-grained. pebbly, pale-pink arkose. l ocally
allll ost conglun1rrati< . and \\cathcring to a pinki sh b11tt. Tlw largest
pebbles r each a dian1dcr of' 2 or :) cn1. A f e\Y l.Jancl s of green anll ma
roon, fine-p.Tainecl. sandstone (the so-called "shale" ) nre pres-
ent. They are only i) to S <"Ill. thi ck. The rock shows a rnde handing
whi ch can rLlinost be seen i n a hand specimen. Sizing an<l sorting ap-
64 Connecticut Geologi cal and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
pear to be extremely poor: and thi s impression is confirmed by a nw-
chani cal analysis.
The rock is a typi cal arkose eonsisting of reel and white feldspar,
quartz, ancl , to a lllinor extent (G toG per crnt by actual count) , frag-
ments of a greenish gray, layert:d quartzite. There is no eifervescenco
1rith cold HCl.
Thi s lower arkose of the Meriden formation is o1erlain by an itn-
pure litnestone, 1::5 feet thi ck at its t ype locality, in a quarry Coe'!:':
:\[ill : on the New HaYen-Dnrham high"ay just north of the 1\li<ltllescx
County line. The lllain body of limestone, exposed for a length of 750
feet in the quarry, has, furthermore, been traced in tlw fi elcl for ap-
proximately one-quarter mile south and more than 1 lllil e north. Ac -
cording to P erei1al (1842, p. 3Go), a limestone quarry now concealed.
wa s forme rl y worked west of Paug's P oncl. This " ould add at least
another one all<l a half miles to the northern extension of U1e main
limestone body. Pereival says that at thi s locality the lo1r er arkose is
llli ssing ancl the limestone rest s clireetly over the lower lant. flow
('; atnygdaloi<l " ). A seri es of seattered outcrops, in places observed.
an<l in places not Yi sible at the present time, bnt tnentioned as existing
by P ercival ancl Davi s, suggest that this limestone extends almost to
the outskirts of Britain. Its t hi ckness decreases northward, a11<l
in the New Britain region, in the outcrop at Shuttle Meadow rese r-
voir, it is only 1 foot thi ck.
At its type locality (lo<.:s . 9 ancl10) , the limestone is a banded and
layered bluish-gray rock passing into a mi caceous silty sa ndstone at
uoth top and bottom. The proper is 13 f eet thi ck. It is YCl'.Y
irregularly jointed and banded (2 to 35 em.). The fresh, dark or light
grayi sh-bluish surface weathers to a yellowi sh-bnff. Many very small
(O.i'i to 2. llllll.) solution ca1iti e:-; can be seen eYerywhere. Clasti c im-
purities are not easily seen in the fresh rock, but stand ont prominent-
ly on weathereLl :-; uda<.:es, a11d <.: an be e:-; pe<.: ially well obsen e<l aftc>r
et ching the rock with aeicl (Plate XIII-B). The impuriti es are then
seen to consist either of isolated sand grains scattered throughout
the rock or of minute lenses and small layers of sand, irregular
in shape, usually eutTed and contorted. Thi s irregularity t enrl s to
mask the general banclinl! of the lirnestone.
In addition to these 1ninute, cnnwl sandy layers, there are abc
more r egular clayey and samly bands parallel to the bedding plnnc.
The most important of these. 10 fel't abo\e the base of the limestmw,
reaches tl. thickness of G <.: m. Thi s band is compos<:>d of a number of fine
curved laminae (0.2.5 to 1 mm. thi ck). These bands indi cate of
intenuption in the deposition of the limestone. The cycli c d1aradt t
of the process is al so eonfirmed by banding in the limestone itself,
marked by changes in color and coarseness. All these limestone band::,
are somewhat irregular. The presence of desiccation breccia ( ?) has
been mentioned by \V. L. Russell , but none is exposed in the quarry
at the present time. The limestone contains rounded bodies, apparently
of organic origin, suggesting fresh-water al g;;e ( Charophyta, Plate
XIV-A and B).
No. 73_1 Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
65
The litne<;tone passes::; both at top ancl bottom into a fine-grainell
g rayi sh-Lndf ::; ilty mi eaccous sa.ncbtone. The underlying ::; ancl stone is
ripple-marked, \Yith indi cation of a l oeal eastward current. It is al-
ready quite ri ch in ealcium utrbonate (41 per cent) , lmt the tratt sition
to the r eal blue limestone is, nevertheless, a wellllefinecl one . .A detailed
description of the mentber s of the section is given in the chapter on
P etrography.
The limestone is followed by a scri e::; of fossiliferous dark shal es,
poorly exposed in creek bottoms south of Durham. The.-e shales arc
Yery sitnilar to the secti on dese riLed at Shuttle Meadow r eservoir. Tho_
dark beds are approximately fiO f eet thick , and are overlain by yellow-
ish and r eddi sh siltstones and sandy shales and by pink a rkoses, some
of \Yhich are micaceous aud platy to such an extent that at a
they can be ea.-.;il y ttti stakcn for shales. All these rocks arc soft and non-
resistant to erosion. As a. res11lt , tliere i:-; a notable lack of exposures
in the l!mer Meriden belt of southern Connecticut. These rocks are, in
many places, injeeted by cotnplrx syst em of !liabasie dikes and
"lti clt are much more resistant to erosion and form a series of ridges
that are cle,eloped best between Foxon and Totoket . .A notable feature
of the region is the presence of clasti c sandstone dikes, which
trap sills. Several o:f these clikPs, 1 foot thi ck can be seen on the Foxon
mad. in a road cut on the top of a stnall ridge, :\00 f eet west of the
North Branford tmYn line. is a micro-brecciated border. and
under the mi croscope, the sandstone i:; seen to contain Ill in ute
of trap clragged from the neighboring sill. The sand grains near the
of the dike are re-ori ented. aml are pamllel to the borcl er. Later
ttt o\ent ents r efra ctured both sill ancl sandstone !like an!l for tned fi s-
sures whi ch are no'" lill cll \Yith l'akitP (Pla trs X and Xl).
5C\eral good outcrops of arkose are fotm!l near the top of the
se ri es. close to the base of the ntiddl e I:L\a .-;hePt .. \. rctllarkable mi ca-
ceous ' pink arkose. at places passing into a conglonterate. is exposel1
at the ::; outhwest ern extretnity of Totoket :\fountain. near the quarry.
L ouer divi sion, 7tppe1"17WSf and tu.jf"s ( '!) . The lower con-
tact of the middle lan1 sheet is \Yell e>xposcd near the sonthern end
of the tmp qna n y at R Pecl Oap on t lw "\ i rl inP H.a i hYa_v (lew. 7). Thi s
exeellent ontcrop, not kno\\'n to be dupli eaterl el se in Con-
necticut, shO\YS 2 :) feet of ,;editnents ltt Hl er tlw lan1. The section con
sist s of interbedded arkoses, shaly siltstones, an!l tuff-like roeks : it
is di sCII ssecl in the next chapil'r. together 'Yith the detai led petrog-
raphy of the contact and the problentatical tuff-like layers. It may
be mentioned here that at thi s locality a gray arkose below the midclle
lava has been bl eached by the thermal action of the lava. thus con-
clusively proving that the. red color of tha Triassie beds is (;f primary,
pre-diageneti c origin. See Fignre l :i.
Uppm dhi 8i rm. The middl e ]a,a f-lmy is merlain by a ;.!rccni sh-
\Thite f elcl spathic sandstone, upon " eathering. assunt cs a pe-
culiar s potted appearance (yello\\ spots ) . This parti cular spotted
66 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bu ll.
weathering is t ypical of the upper Meriden f elclspathi e sandst ones
both in central and in southern Connecticut. The rock is iml ist ind.l v
banded (2-3cm.) . Near its very base thi s sa]](l stone conta ins
pebbles of amyclaloidal trap. Good outcrops arc f onml on t he west eru
shore of Lake Gaill ard (North Branford reser voir) The sandstone,
at least 300 f eet t hick, passes into a red siliceous si lt stone, and into
dark shales and :11koses. The seri es (200 f eet t hick) was well exposed
during the construction of the r eservoir clam at Lake Gaillard,
s. ,,_.
c ...
0-z
E- "
F. ,o
H- s
j.,.
S edion The Lower Contact of The Middle Lava Sheet at
\. \ -'
- '
- .-' I
I ' ... -

..-. ' I :
REED GAP QUARRY
Bluish 9ray 100ft. expos ed
Lowelt s ft. ! sMw primary fracturin9 and recementa bon, really a
micro.scopic flow br eccia
[ lonqated tubular verti cal ve sicles present (chimney s o r pi pes) zo- so cm long
Widely spac ed (z. to -4- ft.) columnar .
Narrow (Yz. ft. a nd lass) columnar jointing.
Uqht bluish baS4lt, pinKish bvff, altered and replaced by calcit e ; sc:orc.e
li<I>-#Jil'l# . . but amys<i .... l es
. Contact zone, ett remely vesicular and omygdol oidQI
Liqht 9ray t uff; mostly vi tric. with a few and lithic. fra9ment s ; and
r eplaced by colc"1te.
.... Uassive, but somewhat at t op and layered. ncar- bottom
'Basal layer-s of tuff, banded and welded with onder lyin9 ort(ose
Massive <jray ar Kose, f inel:t <j roine.d, ble.oc.hed by thermal act ion
pur ple maroon micaceous silt:.tone, very lami nated.
Maroon siltstone, laminated and r ipple - marKed in arKosi c.
ln places coarser, a finer- Cj rained arl::.osc.
Li9ht 9ray t uff; vi tric; obscurely bedded 0 4 t o 1 em )
Talus
Reddish - purple arKose.
F ig u r e 15. S trati g raph ic sec t ion a t Reed Ga p Q uarn ( loc. 7) ,; howi ng con-
ta ct act ion on u nder ly ing sediment s p roduced hy hea t and soluti ons ra di a ti ng
fr om t he lower s urface o f t he middle la va fl ow.
b11 t is poorly \'isible now. It passes grarl nally into a ("Oiilplex seri es of
black arkoses from Thorpe's section are cl escr ihecl in rldail in the next.
congl0111erates. The seri es was measured and dcscr i bed by Thorpe
( HJ28, pp. 281-280 ) during the constrm:tion of t he Sugar Loaf tunnel
i11 Xorth Branford. Thorpe's section, 344 f eet th ick f ol lows :
No. 731
Ft.
35
4
14
3
4
2
10
8
2
11
<)
8
5
5
9
g
6
2
3
2
G
s
6
3
5
2
3
2
10
15
5
7
In.
G
G
7
9
1
14
7
4
2
4
')
"
g
6
8
3
8
Trim;sic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
8ed.ion in the Sugar Loaf Tunnel
Top of the P ost erior Series at the Enst Portal
Shale and a1kos!ie sandstone, r eddi sh , coar ser toward east.
Dip 12
0
E. go S., strike N. 8 E .
Thin>heclded r eddi sh shale.
More massive clark shales and congl omeratic s andstones.
lllack shales, with occa sional boulders.
D! acl' shales , ripple-marked.
Coarse arkose with ripple-marks .
67
Thin to medium-bedded r ed a nd gray sh a les and
Sli ekeHs ides on south wall. rlip a lit tle n orth or verti cal.
Medium.grained gray arkosic s andstone.
Black shales.
Fine.grained Dip 15
1
.6 o E. 10 S.
Heavy co;n,;c s tain s prc , a lcnt 111 thi s hori-
zon- not noticeable el-sewhere in tunnel.
Dark.gray to black shale and ;s andstone-amorphous structure,
with uneven frac ture. FJssil wood vlentHul. Hori zon TIH ..
Grayish arkosie sandstone.
Black shales .
Grayish arkose.
F'ine.grained black shal es. Dip 4o E. 20 o S. Eubrontes gigan.
teus footprints in ceiling. Shale very brittle. Horizon TG.
Medinm conglomerate with inclusions up to 11 in. in diamet er.
Many quart?. i te bonlrl e r s. Sli ck ens ides. s-outh wall ve r tical.
north wall diJ) S 55 o north.
Conglomerate. Slickensicle, north wall, dipping 49 north.
Black shale interbedded with layer-s of gray arkos ic sand-stones
with darker gray and red-dish str eak s. Sli ckensides, clipping
75 '/?.
0
!'\ .. 80%
0
N .. a nd fi 4 S. Din of sh a l e go S., 10 E.
Medium conglomerate. Dip

S.
Coar se cong-lomer ate. her:-omin '\' a kosic toward t h e e'ls t.
Fine to c:mrse conglome rat e. Cross-bedding, arkos i c:, .l!; rayish anu
reddi sh streaks, irregular bedding. Inclusions- of granite, chlor.
ite sr:hi st, e t c., nn to S in. in di a meter . Din 6 S.
Coa r se grayi sh conglc-me rate , with l a.r ge gr eenish in clus ions.
-Massive-bedded, medium. g rained arkose, becoming coarser to.
ward the east. Dip

S.
Thin.hedderl nnrl gr ayish sancl s tones- c-oa1ser toward
the east and then finer again.
1-f ;:,ss i vc gTay s ancbt o nc . Exce ll e nt ca st - \vc;-; t fault :-; ut-fa ccs, a l so
a nor t h- s outh .-; ystem a -:l mitting la r ge quantiti es rf vat et .
Massive grayi sh-brown arkosic sandstone. Cross-bedding.
Thin-bedrled g rayish sr:.nds ton e. Layers 1.2 in. thir:k.
Massive reddish to grayi sh sand-s tone. Dip 70 S. 35 E.
l'd a;; sive cong lomerate. la r ge mas;;es of g ra nit e. feld spar a nd
quartzite inclusions. Cross -bedcl ecl , somewhat coarser toward
the east but variable. Dip 5o S. 1oo E . Foot of Shaft A.
Arkose mocrtly thic-k-bedded, but wi th occasional thin-bedded
layers to sands tone. Horizon TF. Gigandipus caudatus,
)Jo. 370 : Eubrontes approx imatus. No. 1146: Anchi3aurious ex-
sertus, No. 1214; paralle !us, No. 1221: and tuberow s, Nos. 1210
1211, 1212, 1213, 1215.
CI'Dss-bedrled arkose. "on-:!:l ome r a ti c: in places.
Massive with occa s iona l thin-be dded layers. Dip
4 S. 45" E.
6o Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
Ft. ln.
8 Massive to thin-bedded medium-g r a ine d red sandstone. Dip
3 S. 45 E.
6 1\fass-ive jointed red sandstone. Joint s trend a littl e s outh of
east.
2 Fine-grained shaly red sands tone.
2 Medium.grained shaly with dark-colored l en ses.
3 Soft shaly s-andstone.
4 Massive, medium.grained, cros s-bedded sandstone. Dip 11 o S.
70 E.
2 6 Mas sive, jointed sandstone.
2 Thin- to medinm-hedded snnrlstone with greeni sh l chl oriti c )
layers. Horizon TE. Anchisauripus exsertus, No. 362.
1 S Cross-bedded sandstone. beds G- 8 in. thi ck.
6 1 l\!assive red sandstone.
1 Soft dark shales.
6 l<'ine. to medium-grained massive arkosi c L'andstone. Dip 1 o S.
t,O o E.
2 mas sive, coarse.grained sandstone.
5 6 Medium"grained sandstone, occasionally thin-bedded, but moiSt-
ly mas.sive. Dip

S. 30 E.
3 Thin-bed-ded s ands tone. Dip go S. 30 E.
5 Massive sandstone, 3 layercl, some c ross-bedding.
1 6 Dark shale.
2 4 medium. grained red sandstone.
4 Thin, shaly sandstone.
5 6 Somewhat finer grained coarse-bedded sandstone.
1 0 Coarse- grained r ed s ands tone.
3 7 Massive coarse.grainecl sands tone. Dip 4o s. 15 E.
3 Thin. to thi ck-bedded s andstone with fine- to coarse-gra ined
lenticular inclusions.
6 Massive-bedded sands,tone, fine.gr a ined, conchoidal f racture.
E-W joint or fault planes, admitting large volume of water.
5 Very fine-grained pape ry shales a nd thin-bedded r ed s ands tones.
Horizon TD. Triaenopus lulli, Nos . 1217 and 1225 ; Anchisauri-
nus hitchcocki. No. 1222.
8 Mas sive, medium-grained r ed sands tone with coarse mud- crack s,
Horizon TC. Batrachopus deweyi, No. 1218, probably from here.
4 6 Very thin dark.gray micaceous slhales. Horizon TB. Eubrontes
giganteus, No. 373; Shep'lrdi'l palmipes. No. :Hi S ; Anc"lisauri -
jJUs exsertus, Nos . 367 and 1140, and sillimani, Nos. 369, 1139,
1220.
1 2 Gray sandstone.
6 7 Thin-bedded dark mica eeous s ands tone. bell s not over 3 in.
thi ck , lens struc ture locally developed.
12 5 % Massive tough gray s ands tone. Din 10 %
0
S. 15 l<J . Ma nv trac ks
and fos sil wood. Horizon TA. Grallator formosus, No. 375;
Eubrontes approximatus, Nos . 371, 1144, 1145; Anchisauripus
exsertus, Nos . 361, 363, 372. 1216: exsertus branfordi. No.
360; parallelus, Nos . 1137, 1221, 1223, and tuberosus, No. 114-2.
Bottom of this seri es a t West Portal.
344 ft. in. Total.
An examination of this section shows that the material near tltP
top and also near the eastern part of the section, close to the Grent
Fault, is very coarse, with boulders 14 inches in diamet er present.
Thi s is the transit ion zone between the normal and the Great Fault
:faeies of the Meriden f ormation. Some remarkable footprint-bearing
No. 73 .1 Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecli cttl
69
black arkoses h om Thorpe's section are descbireu in detail in the next
chapter. The top of the section di ffers vastly accoruing to its geo-
graphic location. At Lake Quonnipaug, where the Portland formation
is faulted out, and the upper 1\Iericlcn beds arc ex:po::;ed at the surface
along the fault, they consist of typical fanglomerntes. East of Lak2
Saltonstall, one and a quarter lllilcs \\' est of the fault, the uppermost
Mericl en beds, under t he upper la \a sheet, are ext remely fin e-grained,
brick-red, fi ssil e shales ("paper shales") .
PornLAKD AHKOSE
General F eatures
/Jishibution. The Portland arko.se (the ' 'Eastern Sandstone" of
P erciYal) covers the eastem part of the Connecticut Valley. It is de-
veloped extcnsi\ely in cent ral ancl nort hern Connect icut, but has been
almost entirely fa 11lterl ont in southern Connecti cnt , ancl is practically
absent in the vicinity of Xc" Ha\en. The best l'xposures arc fo11n<l
near Middletown in the Portland "br ownstone" f[tmrri cs.
Along the Great Fault the Portlaml fonnation is representerl by
fanglomcratcs whi ch a rc exposed in a seri es of excellent outcrops from
New Ha\en to the cncl of t he Triassi c bas in at )/'orthfi clcl, l\Jass.
Among the best exposures are that of Durham, at the intersection of
routes 15 and 77, that of Lake Qnonnipaug, and t hat at locality 20,
in East Portlancl, one-quarter tnil e south of the int cr"ertion of rouh:
15 and the GildersleeYe rOflLl.
Thiicl.ness. The t op of the Port land arkose has bcPn erorl eLl a.way.
The present thickness left by er osion has been estintated to reach 4,000
feet in cent ral Connect icnt. The original thickness may ha\e been
much greater.
Ohct1acte1'. The Portland arkose consists of conglotll erutes, red-
dish-brom1 and purple arkoses (some arc g rayish ) . line-g rained mi ca-
ceous siltstones, and subordinate rc1l and clark shal <:>s . The mater ial
becomes coarser from west to east, and in the ,i cinity of the Great
Fault the formation is rep resented by coa rse conglo111 erates and fa.n-
glomerates.
In the normal facies of t he fon11ation conglonicra tes fo rm 13 per
cent , arkoses and sandstones 51 per cent, siltstones : : ~ per cent , anrl
shales 7 per cent.
llline1'al h01izons. It is possibl e to di\icl e the Portland for111ation
in central Connecti cut into two mineral zones, each approximately
2,000 f eet thick. The lower zone is characterizc1l by a high garnet
content ( 5G per cent) , a low rati o of pink to colorlc;:;s g;arnet (3 per
cent), and a hi gh amount of tourmaline (33 per cent). The upper zone
contains a Yery l1igh percent age of garnet (72 per cent), a relatively
hi gh ratio of pink to colorless garnet (20 per cent) , and a lower
amount of tourmaline (14 per cent) .
Thi s clitl'erenee in mineral composition , ho\\' c\er. is not well re-
fl ected in the geneml lithol ogy and li elcl appearanee of the f ormati on.
70 Conn8cticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
N onnal Sedimentary Facies, Central Connecticut
The normal fa cies of the Portland arkose have been preserved
only in central Connecticut. having been obliterated by faulting and
erosion in southcm Connecticut.
These normal fa cies consist of a success ion of reLldish,
grayi sh , rnaroon, and deep-purple beds, lithologically rather similar
to the New Haven arkose, except that as a whole they are much r edder
(G3 per cent of reel Lccls in the Portland formation as against 45 per
cent in the New Haven arkose). The lO\rer part of the formation is
in general r elatively fine-g rained (siltstones and fine r eel feldspathic
samlstones ). Subonli11ate beds of rlark shal es and feldspathic sand-
stones are present \\ est of the Durham meadmrs.
As the top of the is approached, the gross lithology graut;-
ally changes, with coarser arkoses and conglomerates predominating.
Ina.snmch as thi s change also necessarily takes place from west to
it it poss ible to interpret the increasing coarseness as due to
geographic rather than to stratigraphic causes. Fragments of Dolton
schi st and large mi en flakes are extremely common at all level s of the
Midclletom1 formation.
The brmmstones quarries of Portland (Plate XXII-B) pro\icb
a series of good outcrops illustrating all the lithologic variations from
micaceous siltstones to medi nm-sized conglomerates. These qnarrie;:;
ha\e been clcscrihe<1 in detail by l{i ce aml Foye (1827, p. 57). They
have yielded numerous animal footprints and fossil tree trunks (logs ).
Mud cracks and rippl e marks appear to be l!lOre abundant here than
at any other place in the Triassic section, but thi s may be because
quarrying has exposell many horizontal surfaces which are usually
not vi sible in the ordinary two-dimensional outcrop.
The Portland bro\\"nstone propPr may contain locally a cons ider-
able a mount of rock fragtn ents (n p to 30 per cent of Bolton schist
quartzite and gneiss fragments ). Small iron-ox ide concretions of pri
mary origin are fottnd in some of the layer s (Plates XIX-A and
XXIX-F). Their climatic significance is di scussed later.
The llip at Portla.n<l is l<m, the strata being altnost hori-
zontal , presnma.bly as a res nlt of lm:al warping, or a retrogressive
mo1ement along the Great Fault.
Great Fanlt Fanglomerati c Facies
In the immediate vicinity of the Great Fault the Portland forma-
tion is represented by fanglomerates which are in no way different
from the olcler Meriden fanglomerates. These fanglomerates are ck-
scribed in the chapter ou Petrography. The lo\Yer Portla ncl fangloltl-
erates i nnnediately alJoye the upper la\a flow contain at
l3ranford large basaltic boulders, thus indicating a certain extenswn
of the npper la\a flow east of the Great Fault.
CHAPTER IV
PETROGRAPHY
REGIONAL PE'n:OLOGY
71
The relatively soft Triassic sediments underli e a valley caned
bet1reen two highlands made up of r esistant crystalline rocks. These
Paleozoi c crystallines consist of schist s intruded aml inj ected by large
masses of granite and granite gneiss.
In the East em Highland silicic igeneous rocks predominate o1er
the older schi st s. within 10 miles east of the Great Fault there is only
one important schistose body: the Bolton schist whi ch outcrops in ''
narrow belt immediately east of the Great Fault. On the other hanll
the following large granitic masses are present in the same region:
Stony Creek and Lighthouse Point granite; Branford, Maromn:o,
Glastonbury, and Haddam (or "Killingworth") granite-gneisses.
In the IV estern Highland the reverse is true: Large masses of
schists of various metamorphicrank (from phyllite and chlorite-schist
to hi gh rank mica-schi sts ) are intruded or injected in a much smalle1
scal e by bodies of gneiss (the Prospect gnei ss ). The l argest and most
important of these older schi st s is the Hartland schi st, which is seen
to underlie the Triassic at Roaring Brook
Thus, in a general way, the Eastem Highland is an acid (silicic)
igneous province, whereas the \Vestern Highland is a metamorphic
one.
\Yith the exception of the Bolton schist which occurs either in a
chloriti c and phylliti c (green) or a quartzitic (grayish) facies, the
rocks of the East em Highland consist of coarse, pink or gray, granites
and granite gnei.ses with a great amount of pefmatites. These rocks
are made up of quartz, microcline, albite, sodic-ol igoclase, and , in
much smaller a mounts, o:f orthoclase and andesine.
The Triassic sedimentary rocks have been derived excltrsiv.;ly
from the f!ranitic (and subordinate schi stose) rocks o:f the Eastern
Highland. P ebbles and heaYy minerals :from the Triassic sediments
can- be 111atched with :identi cal material from the source area east of
the Fault. Parti cularly striking exampks can be made in the case of
the Bolton schist and especially the Stony Creek granite. Pink granite
pebbles showing a t y pical f!raphic intcrgrowth and r ecognizable,
large, smoky, frequently zoned zircl'l ns can be traced from the upper
N e" I-I a ven Leds to the Stony Creek granite.
GExEnAL CI-IAHACTEn OF THE TniAssic RocKs
Distribution of Lithologic Types
The Triassic sedi111 ents of th e Connecticnt Valley cons ist of a
mixture of arkosic sandstones and conglomerates, s iltstones, r eel awl
black shales, and very s ubordinate limestones. The generalized gross
lithology of the Newark section has been presented in Table 3 and is
summarized graphically in Figure 16. An additional breakdown of
lithologic t ypes into reel and non-reel (pule grayish-purple or black)
Fig. 16
ENTIRE NEWARK
NEW HAVEN ARKOSE:
MERI DEN FORMATION
PORTlAND
tblrcd fled Triassic RO<::K

r=J Sor,.hfgne
1EJ .. Siltslone
CJ - Shole
m:J limestone
F ig. 17
F ig ure 16. Disttibnti on of t he pri nc ipa l ( normal ) r ock t ypes of th e Con ncc-
ti ctt! ?\ cwark.
Figure 17. Di stribution of lithologic t ypes, s;10wing r ela t ive abun-
dan ce of r ed beds vs . non-r eel mat eri a l in entire sect ion a nd within each s pcc: ifi c
rock t ype.
varieties gives the following distribution as shown on Table II, which
is also graphically presented in Figure 17.
TABLE 11
LITHOLOGY OF TRIASSIC ROCKS ACCORDING TO COLOR
Total New Haven Meriden Por tland
Newark arkose formation formation
Conglomerates .... . . . . . . . . .. .
9%+ 9% 8% 13%
Pale sandstones . ... . . . . . . . .. 32% 46% 14% 22%
Red sandstones .. ... . . .. .. . . . 31% 30 % 24 % 35%
Red siltstones .. ... . .... . ... . 14% 13% 10% 23 %
Red shales 0
8% 2% 18% 5%
Black shales and siltstones .. 6% 23 % 2%
Limestones 0 1% 2%
A somewhat different and more detailed estimated petrogruphi(:
breakdown of the Newark section according to different sandstone,
siltstone, and shale t ypes is shown in Table 12.
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 73
Table 12 has been computed on the basis of an additional correc: -
tion of Table II, based on the fact that the so-called pale sandst one,;
of t he preceding t able (as seen in the field) are gener ally a mixture
of petrographically di stinct "pale arkoses" and "reel arkoses" as de-
scribed later under Composition. This pale sandstone mi xture contains
75 per ent of "pa1e arkoses" and about 25 per cent of "red arkoses' '.
TABLE 12
DETAILED GROSS PETROGRAPHY OF THE TRI ASSI C
Pale conglomerates . ... ......... . . . . . . . . ... . . .. .. . ... . . .. ...... . . . .
Pale normal arkoses . .... . .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. ... ... . ... .... . . .. .. . . . .. .
Red normal arkoses ..... . . . . . .. . ....... ... . . . .. .. . . .. . .. ... . .. . . .. .
Faulted pale arkoses . . . .. ..... . ....... . . ... . . .. . .. ... . . .. ... ..... . .
Faulted red arkoses . .. ... . . . . ...... . .... . ...... . .. .. . . . ... .. . .... . .
Red fe lds pathi c sandstones (Redstones) . . . ... ... . .. ... . ... . . .. . . . . .
Pale feldspathic sandstones . . .. . .... . . .. ..... . .. .. . . .... ... . . .. . . . .
Red siltstones . . . .. ..... .... .. ...... .. . . ............. . .... . . . . . ... . .
Red shales . ... .. . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. .. . . .. . . .... . . .. .... .. .
Dark siltstones . . . ... .. .... . . .. ... . ..... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .
Black shales . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . ..... ... .. . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . . .
Limestones . . ........ . . .. . . . . . ..... . . .. . . . ......... . . .. . . . . . . . . .... .
9.3%
16.3%
20.0%
2.1%
5.2%
18.3%
2.1%
11.2%
8.0%
1.2%
4. 8%
1.1%
Also, the "red sandst ones" are made up of approximately 50 per cent
of r ed arkoses and 50 per cent of "Redstone" with t r aces of pale
arkoses. Fianlly, the r ed siltst ones can be broken up into 80 per cent
of real siltst ones and about 20 per cent of Redstone, whereas the black
shales contain about 20 per cent of dark silty beds.
Basic Make-Up and End Members
All the differ ent lithologic types mentioned above are produced
through the mechanical mixing, in all possible proportions, of tMef'
petrogr aphic (and t extural) end members :
1) A coarse-grained (sandy or pebbly ) arkosic, i.e., modified
granitic, detr itus that has essentially the foll owing average miner&l
c: omposition :
Quartz .... .... . ... . ... . . .... . ..... ... ..... . . . ... . .
Feldspar .. . .. ... .. . . . . . . . .. ... .. . . . .. . .. . .... . . . . .
Mi croclin e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 %
Pl agioclase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 %
Micas . ... .... . . ... . .... .... . ....... .. . .. ... .. .. .. .
58%
40 %
2%
2) A fine-grained detrit al clayey matrix consisting of "clay",
either colorless or in most cases st ai ned a very cl ark rell color by
hematite or in some cases, black by organic matter. Thi s clayey matrix
has the following average mineral compositi on :
Kaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 %-
Gibbsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6%+
Sericite-illit e-past e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12%
Hematite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20%+
And in addition up to 20 or 30% of fine. grained quartz and
feldspar.
74
[Bull.
3) A chemical carbonate cement, generally calcite.
Mechanical mixtures of these three encl members are r esponsible
for the diJl'erent Triassic r e d ~ types. The predominance at any ouc
locality of one or the other of these three petrographic end members
depends agai n upon t hree genetic f actms, ull of them connectell with
the strnctuml hist ory and the overall topography of the Newark at
the lllOment of sedimentation of a given member, i.e., whether the
Great Fa ult -Scarp \\" US active or not.
These controlling structural fad ors operate by modifying :
(a)
(b)
(c)
prO\cnunce, i. e., the available type of detrit us ;
deposition, i. e., type of detritus locally cl eposi tecl as against
t ype of lJy-passed detritus and local modification of deposit-
ed detrit us ; and
diagenesis, i. e., type and amount of intrastrat al int rodnction
of chemical matter.
Pale Arkose
Red Arkose
Redstone
Sandstone
o --
0 --
----- ~ .. =
Sil tstone
Limestone
MATRIX
. ----
0 -----
/
Fi g ur e 18. Di stri buti o n of t he t extura l data presente d in Tabl e 4 accordin g
t o ma jor t extural clement s : g ra ins, mat ri x, and ce ment. Number s indi cat e local-
it ies : symbols, the lith olog ic t ype found a t eac h locali ty ; and t he diff er ent lines
out li ne the fi eld of occurrence of ea ch princ ipa l lithologic t ype.
No. 73]
75
As a rul e, certain horizons of the Newark are charact erized uy t he
predomi nance of coarse or very coarse granitic detritus, resulting in
the formation of conglomerates and arkoses. These represent peri ods
related to a st rong activity of the Great Fnult (New Ha\cn t ime) .
Grains
Matrix
_fement

Figure 19. Average overall composition of the main Triassic rock types:
two averages are given for each arkose (pale anU. reel) and also for the silt-
stone-shale. One shows the mean total avera;e of all samples, and the other
gives the average for all samples not in the immediate vi ei nity of major faults.
/Numbers in parentheses after symbols indicate number of specimens of each
type.
Pale a1kose
Red arkose
Redstol>O
Feldspathic sandstone

Limestone
Average of
all samples
0
(15)
0
( 8)
A
(4)
A
( 2)

( 6)
0
(3)
Samples away
from fault
(7)
@ ( 6)
@ (4)
"f()
Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [ Bull.
Other horizons (Meriden) are charact erized by a predominanee
of the clayey type of detritus and are related to periods of relative
quiescence of the Great Fault. Finally, other periods show intermedi-
ate t endencies (Portland time).
vVithin these basi c limits, imposed by overall provena11ce, strong
anJ marked local changes of a textural nature, clue to changing envir-
onmental conditions, may also take place. 'l'he most typical contrast
within the Triassic is between channel deposits charact erized by t he
deposition of graniti c detritus (and the bypassing of clayey detritus)
as against flood-plain deposits, charact erized by the precipitation of
the clayey lletritus and the non-arri ral of the granitic detritus (left
largely behi11 d within the channels ). Under lacustrine conditions of
very slow current velocity and stagnation, an even more complete
differentiation takes place between the granitic detritus, now r estricted
to the alluvial fans and deltas, and the clayey detritus which forms
the bulk of the lacustrine shales. A last step in this stagnation phase
leads to the reduction of the hematitic clay and the formation of the
black shales and limestones through the introduction of a depositi onal
chemical fa ctor.
During the post-diagenetic and intrastratal phases, circulating
solutions may load some of the sediments with calcite cement. Thi:;
again happens to be a function of structural activity, since most of
the calcite cement within arkoses is found in the immediate vicinity
of large faults.
The relationships between grains (i.e., granitic detritus ) , matrix
(i.e. , clayey detritus, generally hematitic) , and cement (i.e., calcite)
are shown in Figure 18 (plotting of all localities) and Figure 1!)
(condensed plotting of lithologic t ypes ) .
These ratios are itemized in Ta.ble 4A a.ncl are summarized m
Table 13.
Megascopica.lly these relati onships between end members mam-
fest themselves in two ways :
1) through the grain size (texture).
2) through the color (reel or non-reel) and general appearance,
i. e., composition.
TABLE 13
BASIC MAKE-UP OF TRIASSIC ROCK TYPES
Normal pale arkoses ............. ...... .
Normal red arkoses ....... .... .. .. .... . . .
Faulted arkoses . . . . ...... . ..... . . . ..... .
Redstone ... .. ............ .. . . .. . .. .... . .
Pale feldspathi c sandstone .. ... ... ... . . .
Shales and siltstones . . .... . . . . ... . . ... .
Limestones . . . . ... . . .. ... . .. ... ......... .
Granitic
detritus
90%
92%
77 %
73%
93%
64 %
39%
Clayey
detritus
9%+
7%.
5%
27 %
X
34%
X
Calcite
X
X
18%
X
7%
2%
57%+
No. 73] Triaso:ic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
TEXTU HE
Definition of Terms
77
The Triassic of Connect icut is made up of conglomerates, sand-
stones, and shales of different colors and degree of rounding.
Inasmuch as the terms "arkose" an<l "shale" have been often used
loosely in the past when describing the Triassic sediments, the fol-
lowing definitions are given cncerning the t erms used in describing
the megascopic gr oss lithology of the Ne"a rk as sho\'l'n in Table 3
and elsewhere in the t ext :
Con glomer at e: A r ock of at least 50 per cent of pebbl es over
1 em. in di ameter.
Sa ndstone (and a rkose): Any rock inter mediate between a conglomer -
ate and a siltstone. The term "pebbl y or conglomeratic sand.
stone" appli es to a sandstone ha ving more than 10 or 20 per cent
of pebbles res pect ively, and the t erm s il ty or clayey sands tone
(and this includes the "Redstone") applies to a sands tone having
more than 20 per cent of s ilt or clay. Sands tones a r e broken into
several mineral types and s ubtypes.
Siltston e : A fine- grained gri tty rock composed Of pa rticles 0. 1 mm.
in diameter or less.
Sh a le : A non-gritty, finely laminated clayey rock. A ver y high per -
centage of the so-called Triassi c "shales" are in reality fine.
grained sandstones high in clay (so-call ed "Redstone").
" 1 1 I 80 Red Arkose (f.)
1--t--+--t--t-+--+-r-+--H 7 0 l--t--+-+-t--+--t--1-+-H
1--l---1--l--l---l--1--l--l--l---l 6 0 1-1--+--l--l--t--!1--J.--!--l---l
1-l---l-+-+-+-+-+-+--t--j 50 1-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--t--j
1-l---l-+-+-+-+-+-+--t--j 4 0 1-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--t--j
80 Redstone GJ
7 0 1-+-+-+--+-+--t--t--+--+--l
6 0 1-!--l--t--+--t-+-1---t--+--l

4 0 1-!--l--t--+--t-+-1---t---{---,
3 0 1-+-+--l---1--1---l--1--
2 0 1-+-l--l--l--
1 0 1-+-+--l---
f-+-+-+-1-----i 3 0 1-+---+-+-+-1-1---+-+-...j.-j
1-+-+--+-1 2 0 1-+--+--
10
Siltstone -Shale (4)
80 Sand f r om
H ---+-+-+-1-+-+--+-+-1 7 0 Limes tone (2)

30 1-+-+-+-+-
20 1-+--+--l--l--
1 0 1-+--+-+-l---'
F igur e 20. Average of mechanical analyses of t he pr incipal Triass ic litho-
log ic ty pes. Numbers in par entheses indicate how many analyses of each type
were used for the average. Sec Table 4 for act ual dat a.
75%
50%
25"1< 0
78
Connecticut Geol ogical and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
Color and t he nmount of clayey mnterial present are two
which although ulti mately depending upon composition, nevertheless
are to a l arge extent textural features, si nce they r epresent the ratios
behYeen coarser aml fi ner material. On t he basis of these two factors it
is possibl e to cli1i de the sandstones of the Ne \Yark into r elativcl.v
coarse-grained arkoses and relatively fine -grained felclspathic sand-
stones. The arkoses can he el i vided into pale and red varieties and che
felcl spathic sandstones also into pale and bri ck-red Yarietics, t he latter
type or ' Hedstone" being very hi gh in clay (a.hont 20-30 per cent).
Thus the samlstones fall into four aclllitional tpyes, namely :
1) P ale arkoses
2) Heel a.rko.scs
3) white, non-clayey, :l'elcl spathic sandstones
4) Brick-red, cla!Jey, f el dspathic sa!Hlstones or "R edstone".
These four types are defined and discussed in some detai l fa r ther
along in t his chapter.
Grade Size Distr ibution
As a whole, the Triassic section is extremely coarse-grained. I t
contains G4 per cent of sandstones and close to 10 per cent of con-
glomerates, or a total of 73 per cent coarse clastic rode.; as againc; t
Pale Arkose --
! ---1
Red Arkose
--
Redstone ---
Siltstone and Shale ---
Sand in Limestone

...:.:;;_::;.,
t--:;;;o
'r-/

t::: ... . ='
)7"
.
/j

' ,'- - ---- ------/- .
-
7
/r/

:;-;::.:-: - -----
'--:' _;..
//
,
<I
i/1
:,. ,
v/
/
,.
/
t_
/
/
/ .'
/
, ...
__./
/ ......
_ .......

---
100 %
75%
50o/o
25%
6.4 2.0 1.068 0.495 0242 0.147 0.074
0.015 0010
Figure 21. Cumulati ve curves of averaged grade-size distribut ion of t he same
principal r ock types presented as histograms in Figure 20.
No. 73] T1iassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 79
only 40 per C"ent of s:mcl stones and conglomerates fonnd within the
average strati graphic section thronghout the world.
Furthermore, tho sandstones themselves tend to be coarse-grained.
The aYera ge median diameters of the main Newark lithologic types
are as follows :
Pale arkoses ... ........ . ... . . ... .. ... . ... .
Red arkoses ........ . ...... . ....... .... . . .
Redstone ... ..... ..... . ......... . . . ....... .
Siltstones ............... . ... ... ....... . ... .
Shales ................ ... . . . .... .. ....... .
Sand in limestone . .... ................... .
0.546 111111.
0.725 mm.
0.140 mm.
0.174 mm. (-)
0.055 mm. ()
0.177 mm.
These diameters again are much higher than those of the
average sandstone.
Composite hi stograms and cumulative curves of mechanical analy-
sis a\eraged from Table 4A ar-e shown on Figures 20 and 21.
There is considerable overlapping of the median clinmeters be-
tween the white felclspathic sandstones, the r eel clayey felcl spathil:
("Hedstone"), and son1e of the reel siltstones. The mega-
scopic clili'erences bct\Yeen the appearance of these types, however,
are marked.
Sorting
The ssorting (i.e., rneehanicn1 sorting or sizing) of the Triassic:
as tt whole is n.\ry poor.
Sorting eoefT'icients of the p1'in cipal Ncwa.rk rock types, as
n ,eraged from Table 4A are as following:
Pale arkoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. S36
Red arkoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.i5
Redstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.21
Siltstones and shales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.115
Sand in limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.337
The somewhat obscure (parabolic) relationship between media11
diameter and sorting coeflicicnt i s presented graphically on Figure 22.
As seen from the avernged hi stogram of Figure 20, all Triassic.:
clastic rock types show a secondary maximum in the finest grade size
(clay). This is the result, first, of the very nature of the parent ma-
terial, namely, a heterogeneous mechanical mixture of very coarse and
very fine <.letritns and, second, of the relatively ineHicient-or rather
ineffective-sorting process that operated during Newark sedimen-
tation.
As can be readily seen in the field, Triassic: sedimentation was a
one-cycle affair with rapid burial of the sediment after very rapid
P. D. Krynine, unpublished data.
deposition and hardly any r e\vorking of t he precipiated detritus,
thus cutting down the time available for reworking al most t o nothing.
Pole Arkose
0
-----
7.0
Red Arkose
0
---
.36
Reds tone
...
Sand from Limestone D
Siltstone and Shale

6.D
I
I
.31
I
I
I
I
.. 35 5
/
I
28
I
I
I
?5;6-
0 11
19
I
~
l1AJ:
/
/
~
fi.-:._39 __
--Jfij-6
'411..44
034
o38-
- 1
og
0
10
1.D
4.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.125 o. 0625
MEDIAN DIAMETER
Fi g ure 22. Relati on bet wee n median dia meter and sorting coeffic ient within
the princ ipal Triassic r ock types . Number s indi cate localiti es. Dist ribution f ol-
lows a st r a ig ht line fo r pale a nd r ed <Hkoses but approximates a n inc lined para-
bo la for ove ra ll ave rage.
In the very few instances where t he time element and opportunit,Y
for r eworking were increased, as in the lacustrine beds of the Meriden,
the sorting of the sand is more pronounced, at places definitely so.
This improved sorting goes hand in hand with a considerable increase
in r ounding.
Angul arity
Practically all the Newark detritus is very angular t o begin with,
and the rapid and violent erosion and deposition processes of Triassic
time did very little to decrease this angular ity.
A quantitative study of angularity can proceed with great pre-
cision along the mathematical pattern of \ Vadell's measmcments of
the inscribed and circumscribing circles or can be done much more
rapidly, albeit less precisely, by comparing the sa nd grai ns against
certain arbitrary standards and yardsticks of roundness.
0
The setting up of these standards and yardsticks is a somewhat
subj ecti \-e procedure of a highl y pragmatic type, since, depending
upon the character of the sediment, the emphas is on identification and
splitting of types ma y shift from the angular to the well rounded eml.
The f ollowing seheme of standards, with emphasis on the angular
end, can be applied successfull y in the Connecticut Triassic:
1) Very angular-the grains are broken into a series of irregular, jag.
ged s plinters with r azor.like edges. All fractures are perfectly
fresh.
2) Angular-the grains are either idiomorphic or xenomorphic but are
as a rul e in one piece (not broken into s-plinter s). All fractures are
perfectly -f r esh. All edges are sha rp with no evidence of blunting
whatever.
3) Subangular-at least one edge is definitely rounded but not over 50
percent of th e edges show much rounding. All other edges are either
fr esh or sharp or show some very small blunting. The grain still
retains its original shape.
4) S.ubrounded-all edges a r e definit ely rounded and at least 50 per
cent o f them show perfect curvature. There are no sharp edges
whatever. The grain still has a -general outline reminiscent of its
original form. Rounded embayments rather than approach to spher.
icity are the rule.
5) Rounded-the grain UJpproaches sphericity, the original primary
shape having been obliterated in the meantime. All edges are C{)m.
pletely smooth.
To compare the round ing of diJferent speci mens, it may be desir-
abl e to reduce the obtained frequencies to a numerical coeffi cient. In
order to do thi s, the following m lucs haYe been assigned to the differ-
ent degrees of rounding :
Very angular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Angular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Subangular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Subrounded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Rounded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
"Roundness" , or rather "rounding", refers to the smoothness of
the edges, i.e., is essentially a measure of abrasi-on or wear, whereas "spheri.
city" refers to the tendency of an obj ect to approach an equidimensiona\
shape. A cube has much greater sphericity than an elongated ovoid, but is
much less rounded.
In highly angula-r first-cycle sediments of the Newark type a certain con.
fusion between rounding and sphericity is almost unavoidable, when d-oing
comparison work against yardsticks of angularity. In such types of sediments
"rounding" is probably a more diagnostic criterion than sphericity, although,
in other types of sediments the reverse is more commonly true.
82
Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bu II.
By multiplying these coeffi cients by thei r respccti ve per centages and
adding them, the obtained total will be the general rounding coeHicient
of the whole sample. For instance, a sand containing 20 per cent of
ang ular grains, 40 per cent of subangular, 35 percent of subrounded,
and.) cent of rounded grains will have a rounding coefficient of 57.
A brief quantitative study of three typical Triassic rocks-a
coarse f-lmia.l red arkose and two lacustrine sands that form the in-
soluble sandy fraction of two Meriden limestones-is presented in
Table 14.
This study shows that felcl spar consistently shows more roundint.;
than tl1 e quartz, regardless of the fact that there does not seem to be
such primary difference in shape within the parent igneous rock and,
second, that under lacustrine conditions ( eYen in shallow and reltt -
5
40
30
20
10
50
40
3
FLUVIAL LACUST-RINE
QUARTZ
RC-30
RC- 44
50
FELDSPAR
f' ig ur e 23. Compa rat ive rounding of qua rtz a nd under di ffl' r ent
concliti c ns o f lacustrin e a nd flu via l depositi on. R C is th e r ounding coe ffi cient ;
\ A - ve ry a ng ul ar ; A- ang ul a r: SA- s u:>a ng ul ar: SR - s ubr oundcd ; R - rounded.
tively short-liYed lab-s) a much better degree of rounding is achieved
than under fluvial conclitions. This is parti cularly noteworthy con-
sidering that the lacustrine sands are much finer-grained than the
fluvial specimen, and , as generally lmmvn, coarse sand has a t endency
to show better rounding than fi.ncr -grained sand.
A preliminary inspection of normal flu 1ial seclin1ents from east
to west seems to show that the degree of rounding of both quartz and
f eldspar with the di stance of transport \\ithin the Trias:; ic.
Howe1er, no quantitative work has been done on this phase of the
problem as yet.
An interesting feature is the renHtrlmble degree of rounding of
the micas in the lacustrine beds. l\[uscoYite flakes may assume an al-
most perfectly rounded coin-like shape (Plate V -D). S imilar round-
ing of the micas has been! observed by the writer in the Pleistocene-
glacial lake deposits of Connecticut.
TABLE 14
COMPARATIVE ROUNDING OF TRIASSIC FLUVIAL AND
LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTS
Fluvial deposit Lacustrine deposits
Red arkose Sand in limestone
Loc. 15 Loc. 10 Loc. 31
Median Dia m. (0.58 mm.) (0.177 mm.) (0.183 111111 . )
Quartz Feldsp. Quartz [Feldsp. Quartz Feldsp. Muscovite
Very angular ... 15% 8%
Angular 0 50% 55% 15 % 10%
30% 20%
SulJangular 0 35% 40 % 50% 35% 50 % 40 %
SulJrounded 0 0 . 5% 25 % 40 % 12% 35% 20%
Rounded 0 0 . 0 10% 15 %
5% 80 %
Rounding
coeffici ent .. . . 30 38 48 G5 41 57 95
COli[J'OSlTJO"'
Major Constituents
The different ratios between granitic detritus, clayey detritus, and
chemically precipitated calcite account for the different rock types of
the Triassic and the changes in their r espective mineral compositions.
Translated into specific mineral frequenci es, the composition of the
difl'er ent rock t ypes of the N ew:uk section is gi vcn in Table Hi.
Det1vital minentls. Although the graniti c detritus has an average
compositi on of :) 8 ]Wl " cent quartz. 40 per cent f el rlspar and 2 per cent
mi ca, nevertheless these figures fluctuate somewhat within the dif-
ferent rock t ypes. These changes in the mineral composition of the
coarser-g ra,ined, meaning the sanel y and silty, fractions of the rock
(i.e. , essentially within the graniti c detritus) are sho,vn in Table 16.
The compositic- n of the clayey detrital fraction is not constant
either. There are considerable changes in the ratios betiYeen hematite
and the "white clay" minerals. These ratios are Yariabl e in different
parts of the Newark section and may depart widely from the average
of GO per cent knolin, G per cent gibbsite, 12 per cent seri cite-illite, and
Pale Arkose o
Red Arkose 0
All Arkoses @
Redstone j.
Felds.-Sandst one !:::.
Silt stone
Sand st. in Limestone 0
FELDSPARS MICAS
Figur e 24. Average mineral coonpositi o n of th e sa ndy and sil ty frac ti o n (i .e ..
g rai ns o nl y, exc luding c layey mat ri x a nd cement ) of t he maj or T ri assic r ock
F ig ures indiC'atc number of analyses u,;ed. Se<' Table -lB for detai led
dat:1. T hi s illu strati on s hows esse nt ia ll y wit hin t he g ranitic (arkosic)
det ritu s.
20 per cent hematite. A quantitative evaluation of these changes
would require the use of X-ray and differential thermal analysis
methods on a scale that could not be used during the present work.
Ohem,ical 1ninemls. The calcite present in the Triassic has two
distinct modes of occurrence :
1) As a chemical depositional precipitate in the lake and swamp
beds of the Meriden formation , either as solid limestone layers, or as
an important primary constituent of the lacustrine shales.
2) As a cement within the arkoses, being in this case a chemical
precipitate of late, post-diagenetic, intrastratal origin. As shown in
Tables J :i awl 17 and Figmes 18, 19, and 2.5, t he occmtuH.: e of snch
calcite cement is definitely related-and almost entirely restri cted-
t o the very close vi cinity (within 300 feet and generally much less )
of large faults.
No. 73]
It is possible, or even probable, that the circulating solutions re-
sponsible for thi s late authigenic, intrastratal calcite were of l ate
magmatic origin, representing the final, calcite phase of basaltic
volcanism.
"There are also some very r estrict ed zones of silicate authigenesis
within the Triassic which resulted in the formation of secondary
overgrowths on some quartz, mi crocline, and albite grains. The dis-
tribution, both of calcite and of the authigeni c sil icat es, is shown in
Table 17.
It will be .seen th at these authige11 ic sil icates either occur immedi-
ately below the lava flows (within 10 f eet or less below the lava con-
tact) or again are related, jnst l ike the calcite, to major fault ing or,
finall y, may be found in ver y small amounts within the lacustrine
bed, i. e., within a locus of normal primary chemi cal depositi on.
In the entire Triassic section ther e is no evidence that intra-
stratal authigenesis-and intrastratal solution fo r that matter- ever
opcratcrl on any siza hie sea lP-i f at all-withi n t lw normal sediments
outside of the channel of large-scale fluid circulation that brought
in the late magmatic solutions of the dying phase of the basalti c
eruptions. Thi s is also true, as shown later, f or the occu n ence of
barite.
TABLE 15
MINERAL COMPOSI TION OF THE TRIASSIC ROCK TYPES

.s
ol
:::;
""<)
.::l
0
ci
....,
Q)
"'
rn ol

....,
,...
,...
,... Q)
Q)
ol
s
c::; Q)
ol
0 .::
C.Orn

.Q
:;
...... ...... olc,j Q) ol

....,
o

P::-u
;:s
0 0
Pale ar koses 0 57 24 6 3 3 6 X 1
Pale
near fa ult ... .. ... . . . 42 24 13
;{
X 17
Red arkoses . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 30 11 1 7 X .
Red a r koses
neat fau l t .. .. . . . ... 34 32 5 1 8 19
iRed s t one . . . . .. . . . ... . 37' 10 18 8 27 X
White fel dspa t hi c
sandstones . . . .......
17 26 2
Red sil tston es
and shales . . . . . . .. ' 34 14 9 11 30 2
Dark Sh J.I IJS . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 10 17 12 34 2 5*
Limest ones . .. . . . . .. . ... 25 10 3
1+ 1+
58 5*
Weight ed aver age for
entire section ** . . . . . . 44% 20 10% 5 13
1
h 3'i2
1 .
Mean average of
a ll sampl es** .. . .. . . . 45 21 10 4 9 2 8 1
X- Traces, less than 1 per cen t.
*-Includes organic matter , barite, sider ite, etc.
**-These f r equences a r e shown in F ig. 3,
(.O
so
40
30
2.0
10
60
50
40
30
z.o
10
G.O
so
-40
30
zo
ao
[Bull.
57
.. ..
....
'
. .
-.
. ..
Or:r ..

"7"';'
.. .
....
30
I<
2 ..
f'tLD.
36
p
-
K
.. :
:::. 17
NOIUAAL.
PAL.E AAKOSES
'I
r-'u. C.L.AV C.At.'
FAULTED

18
IUD SKAL.E!!
AKO
(ALC.

SANDSTONE!
z..
QTZ. FnD. Ml'A C.LAY C"LC-
.0
50
40
30
2.0
10
60
50
40
;30
z.o
10
60
50
40
30
.z.o
10
60
50
-40
30
zo
10
NOP.tML
51
P.EO
AD.K.05ES

..
'
...
p
,...._
. .
K
:.:.:
JO
I
..
2.
QTz. fEUl MICA CLAY CAI..c:
34
30
L.l ME 5
57
Figure 25. Total average mineral compostt1on of the major Triassic rock
types. In the feldspar, K and P indi c2te ratio of potassium feldspar (microcline)
to plagioclase: hemat iti c clay is 111 solid b lack and unstained clay I S 111 white,
Numbers above feldspar column indicates total felds par, numbers below
indica te percentage of microcline.
60
So
40
30
z.o
10
'0
50
-40
30
z.o
IO
'0
so
40
30
zo
10
60
50

30
zo
10
TABLE 16
COMPOSITION OF SANDY ARKOSIC (GRANITIC)
DETRITUS OF THE TRIASSIC ROCK TYPES
87
K.Feldspar :
:Plagioclase
Quartz Feldspar Micas r atio
Pale arkoses ... . ......... . ..... . 61 36 2 80:20
Red arkoses .. ... ... . . ... .. ... . . 52 47
1+
77:23
All arkoses .. . ...... . .. . ..... . . . 58 40
2+
79 :21
Redstone . . .. .... .. . . . . .. ...... . . 46 47
7+
40 :60
W11ite feldspathic sandstones . .. . 51 47 2 40:60
Siltstones and s l1ales . . . . .... . . . . 49 29 22 66:34
Sand in limestones .... . . . .... .. . 68 30 2 75 :25
Average 58 40 2 75:25
TABLE 17
DISTRIDUTION OF AND AUTHIGENIC MINERALS OF THE
TRIASSIC SHOWING BREAKDOWN OF OCCURRENCES
BY TYPES OF ENCLOSING DEPOSITS
Distribution of occurrences by Authigenic (secondary) s ili cates
per cent among the foll owing Calcite
types of deposits: Quartz Microcline Albite
- --- ---- - -
Lacustrine and paludal. .. . . . ... 31% 20% 25%
Near large faults .. ..... ... .. .. 48% 45% 75% 25 %
Below lava flows 0 7% 35% 25% 50%
Normal unfaulted fluvi al 0 14%
Probability of occurrence with-
in 100 normal localities . .. . ... 6 0 0 0
S-aine, wit bin 100 localities
near faults .... .. .... . ....... . 100 66 50 15
Same, within 100 lacustrine and
paludal localities . . ... .... .. .. 100 40 ? 15
Same, within 100 localities
at igneous contacts 0 33 100 50 66
Normal means an ordinary fluvial deposit away from large faults and
igneous bodies.
Upper part -of table shows that among _total number of calcite locali.
ties 31 per cent are found in the lacustrine deposits, only 14 per
cent in normal deposits, 48 per cent near large faults, etc.
Lower part of table shows that every (i.e., 100 per cent) lacustrine de.
posit carries calcite, but only 6 per cent of the normal fluvial
deposits carry it, etc.
This lack of normal, i.e., purely sed imentary, non-igneous, intra-
stratal activity within the Triassic is interesting, considering that both
the general porosity and the permeability appear to be adequate and
that at some places the Newark sanllstonPs are known to caTry water.
Accessory Minerals
Amounts Ji1'Cscnt. In additon to the major constituents mention-
eel before, the Triassic rocks carry an abundant and varied suite of
accessory heavy minerals. The quantity of the heavy residue varies !
greatly, ranging from 0.3Gl per cent 11p to l.G7 per cent of the total
88 Connecticut Geological and atural History Survey [Bull.
sample. In certain specimens it may be even hi gher. Certain gr ade
sizes may contain us n11ich us 7.7 per cent of heavy minerals. The
aver age heavy accessory mineral content of t he N e:wark, n ot counting
the mi cas, is estimated to be around 1.2 per cent. Detailed quantita-
Total Sample
9 0 "
8 0 ;. 1-...P.:.:+ - f-- 1- l- + --l
7 0 % 1 - ~ - - 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - l
6 0Y.
50%
40"
30'Y.
20%
10 y.
901
807.
707.
601'.
507.
4011.
30%
20 -'
I 0 t.
90%
80 %
70 7.
60%
SO'Y.
40%
30%
20Y.
10;1.
0 V1
"'
>
ll"l N
!
<
0 d 0
>
Heavy Fraction
901'.
80" 1---f".-=+-1-+--+-1---1
7 0 !. 1-+--+-1-+--+-1---1
6 0 " 1-+--+-1--l- -+-1---1
5 0" 1- +--+- 1-+--+-1-------l
4 0 " 1-+--+-1-+--
3 0 " 1 - - - - ~
2 0 " 1-+--+--
10 "/.
90 )(.
SO Y.
70%
60%
SOli.
40 Y.
30Y.
2 0 %
10%
0
\/)
"'
rt
>
Vl N
"
0
<
0 0
b
0
9 0 ~
80"
70%
60>1
5 0 "
4 0 Y.
30Y.
20"/.
lOY
0 lJ)
"'
'<t
> "
V1 N '<t
0
<
Ci Ci 0 0
Fi g ure 26. Compa rat ive mec hani cal a nalyses of the li g ht a nd heavy fr ac-
tiOns of t hr ee typica l Triassic sandstones. In No. 13 compare on ly solid porti ons
of hi st ogram s ince hea vy r esidue was not obta ined fr om the grade size a bo ve
0.5 mm. in di a met er. ( See Tabl e 18.)
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connectic ut 89
tive work was done on three typical samples, r epresenting the pale
and red arkoses, and the Redstone respectively. The results are sum-
marized in Table 18 and shown graphi cally in Figures 2G, 27, 28, 29,
and 30.
As a whole, the heavy mineral suite from the Connecticut Trias-
sic is vety rich. both q 11 ;ntitatively (1.2 per cent is a high figure)
and qualitatively, with no fewer than twenty-three major mineral
species present (not counting the micas ) . The Triassic heavy suite
TABLE 18
DISTRIBUTION OF HEAVY 1\UNERAL RESIDUES ACCORDING TO
GRADE SIZE IN THIREE TYPICAL TRIASSIC ROCKS
Occurrence
-;;
"'
>
l
"'
p:: 00
0
.... .!.:
~
....
~
<t.
-r:
"' "'
......
~
d
0
~
:;
::::
l
:;::;
"'
8
UJ
p,
0
.!.:
....
M
<t.
""
d
0
~
~
-
:Il
"'
:::
a>
.3
:::
rn
.3
""
UJ
"'
p::
""
"'
p::
""
M
c.i
0
~
Grade size
(mm.)
0.5 0.25
0.25 -0.149
0.149-0.074
t 0.074
Tota l t 0. 5
Gr a nd Total
0.5 -0.25
0.25 -0.149
0.149-0.074
0.074
'Tota l t 0.5
Grand Tota l
0.5 -0. 25
0.25 -0.149
0.149-0.074
t 0.074 .
Total t 0. 5
Gr an d Tota l
Per cent of Distribution of
heavies within heavy residue
each grade size Per fraction Cumulative
0. 129
0.390
0.870
1.190
0.550
0.167
0.91
4.10
7.70
5.20
2.46
1.67
1. 360
0. 100
0.236
0.630
0. 363
0.361
9. 85
20. 55
29.60
40.00
27.10
26.10
- 25.70
21.00
. 2.50
2.40
4.20
90.87
9.85
30.40
60.00
100.00
27.10
53.20
78.90
99.90
2.50
4.90
9.10
99.90
Note: "Total t0.5" r efers to the a mount of h eavy mineral s in the grade
s izes finer tha n 0.5 mm. N o bromoform sepa rations wer e carried in the
coa r ser sizes (except ing Sp. 23) s ince these co a r ser fr actions hardly carry any
h eavy miner a ls.
" GPand Total" r efers to the amount of h eavy res idue present in the entire
s pecimen, i. e., in eludes the coarser gr a de s izes from which no h eavy minerals
were s epar at ed.
100%
90%
80"1
70%
60%
SOY
40%
30%
20%
10 ,..
90 Connecti cut Geological and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
has a distinct "modern" character and appearance and looks very
much like t he rcsicl ne from a recent Pleistocene glacial deposit.
Mineral suites. As is in hea,y residues, the minerals of
the Triassic ca n ue prag111ati cally and cmweni ently divided .into
micas, opaque Jlli Jwrals or "iron ores" and non-opaCi ue minerals. This
eli ,-is ion is bnsecl not only on appearance, but on the fa ct that t hese
three g-roups ha \'C enti reiy different responses to current velocities :
the buoyancy aml "floatability" of t he micas is t he highest , that of
the opaque miner als is the least , and that of the non-opaques is in-
et r mediate. l-Ienee fLw1uencies should "Ge r ecompiled on a 100 per
cent basis for each group separately.
the mic.1s form a reasonai.lly hi gh percentage of the
Triassic r ocks (2 per cent or more), they do not come down easi ly in
the bromoform and hence constitute only an average of 20 per cent
,.,?
....---11 ,..,.,.,. ;;,"' /
1-- -l-- -----1-- - !-----l---/4/ / __ +-- - -/"' / -'---+---f
,_'/ __ ___
23 j I
/---------+--t
__ '] /
7 7 I I 36
1---+------li--;./--+ 7 / '17' /. /
11
- -----1---1
-- r/-_1---., r----1---1
6.4 Z.O 1.068 0.495 0242 0.147 0. 074 0 015 0. 01(}
Figure 27. Cumulat ive curves of the g r ade-size distribution of the li ght and
heavy fract ions fr om three typical Triassic sandstones. (See Table 18.)
or less of the hea ' 'Y residues. The opaque minera ls or "iron-otes,"
mostl y magnetite, with much il111enite and l ocally, pyrite, make up
approxi mately 32 per cent oi t he heavy residues, and t he diagnostic,
non-opaque heavy minerals t he remaini-ng 45 per cent and may go
up t o 50 per cent withi n t he arkoses.
These ratios, as averaged f r om Table 4C, are given for t he dif-
ferent roelc types in Table 19 and shown graphically in F igure 31.
Detrital non-opaque minemls. As shown in Table 4C, t he Tri -
assic rocks, besides micas and iron ores, car ry the following non-
No. 73] Triassi c Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut
opaque heavy detrital mineral species : apatitB, augi te, epidote, some
of t he fluorites, ga rnet, hombltmde, indicolite, kyanite, monazite, ru-
tile, sillimanite, st amolite, titanite, tou rmaline, xenotime ( n, zircon,
and 11 0isite. The morphology nnd opti cal properti es of these species
ha\e been descri bed under Mineral ogy in Chapter II.
100
10. 0
s . o
s .o
7. 0
6.0
s.o
4 0
3.0
0
0
z.o
0
1. 0
0.11
0.8
0 .7
0 .6
o.s
0-+
0 -3
o.:t
0 . 1
Toto I <O. S 0 .5 - 0.ZS 0 25-0.149 0.149-0.074 <0.07+
F igur e 28. Comparati ve di stribut ion of th e li g ht fraction ( dotted) and heavy
f racti on (solid bl ack) within specimen 13 (New Haven arkose fr om Fair Haven
q u a r r ~ ).
It is possible to divide the garnet into several varieties based on
color, the tourmaline into a seri es of t ypes, also depending upon color,
shape, and character of inclusions, and fina lly the zircon can also be
subd iYi ded into many types, in a way similar to tourmaline. Of these
TABLE 19
RATIOS OF BASIC HEAVY MINERAL SUI'DES
Opaque Non-opaque
Rock Types Micas ir on ores rare minerals
Pale .a.rkoses ...... ..... .. .. . ........ . .. . 28 27 45
Red arkoses . ........ . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . 16 31 53
All arko ses ..... . . ..... . . . . . .... . .. .. . .. . 22 29 49
Redstone . .. . ..... . ...... . .... . ......... . 12 30 58
Siltstone a.nd shal e . .. ... .... .. .... . .... . 30 40 30
Average of 45 samples . . .. . ... . .... . 23 32 45
92
50.0
10.0
s .o
a. o
7. 0
~
s. o
4.0
3.0
:z. . o
1. 0
Q. lJ
o.e
0 . 7
0."
o.s
04
o . 3
0.2
Connecticut Geol ogical and Natu ral History Survey
[Bull.
.(0. 5
0 .5-025 025-0.149 0149-0.074 <.0.07+
Figur e 29. Comparative dist ri but ion of the li ght fr action ( dott ed) and heavy
fract ion (solid black) within spec imen 23 (Port land a r kose fr o m Ponlan<l
qua rr y) .
possible subvarieties, the divi sion of garnet into two classes (pink
and col orless) and of tourmaline into three main classes . (brown,
pink, and green) has proved suffi ciently diagnost ic to be used in
Table 4C.
As a whole the detrital heavy mineral s of the Triassic are fr esh,
little weathered and, as saicl before, resemble to such an ext ent, in
freshness, general appearance, and "f eel ;" the recent heavy minerals
f rom gl acial Pleistocene beds tnat they may easily be confused with
them.
Some of the grains, notably garnet and to a ver y minor extent
stauroli te, are at places etched and pitted, or may show so-called
skeletal fo rms. Since transport in the Newark was rapid and brief,
and as a whole all minerals show but little modification and rounding
by transport, it is difli c. nlt to "elate" the alt ern tion and to say to what
extent such pitting is pr e-deposit ional (formed during t he weather-
ing of the r egolith) , or post-depositional (in the Triassic soil), or
post-diagenetic and intrastratal. Some of the most marked et ching
93
on garnet occurs in the basal New Haven beds, near the lower con-
tact. This allows for two possibilities, since these etched grains are
the first deposits from the ol der Triassic peneplane (and hence were
s ubj ect to maximum pre-depositional weathering), and at the same
time they are located near the lowermost contact plane of the Tri-
assic at a place where considerable circulation of solutions took place.
In thi s connection it shoul d be r emembered that augite, a notoriously
unstable minera l , is totally unaffect ed by any kind of etching or alter-
ation in these basal New Haven beds.
SO.tl
I O.Q
e .o
a.o
7 -0
(,. 0
s. o
-4. 0
3.0
2. . 0
1.0
o . g
0 .8
0.7
().6
o.s
0.-4
0. 3
0 .2.
o. 1
Toto I <.o.s
... . 0
1----i .: 1--- ---l
...
1------l; "1--- -i
.....
.. ...
. 0. 0
0. 0
0.5-025 0 .25-0 .149 0 .1 490074 <0.074
F ig ur e 30. Comparati ve dis tri but ion of th e li g ht fraction ( dott ect ) a nd heavy
frz.c ti on (,;oiid bl ac k) wit hin s pec imen 38 ( R eds t one facies o f New H ave n arkose
fr o m Reds t o ne Hill ).
In many other portions of the Ne1Yark sections (in most of them
as a matter of fact) garnet may show no pitting or et ching whatso
ever.
So far as "skeletal " appearance of the garnet. is concerned (as
contrast ed with well-defined pitting), an examination of thin sec-
tions in specimens wher e garnet is very abundant (as at loc. 23 and
many others ) sh ows that many garnet grains within rocks have a
tendency to fractnre and pull apart, possibly as a r esult of structural
[Bull.
dei'ornwt:on (not of thin-section grinding since these garnet
ments nrc solidly embedded in the matrix). As loose grains within
a heavy resiclne, some of these fragments may have a "skeletal"
appearance.
No st:ltisti cnl work wns done in trying to ti e the possible etch-
ing of the gn rnets with the occnnence of major faults as \nt s done -for
authigeni c sil icates and calcite. Nc,ertheless as a whole the altera-
tion of t he heavy rnineral s of the Ne\Yark, regarcll e'ss of its ongm,
is vei'.IJ slig hl -indeed.
1\rKose 0
Red,tone &
Siltstone and Shale tJ.
/\verc'3e of all
Iron Ores
Rare Minerals
Micas
Figure 31. Averaged ratios between: (1) micas; (2) opaque iron orcs; and
r:n non-opaque rare minerals (from apatite to zoi sit e ) within the -medium and
fine sand .fractions o.f the Triassic residues. See Table 4C for IP.-
tailcd data.
The division of the Conneetic ut Triassic into seven mineral zones
and t\\o geographic centers of alluvial fan building, according to
the frequencies of the different non-opaque detrital minerals, has
been presented in Figure 6 and Tables 5 and 6, and has been dis-
cussed in Chapter III under "Stratigraphy."
Long-range correlation between the same Triassic horizons
through the use of heavy minerals is demonstrated in Tables 9 and
10 and shown graphicnlly on Figures 13 and 14.
The mixing in aU proportions of the two petrographic detrital
end members of the Newark (granitic vs. cla:yey detritus) has no
effect upon the mineral frequencies and hence extremely dissimilar
lithologic types can ensily be compared and correlated.
No. 73]
Triassic Sedimentar y Rocks of Connecticut 95
Atdhigenic non-opaque heavy mine1ois. The chemically formed
heavy mi nern ls of the Newark i nelnde anatase, barite, and some of
the fl uorite and rutile.
Lar12: e-scale occurrence of most of these authigeni c minerals
either b;krs place within t he lac ustrine beds, or is r elated (with very
f ew exCt\ptions) to the presence of igneous contacts, and major faults.
or silllilnr zones of l arge-scale flnid circul ation. On a small scale,
ho,Ye \e t. anatase is present practicall y within every heavy r esidue.
0 he111ical co1npos,ition. An analysis of the Portland arkosic
" BJ'(mnst one", as quoted by F irsson and Knopf , is as follows:
SiO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.9
Al, O" . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 6
Fe,O" . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
FeO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7
MgO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trace
Ca O . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
K, O . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 3.3
Na, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
H,O . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Total
CoARSE Cr,AsTrcs
Fanglomerates
99.5
General f eatures. Under the term fanglomerates will be de-
scribed the extremely angular, poorly sorted and poorly sized, coarse
clastics found along the Great Fault. These rudely bedded sediments
form the upper apex of the numerous Triassic alluvial fans that
radiate westward from the fault. Inasmuch as these fanglomerates
gradually pass into conglomerates, it is necessary t o draw some
empirical dividing line between these two rock types. The term fan-
glomerate will be r estrict ed to a rock in which at least 50 per cent
of the pebbles are decidedly angular and possess sharp edges. Lack
of sorting and lack of sizing usuall y go hand in hand with extreme
and wiclespread of the constituents. Real fanglomerates
(as defi ned above) do not extend more than 2,000 feet west of the
fault. P er ci,al described the fanglomerates in a way which was not
surpassed until the days of Longwell , SO years later. P er cival writes
(1842, p. 447) :
"Along the immediate Eastern border of the Secondary, a band,
usually of not great width, extends throughout the greater part of
the ;present range, composed of a very coarse conglomerate, consist-
ing chiefly of slightly altered a ngulaJr 1frag1ments of Primary rocks,.
usually distinctly traceabl e to the adjoining Primary formations.
These fragments are usually but slightly cemented by a dark red
a r gillaceous cement, and in some instances, readily disintegreate,
forming a debris r esembling tha t Of Primary ledges. In one instance,
E. S. K of Middletown city, a bed of dark bituminous mi caceous
shale occurs in connexion with this band of conglomerate".
Colo?', strtu:twc, and t extu.1e. 'l'he Great Fault fanglomerates
when fresh are usually bluish purple or reddish purple with a bril-
liant shiny surface. This purpl e color is produced through a mixture
of red and grBen pigments furni shed respectively by hematite and
chlorite, both of which are common in the fanglomerates. This pur-
pli sh color and shiny lm;tre are uniformly present from New Haven
to Mt. Toby. 'l'he reddish tinge is due to the presence of reel clay in
the matrix. At sonw places thi s clayey admixture becomes sufficient-
ly abundant to g-ive to the fresh specimen a maroon color. Upon
weathering, the fanglomerates become dull grayish purple or red.
The sizing is extremely poor (Plate XXV -A and B). At some
places the rock consist s of an extraordinary jumble of unsized
terial ranging from rock Hour or r eel clay up to boulders G feet m
<lia.met er. Such large bonlders, however, are unusual. The average
size of the constitum1ts ranges between 8 and 12 em. only.
Most of the constituents are extremely an:,.,rular with sharp, un-
bluntecl edges. At some places they are almost unrecognizable from
a fault or talus breccia. At some places (such as loc. 22) , however,
subangular and even rounded matBrial made up of the softer schist
pebbles is present. This may indicate the presence of streams of
somewhat greater length than the usual very short canyons of the
fault scarp, although the rounding of the soft schist pebbl es can
proceed with extreme rapidity and in a very short distance, possibly
a matter of hundreds of f eet only.
The pebbles are bonded by f erri c oxide, red clayey cement, or
non-weather ed r ock-flour, or are directly stuck to each other, at places
showing a slight amount of mutnal inter-penetration.
'l'he bedding is very poor and usually in the fangl omerates pro-
per it can be r ecognized only with diffi culty. The f anglomerates,
ho"eveL , at many places are interbedded with perfectl y banded ar-
koses (Plate XXV-A) , clark siltstones (Plate XXIV-A). r eel lamin-
ated shales, and lignite-ben ring organi c beds (Chestnut }\fountain).
Large, ori ented, tabular bonlders in a clayey matrix possibl y suggest-
ing a mudftow, have been f ound at only one place, near Lake Quonni-
paug, 1,500 f eet west of the f nnlt. Otherwi se. the fanp:l omer at es do
not show evidence of mw1ftow The angular material seems
rnthe1 t o be of taJus ori g- in, possibly directly slnmpecl in to place or,
more probably, somewhat reworked nncl transported f or a very short
distance by torrents into the heels of whi ch it slumped through the
undermining of st eep cliff-like canyon walls.
001nposition. The fangl omerates contain e,ery crystallin rock
type ontcropping east of the Great Fault for a distance of 3 miles at
least. and some t ypes " hich can not be matched at t he present time
among the crystalline r ocks east of the fault. Fragments of the im-
mediately adjoining Bolton schi st are mol"e commonly present than
97
of any other rock type. Near Branford the fanglomerates contain
pieces of vesicul ar basalt, a fact whi ch indicats a temporary re-
treat of the scarp and a slight extension of the lava beyond the Great
Fault. Differential prediagenetie \\" eathering can be observed both
in hand specimens and in thin secti ons.
The East Portland mdcrop ( loc. 22, Plate XXV-A) was studi ed
in some detai l. Here fnnglomerates ontcrop for a length of 500
f eet in a new highwa y cnt. The pebbles occurring in two surface
areas 250 f eet apart and each approximately 10 x 10 f eet in size were
counted, t heir compositi on and angularity determined, and the re-
snlts averaged.
In the northern part of thi s exposure there is a rude bedding
with arkosic and conglomeratic la yers 1 to 1 112 feet t hick alternat-
ing with fanglomerates. In the latter (fanglomerates ) only the
flatter pebLles are roughly oriented, otherwise the constituents form a
st.ruetmeless jumble of rock fragments, 90 to 95 per cent of which
consist of pebbl es and cobbles, and from 5 to 10 per cent of matrix.
Near the so{Jthern end, layers of pebbly arkose 1 foot thick alter-
nate with la yers of fanglomerate 4 f eet thi ck. The arkosic layers
contain from 30 to 90 per cent of sand, the balance being pebbles and
a f ew isolated ln rger cobbles ( np to 10 em. in diam.).
In the fanglomeratic areas the largest boulder (of quartzitic
Bolton schi st) reached 3 :) x 18 x 18 em. in size. The next l argest
piece (30 x 25 x l;) em.) " as an angnlar fmgment of vein quartz.
From 60 to 70 per cent of the rock fragments do not exceed the size
of a pebble ( G.4 em. cliant. and :\3 c m ~ in maximum area) .
In respect to angularity, 46 per cent of the fragments are angular
and sharp-edged, 36 per cent a re snbangular (i.e., half of the edges
are somewhat blunted) , ttnd 18 per cent are ronnded. Three-quarters
of the rounded fragments arc of soft schi st , mostly (two-thirds) in
the larger cobble size ( 6.4 em.).
In respect to composition, GO to 65 per cent of the fragments
consist of Bolton schist (40 to 45 per cent of the softer, green phyl-
Etic facies, and 20 to 22 per cent of the harder , grayish schistose-
quartzitic facies ), 10 per cent of Glastonbury granite-gneiss and
related pegmatitic and pink feldspar fragments, 2 per cent of vein-
quartz pebbl es, and the balance (22 per cent) of a garnetiferous mica
schist.
Conglomerates
Conglomerates form approximately 10 pet cent of the Triassic
section. Although a strict compari son of the strata from east to
west is difficult, for we are dealing at all times with different hori-
7-ons, it seems that in general conglomerates cl ecrease away from t he
Grea t Fault. Conglomerntes form 13 per cent of the Portland for-
mation as a whole. and in the portions nearer to the eastern bounc1ary,
this amonnt ri ses t o 20 anc1 22 per cent. In the lower New HaYen
arkose, 10 miles \Yest, this per centage drops to 3 and 5 per cent.
Usuall y congl omera t es occnr in patches, lenses, por: kcts, ancl t hin
bccl s. At c-e rtain horizons. ho\rever, especially at the n ry t op of
the New Ha,en arkose, t hi ck beds of conglomerate::; are
pn'srnt (Hnsso Street. F axon Park, et c.) . These are probably re-
lated to peri ocls of intense tectoni c aetivity :mel uplift of the fault
scarp preeecling t hP. fi rst gTeat periorl of Yolcani sm. P ebbles np to
G inches in clialncter art> common at all leyels cver v,Yhere in t he
valley, ancl bonJtl el' S HS l:tr/Ie HS -1 1/2 feet ha\e heen obserYed at one
locality east of \Yallingforcl.7 Recognizable pebbles of t he Stony
Creek granite with it s graphi c intergrowths, a f eature of t he n pper
New HaYen arkose, are very abunclant at East Hock and Ridge Road,
and go as fnr west ns the Pomprraug a rea. again indi cating the local
charact er of mneh of the Triassic material.
CLASTrcs
Arkoses
General ;HPc lium-grainec1 clastics form almost 65 per
cent of the section (7G per cent of t he New Haven arkose, 58 per
cent of the Meriden ;)7 per cent of the Portland f orma-
tion) . They ha vc been generall y r eferred to in the literature and
among geolog ist s as arkoses. This is a somewhat generalized usage,
for, as shown by Knopf, t rue arkoses in the eestricted sense are only
such felcl spathic sedimentary rocks as have the composition and ap-
pearance of a granite. Snch trnc arkoses are abundant in the upper
New Haven beds of southern Connecti cut ( clerived from the Stony
Creek and Lighthouse Point granites) . On the other hand this
term can be appli ed only in an extended sense to the white, grayish,
and dark (some are black) f eldspathic sandstones of the Meriden
formation, or to the fine-grained, brick-red f eldspathic sandstones
of the central Connecticnt Hedstone facies of the New Haven arkose.
or , finally, to the phyllite-bearing arkoses (semi-graywackes) of
Sheparcl A.vcnne and Sonth Meriden. These last rocks are so full
of phyllite and schist fr::gments as to border in some instances on
a graywacke and in appearance they almost suggest a breccia.
In the lower New Haven bed.s the amount fd feldspar rarely ex-
ceeds 35 per cent, and sometimes sinks as low as 5 per cent. It is only
where erosion uncovered the Stony Creek granite mass in the begin-
ning of upper New Haven time that true granitic-appearing arkoses
become a. f eature of the section in the southern part of the valley.
average size of the pebbles, however, r a nges between 3 and 6 em.
!)!)
HoweYer, and regardless of what has been saiLl before, the term
arkose seems t o ha \e taken among geol og ist s a somewhat broader,
almost generi c meaning, pe rhaps like t he te rm g ranite in the extended
sense among igneons rocks. N there are so many different
types of fclclspa r-bca ri sa ndstones in t he Connecticut Triassic,
t hat in t he present di scussion, t he term arkose is applied only to fel d-
spathic r ocks \Yhose felll,-pa r is s11 fllcient ly conspicuous to be seen
eas ily, i. e., mega seop ically, in hand specimens .
The tn ost r emarka ble feat ures of all these arkoses arc their an-
g ularity antl high conte nt of nmn:athcrcll feldspar, to whi ch can be
added,_ the t ruer and t he semi -gra y \Yackcs, an extrem.ely
poor stzmg.
Colo?', shuchll'e and t e,1 htre. The Connect icut :ukoses, when
f resh, arc gray, pnrplish-g ray, p i11k. or n 'll . The pink or red color
is due either to t he presr nce of nat 11 ra lly pink feldspar, or of f eld-
spars rccl llened by incipi ent ehemi C' al decay, or of hemat ite. Thi s r ed
iron-oxide pigment tn ay either occ11r as a thin fi lm coating t he sand
8 0
dO
70
70
60 60
-' 0
.JO
+o
40
.30
.30
2.0 2 0
10
10
8 0 ao
70 70
60 60
-50 50
40 40
Jo
) 0
2.0 20
10 10

"
...
.
(
...
<
0 0

"
0
"
...fN

"'
-:
0
..t ..
Figu re 32. Hi stogram shO\yj_ng mecha ni cal compos it iOn of fo ur typical T ri-
ass ic arko;;es ( locs. 12, 14, 16, a nd 17) . Clayey matri x is inc luded.
grains, or it may be di sseminated throughout the matrix and cement
o the rock. Not less than 45 per cent o the arkoses are red, and in
at least hal the instances the color is due to red iron pigment. Never-
theless the in fluence of f eldspar upon reel color can be seen from the
act that in the pal e arkoses the r atio of (jnartz t o f eldspar is G3 to
37, ''' hereas in t he red arkoses it is 53 to 47.
100 Connecticut Geologi cal and Natural History Survey [BulL
Upon weathering, the paler :ukoses become grayish-purple or
more often r eddish. The pink and r ed varieties tum bright r ed.
Thi s increase in red color upon weathering has led to the general
impression that all Connect icut arkoses are red, whereas, in fact,
they are variegated, and only half of them are pink or r ed when
fresh. Mottling: in gray an<l green on weathered surfaces can be
seen at many places. As a rule the arkoses show onl y the rudest
sort of bedding and banding clue mostly to layer s of finer silty or
shaly material. Cross-bedding, cut-and-fill stratification , channcllinl-':.
and intraformational unconformiti es are extremely common.
The arkoses in genera 1 are coarse and poorly sizeo. Great v r ~
ti ons in sizing and coarsenrss can take place within a stratigrapluc
range of only a few feet. Figure 11 shows the vari ations in grade
sizes of three arkose layers "ithin a total range of 9 feet (l oc. 21,
Dawson Lake) . Figure 32 shmYs the hi stograms of four t ypical ar-
koses from different ]e,els of the New Ha,en beds. As a whole the
cumulati,e percentage of material coa rser than 0.5 mm. ( i. e., coarse
sand and coarser) Yaries in the arkoses between 30 and 86 per cent
and averages close to 65 per cent. The cumulative percentage of
gravel and pebbl es varies from 2 t o 38 pe.r cent and averages around
15 per cent. The median diameter is between 0.546 aml 0.725 mm.
Most of the grains are angular, many of them extremely so. The
angularity varies according to the mineral and the grain size. Feld-
spars as a rule are better roPml ed than qnartz. This is due to their
lower coefficient of resistance to abrasion (150 :ts against 245 for
quartz, according to Freise's scale, 1!)31). The propensity towards
cleavage is apparentl y insuffi cient t o split the grains and prevent
tounding.
The great mass of the grains in a typical specimen can be de-
scribed as subangular, or even angular, i.e., the edges of the grains
are sharp or only very slightly blunted. Rounded or even sub-
rounded mat erial (i.e., grains in which at least ha.lf the edges are
distinctly r ounded and blunted) is decidedly rare.
The grains are bonded by fer ri c oxide, red clayey matrix, color-
less clayey matt{l r , ot calcite-cement.. The ferruginous varieties of
cement greatly p1edominate. Calcite is mostl y secondary. Some of
the pure white kaoliniti c matter may be the result of weathering.
The amount of cementing matter varies between 3 and 16 per cent.
Under the microscope the irregular character of the t exture
and the lack of orientation and parallelism of the sand grains can
be clearly seen. Even mica. flakes may fail to show any orientation
or only a very rude one. The larger grains are embedded in a ma-
trix made up of the smaller grains (Plates VIII-A and B). At
many places grains show crushing and mutual accommodating.
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
101!
Composition. Among the truet graniti c-appea ring arkoses, such
as the Fair Haven arkose. the percentn.f!e of feldspar ma y approach
50 per cent . Otherwi se, it nmy be Ma ny :nkoses contain 20
per cent or less of fel cl."; par. Their appearance, ho\\ever , due to the
conspic11 o11 s pink color of the fe ld spa r. is nrkosic. nncl they have been
generally rrfenw1 to as nrkosrs rather t hnn felclspathic snndstones.
T able 20 shows the eomposit ion of se,r rnl rO(ks of nrkosic appenr-
ance from the New Hn,en beds.
'TABLE 20
COMPOSITION OF SOME 'I'HE NEW HAVEN ARKOSE
1. Roaring Brook. at contact wi th Hartland schist (Joe. 39)
2.
3.
4.
5.
Quartz
!<'eldsp1r
Microclin3 85%
Albite 15%
Cal cite ................. . .. . .. . . . ... . ... ........ .... ... . . .
Mus covite
Ferruginous cemen t
Roaring Brook, GO feet above contact (Joe. 38)
Quart z . . .. . . . .... ... . . . .. .. ..... . ........... . . .... .. .. . .
Fel dspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ...... . . . .
Mi crocline 95%
Albite 5%
Muscovite .. . .. . . . .......... ... ....... ... . .. ...... . . . . . . . . .
Matrix and cement ( iron oxide, seri cite, kaolin ) .... . ... . . . . .
Dawson Lake, 30 feet abovE! Orange vhyllite (loc. 21)
Quartz ... ....... . ... .. .... . ..... . .. . . . .. . .. .. ... . . . . .. . . .
Feldspar ... . .. . .. . ...... ...... . . .. ...... . . . ... . ... .. .
K-feldspa\' 80%
Sodi c-oligoclase 20 %
Muscovite
Matrix a nd cement (i :on oxide, ser icite, kaolin ) .. ... . .
Federal Hill , Bristol , at rfa ul t , 1,000 feet (appr oximately)
above Hartl a nd schi st contact (lac. 37)
Quar tz ......... .. . ...... . . . .... . ...... ... . . . .. .... .. . .
Feldspar . . .. . .. . .... . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .... . . ... . . .. . ... .
Micr ocli ne 95 %
Al bi te 5%
Matrix and cement .... ... . .... . .... . . ............ . . . .. . ... .
Northford, dir ectl :l unde r lower lava flow (Joe. 12)
Quartz ... ... ..... . ... .. ........ ... ....... . ... . .... .
Feldspar . ..... . ........ . . .. ... . .. . ... .. .. . . . ... . .. . . . . . . .
Mi cr ocline 65 %
Albite 35 %
Matrix and ce:nent ( iron oxide , seri ci te, kaolin ) .. .. . ... . . ... .
50%
18-20%
27%
1%
3%
80-85%
5%
5%
8%
80%
8%
1%
12%
70-75%
15-20 %
60 %
36%
4%%
6. li'air Haven, Blakesl ee quany (Joe. 13)
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55%
Felds.pa: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40%
Mieroelin e 95%
Sodi c-oli goclase 5%
Micas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2%
Matrix a nd cement (iron oxide und calcite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6%
102
[Bull.
Certain of the Triassic arkoses are intermediate in composition
between real a rkoses and graywackes. Some of the arkosic " brown-
stone" of Portland, although still a rf'al arkose, generally contains a
considerabl e amonnt of r ock fragment s : qnartziti c, mi ca-schist , and
chlorite schist. However , other bro" nstmws, also ftorn Portland,
may carry as much as 65 per cent of feldsp:u.
The felcl spat of the arkoses is mostly microeline, with smaller
amounts of plagi odase. The latter is inYariabl y albite or sodic-
oligoclase, practi cally ne,er more basic than .An H.l . The predomin-
ance of mi crocline 01er plagioclase is (lne less to any superior rcsis-
tancc to dec or abrasion of m icwcline 01er soclic-plagioclase, than
to the original almnclancr of mi crocline in the crystalline source r ocks.
Althongh th e f eldspar of the arkoses is mostly fresh. it is not univer-
sally so. Differenti ally decayed feldspar is a f eatme of many ar-
koses : in the same hand specimen (lifferent grains of microcline may
show varions degrees of decay or the same may be tl'll e of plagio
clase grains (Plate XXTX). Thi s has been seen in all specimens
showing thi s differential 'Xeathering that were obtained from a quar-
ry or a fresh out crop. and henrc not subj ected to recent weather-
ing. Thus it is probahk that thi s differential decay of f eldspar
grains can be explained best as bPing of primary origin, i.e., as hav-
ing taken plare before the consolidati on or eYen before the deposition
of the arkoses. Depo,.;it ionnlly tnost arkoses are ehannel deposits.
Replacement of f elcl s pnrs by secondary cal cite may be common
in the Triassic nrkoses. Although mi crocline is generally consi (l ered
to be much more resistant to subaerial chemi cal alteration than pla-
gioclase, it is fonn<l to he much more frequently replaced by intra-
stratal (hydrothermal ?) cal cite than is plagioclase (Plate VI-A).
The quartz o.f the arkoc:es ns nall? showi; strain shaclOIYS, in places
extremely pronounced in the metamorphic nri eties (Plate
In addition to quartz. feldspar, nncl rock fragments, the Connecti-
cut arkoses contain all the m!nerals clPscribed in the section on Min-
eralogy, with the excepti on of (lolomite, siderite, and pyrite.
Fclcl spathic Sandstones and Redstone
Ge11(Wfl l f erttwes. r-mler the tertll f elcl spnthi c sandstones wi ll
be described snch sandstones ns do not have nn arkosic appearance
in hand sperimens. i.e .. rocks in whi ch f eldspar is not conspi cuous
megascopically antl ca n be identifi ed only with diffi culty or not at
all.
F eldspathi c sandstones nrc '"hite. reel. or bla<.: k. Most of
them are r e<l in the Ke" Haxcn and P ortland formati ons and white
or g-ray in the Mcrirl en bNl s. The sandstones are finer-grained and
in some cases better sized t han the true arkose. The percentage of
coarse and vety coarse sand may ri se as high as 35 per cent, but
a\erages only 15 per cent. Insignificant amounts of gravel are pre-
sent in less than one-tenth of the specimens.
The constituent grains are angular or subangular and show only
faint rounding in some of the Meriden beds. The f eldspathic sand-
stones Yary greatly in texture and appearance and can best be de-
scribed by types.
Redstone type. The most important of all the f eldspathic sand-
stones is a brick-red clayey sandstone which forms over 4,000 feet o:f
the New Haven section west of :Meriden, and is also prominently re-
presented at other localiti es. Thi s rock has been named after Red-
st one Hill, west of Southington, where it is well exposed. The
Redstone consists of angular quartz and feldspar grains embedded in
a matrix of reel hematitic cl::ty (Plate VII-B). This clayey matrix
may constitute as much as 45 per cent of the rock. It averages be-
tween 25 and 30 per cent and only rarely fall s below 25 per cent.
The sand grains consist of qnartz, feldspar, and abundant mi cas
(muscovite and biotite). The percentage of feldspar is high (a ron nil
30 per cent as an average). A notable f eature is the freshness of
many of the f eldspars and of the biotite. The association of un
weathered grains of these susceptible minerals with the bauxitic,
gibbsite-bearing red clay of the matrix, the product of deep chemical
decay, suggest s that the rock is a purely mechanica 1 mixture of ma
t erial coming from two different sources or, as shown previously,
from two different loci of mechani cal and chemi cal weathering with
in the same source area.
At most places the Redstone is almost massive, and shows only
the poorest of structures. At othets, it is banded (2-4 em., at places
1-2 em.) and layered (10-20 em.). Cross-bedding is usually absent
or at least very hard to see. At Cheshire Street, in a highwav cut
on the south shore of the Quinnipiac River (loc. 35, upper New
Haven arkose) the Redst one contains poorly presen ed plant remains,
apparently Equiset es. They are red cylindrical bodi es formed
through the filling of hollow stems of rushes with the soft r ed mud
of the matrix, and traces of the ori ginal plant structure are pre-
served on the outside of these st ems.
Because of its high clay content, the Redstone is a very weak
rock, and resists erosion poorly. The Redstone areas show very sub
clued topography. P erfectly rounded pebbles and boulders of l{ed-
stone are a feature of the Pleist ocene glacial deposits of the upper
and middle Quinnipiac Valley.
Othe?' ?'ed sandstones do not possess the high amount of clayey
matrix characteri stic of the Redstone. They really are fine- and
medium-grained arkos<>s \\hich, how<>ver , are so heavily coated with
reel iron oxide that their arkosic charact er is not apparent mega-
scopically. These sancl ston<>.s contain much mica, and as a rule are
104 Connecticut Geologi cal and Natural History Survey [Bull.
well layered and banded. Their micaceous platy character , good
stratification, and relati vely fine grade size set them conspicuously
apart from the typical coarse arkoses of the Triassic. As a r esult,
these sandstones have been referred to rather loosely as shales, whi ch
they are not. The t erm '' shal e" has also been frequently misnsed,
both in Connecti cut and in other Triassic areas, to cover not only
these reel mi caceous sandstones, but al so most of the flag-gy and rela
tively fine-grained clasti cs such as the white and gray micaceous sand-
stones and practically all the siltstones. These red sandstones are
frequently ripple-marked and also show mud cracks and dinosal!r
tracks. The mud cracks may ha,e a diameter up to 2i5 em. , but m
general are Yery shallow (0. :3-1 em.). Some of these tlrsiccation f ea-
tures are impressed directly upon the sandstones, but most of them
haYe been recorded because :111 extremely fil1(>. and inconspi cuous, bare-
ly Yi sible layer (1 mm. or en'n less) of clayey shal e between two
sa,ndstone layers recei,ed and presetTed the impression proper , where-
as the underlying sand acted only as backing :mel support for t he
cl ay. The Hecbtonc and otlwr red sandstonrs are mostly flood plain
deposits.
lVhit e rmd (j?'rt,l/ f cldspathic sandston es. Pale-colored sandstones
are extre111Ply ('OIIIIIIOn in the 11p per i\feri<lcn formation. They are
" hite or whiti :-; h-gra y, cl r nsr, sngar,v appearing rocks,
''"eathering to a clirty white or yellowi sh-\\'hite in rusty patches and
spots, " ith a characteri sti c <qwckl<>d and spottecl appearance. They
are usually well sized, containing up to 50 per cent of the grains in
the medium sand fraction. The grains are characteristically closely
packed tog-ether (Plate IX-A) with almost no cement (secondary
silica, kaolin , and r arely a little cal cit e). Th!:' feldspar content may
be very high (up to 70 per cent and as a rulr not less than 50 per
cent). They usually appear to be massiw wi th only a poor parting,
10-20 em. apart, on account of the concentration along some bedding-
planes of mi ca flakes or small flatt ened clay p:all s ; but. upon careful
examination, they frequently sho\v a cnt- ancl-fi ll stratifi cati on on a
small scale ( 6 to 10 em.) , marked by d iffPrentia l '"eathering of li-
monitic bawl s. Some of the lip:ht :;ray f elflspn th ic sancl stones are r eel
sandstones bleached by thermal contact action near the vicinity of
igneous bodi es (see description of contact rocks at Reed Gap).
Drt:Jl. -colo?ed fddsz>atki c sandst O!I ('. S. Tlw dark color of these
r ocks is due !:' itiH'r to the extrl' nl e nl>t1nclancc> of biotite or chlorite or:
to the presence of orp:ani c, mostly ca rhonacP<Hi s. 1nattPr. Diotitr and
chlorite occur in extreni Ply l arge amount s in so1ne sandstonl' s near the
Great Fault, and in these pla,ces they nccot mt f or t he ('olor, but other
wise the dark tints are clue t o organic material. The color vari es
from light g-ra.y, through grayi sh 1)urple, t o almost black.
The.se dark organic rocks are generall y medium- or fine-grained
and finely banded (1 to 6 em.) and layered. They are interstratifi ed
with very thin layers of lJ]a('k shales and layers of almost pure. mica.
The planes of stratifi cation , as a rul e, are not flat parallel, but con-
105
to1ted. Carbona.ceous matter i s abundant and fragments o fossil
wood occur at many places. Ripple marks, mud cracks, and animal
tracks are also common.
These clark sandstones nsually haYe a high ratio of matrix and
cementing matter (25 per cent is not uncommon) in whi ch are em
bedded sand grains o various sizes. Thi s bond consist s o calcite,
dark clay, and finely micaceous material. Under the microscope
many o these sandstones have the appearance of small-scale con
glomerates or rather breccias. Also, minute desiccation cracks in
some of the specimens can be seen to be fill ed \vith r eddish dust , thus
su<mcst ino- a subaerial exposure. Manv of these dark sandstones
~ 0 .J
appear, thus, to have been formed jn a paludal enVIronment, w1th
plenty of vegetation and intermittent swampy water bodi es. Others,
however , are fairly massive for a thickness of 1 or 2 .feet , and con
tain an abundance of carbonized \YOod, thus suggestmg more per-
manent swamps.
Siltstones
Siltstones form 13 per cent of the New H aven arkose, 11 per
cent of the Meriden formation, and 23 per cent of the Portland for
mation. In the past the siltstones of the Triassic have been generally
referred to as "shales". They are, however , much too coarse and
gritty to the touch t o be called by such a t erm. At one end the silt-
stones pass into fine-grained sandstones, on the other, they grade into
shales.
The r eel siltstones, which are by far the more common, can almost
be considered as being ver y fine-grained feldspathic sandstones of
the Redstone t ype. They all sl1ow excellent banding and stratifica
tion. Ther e are usually three or more order s of banding. The finest
l:nnellae (0. 25 mm. thick) unite in bands 2 mm. to 2 em. thick which
form major layers of variable thickness. Stratifi cation planes are
marked by accumulations of mica flakes. Fine cut- and-fill stratifica-
tion, ripple marks and, at places, mud cracks arc common. Some of
the cut-and-fill stratification is on a mi croscopic scale, bei ng distinctly
marked in thin sections (Plate XII-A) , by an alternat i on of curved
dark and light bands, the darker layers being especially ri ch in iron
oxide. Red siltstones are fl oocl plai n deposits.
The siltstones arc made up of yer y minute angular grains (15
t o 75 per cent) of quartz and feldspar embedded in a matrix or paste
(25-85 per cent) ntaclc up mostl y (two-thirds ) of red f erruginous
clay or di rectly of hemati te and of a pale, almost opti cally inert (sub-
isotropic) semi-mi caceous materi al (one-third) which is difficult t o
resolve under the microscope. X-ray t est s show thi s to be mostly
kaolinite, with some gibbsite and illite. Some of the siltstones are
really micro-conglomerates or rather micro-breccias.
106
Connectic.ut Geological and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
The dark-colored siltstones (black, gray, blue, and green) are
very similar to the r ed ones, except thnt the red iron oxide is replaced
by organic matter and pyrite. A fine example of microscopic cut-
and-fill stratification in a dolomitic si ltstone is shown on Plate XII-D.
Shales
Shal es form 2 per cent of the New Haven arkose, 40 per cent of
the Meriden formation, and 7 per cent of the Portland formation.
They are soft and unctnous to the touch. Banding and lami nation
ar e excellently developed ; fi ssili ty becomes prominently visible after
weathering and then some of the shales may split into paper-thin
layers. Several orders of banding magnitude are present as in the
siltstones. Current and desiccation feat ures are also to be seen, al-
though desiccation marks are absent in the lacustrine t ypes.
The r ed shales can be consider ed as siltstones in which the ratio
of grains to the ferruginous clay matrix is less than 15 or 20 per cent.
The dark shales (gray, black, green, and blue) are made up of
matter mixeclnp \': ith micaeeons and kaolinic material. In a
typical specimen the mass of the shale consists of 40 to 50 per cent of
a dense, opti cally almost inert paste and 50 to 60 per cent of tiny,
well oriented mi cac:cons Hakes "hich account for the lamination of
the rock. Bedrling planes may be marked by accumulations of mica,
secondary barite, and pyrite. The organic matter either occurs as
disseminated black spots or is concentrated in layers and bands.
The shal es may contnin cnlcite layers and calcareous concret ions.
Some of these are of secondary, intrastratal origin, as can be proved
by the fact that they cut across fra ctured and bisected sand grains.
The shales not only occur as definite beds, but at many places
in the coarse arkosic seri es they form small curved pockets and layers
(1-50 em. long, 1-5 em. thick). ThE'se thin, but very tenacious layers
are apt to receive impressions of animal tracks and other desiccation
and current features and to preserve them, thus explaining the oc-
currence of such features amid coarse clastics.
The dark shales at many places carry plant and fi sh remains.
These dark hori zons also contain large amounts of pyrite, which, upon
weathering, give the beds a yellow, rusty nppearance.
To avoid r epetition, regional and local features of the shales,
their distribution, their fauna and Hora, and their genetic signifi cance
are discussed in the chapter s on St rnti graphy and Climate.
CALCAREous RocKs
Limestone at Northford
General features. Thin ( 1/ 2-3 ft.) layers of impure calcareous
rocks are found at many horizons of the Meriden formation. A real
No. 73]
107
to 14. feet in thicknes?, is p1:esent at the very base
Df the formatJOn, 1mmed wtely or almost 1mmedwtely above the lower
lava.
At its type locality, (locs. 9 and 10) in Coe's quarry, nDrth of
Northfo rd, the limestone is a banded and layered bluish-gray rock
passing into a micaceous silty sandstone at both top and bottom. The
li n1 estone is feet thick.
The limestone directly nbove the vasal sandstone layer is dark
blue, and of a coarscL pain than the main limestone mass higher up.
l'hcsc lo\Yer layers cont ain a considerable amount of sand . They are
finely banded ( O.i) to a em.) , the bedding planes being marked by
an accumulation of mica flakes.
The main limestone body is of a light to clark bluish-gray color,
weathering to a li ght yellowish-buff. There is a principal banding
(about 35 em. apart), and also a fi ner banding or lamination (1 to
3 nun.) . The latter is often curved. In addition to these bedding
planes there arc innumerable curved, lens-like layer s of sand and
mi ca flakes, usually bent and contorted. :Many small cavities are
present, (:l ither empty or fill ed with white or yellowi sh calcite crys-
tals or reddish masses of iron oxide. The clastic impurities stand
out prominentl y after etching the linJCstone with HCl (Plate
XIII-B) , and the rock' s color changes to a light gray after acid
treatment. The rock possesses a very irregular fracture.
The upper 3 or 4 feet contain more sand caviti es, the clastic
layers are more abundant, and finall y the limestone passes rather
abruptly into a silty sandstone very similar to the one which under-
lies it.
According to many anal yses made by the Connecticut Agricul-
tural Experiment Statioa, ''"hi('h h:1s te:-;t ed tlw limestone as a fer-
tilizer (E. M. Bailey, analyst) , the amount of CaO ranges from
50.37 to 55.81 per cent, and that of MgO from 0.72 to 0.80 per cent.
Approximately 8 per cent of the rock is insoluble in acid.
Cla stic i1npmit ies constitute 7 per cent of t he rock (Table 21).
The limestone react s violentlv \Yith cold H Cl and a black foam im-
mediately fot'lll S at the top of the beaker. Thi s black foam (a frac-
tion of 1 per cent of the insolul>Je resid ne) \Yas found to consist of
shapeless particles, too minute t o be resolved under the microscope.
They arc of organic origin (combustible) but are not petroleum
hydrocarbons, for they are insoluble in ether. The sanely part of
the insoluble residue is a arkosic sand.
Limestone laye1'8, wit h algae ( ?). In a thin section from a. layer
(j feet abo,e the base, the rock is seen to be an impure limest one
with numerous sand grains scattered throughout or segregated into
irregular layers. The calcareous paste, whi ch forms 90 per cent of
the rock, is by no means uniform; it varies from a fine crypto-
crystalline aggregate of dark (almost black) calcite to a coarse-
grained mosaic of large recrystallized colorless calcite grains. A
definite banding and cyclical arrangement can be made out. A de-
positional cycle starts with a. sandy layer, followed by fine-grained
dark cal cite, aml, finn.ll y, by coarse limpid calcite. Often the sandy
layer is absent, and the banding is confined to the calcite. Curving,
banding, contorting and a lensoid texture complicate matters. Some
of the planes are marked by a parallelism in mica flakes or by iron
oxide and organic stringers.
Disseminated in the calcite mosaic can be seen round or oval
calcareous bodi es whi ch appear to be of oq!anic origin. The larger
bodies (Plate XIV-B) may be interpreted as specimens of blue-
green, fresh- water algae. t he so-called "water biscuits" ( Charophyta).
Similar varieties have been described by Roddy, and are also mus-
trated in Milner. Other smaller round bodies (Plate XIV-A) strong-
ly resemble the algal spores of the class Charophyta., as described,
among others. by Peck. These spores are hollow spheres covered
with spiral ridges which, in a thin section, look like a geared wheel.
The r esemblance of the round borlies of the Northford limestone to
these spores is marked indeed. The hollo'v spheres are filled with
coarse crystals of re-crystallized calcite. Finally, some branching and
dendritic bodies, usually of a. clark color, appear possibly to be the
stems of fully grown Charophyta. Unfortunately no fossils were
discovered in hand specimens, and for thi s reason the evidence for
the presence of algae is limited so far only to thin sections. In addi -
tion to these organi c bodies, concentric !!rowths of calcite can be seen
around some quartz grains. It is difficult to say whether these are
young algae growing around a nucleus, or simply incipient oolites.
The clastic impuriti es cons ist of an arkosic saud (Table 21). The
sorting and rounding are fair. Some of the quartz grains have ir-
r egular surfaces whi ch may suggest, possibly, corrosion. The quartz
is usually of the igneous variety (few inclusions, no strain shadows ).
The microcline is often replaced, and the plagioclase is also frequent -
ly altered. In one or two instances, secondary growth of quartz in
optical continuity with t he parent grain was noted. Titanite and
barite (authigenic) are also present.
Eight feet above the base (specimen 10) , in a thin section. tlJC
rock is seen to be 111n de of a calcareous paste in which are imbedded
larger calcareous bodi es and many sand grains. The variations in color
(black to colorless) and in size (fine to coarse) of the main calcite
mass are very similar to those already described. An intere.sting fea-
ture of this section is the presence of extremely numerous layers
and bands, nsually extremely cnnecl. Often the contact planes are
sen-atecl and marked by iron-oxide flakes.
Scattered throughout the calcite matrix are larger calcareous
bodies which r emind one somewhat of Charophyta spores, but they
. . .
are much more doubtful than those in the preceding specimen. Ir-
regular clusters of coarse, light-colored calcite grains are also pre
sent. Variations in the calcite reflect the same depositional cycles
mentioned before.
The composition of the insoluble residue is given in Table 21.
The quartz, microcline, and oligoclase show the same characteristics
as in the preceding specimen. Some of the quartz grains are well
rounded; generally they are subangular or subroundecl. Some of
TABLE 21
MINERAL COMPOSITION OF THE INSOLUBLE SANDY FRACTIONS
OF THE NORTHFOHD LIMESTONE
Micaceous sandstone under limestone
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47%
Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53%
K-feldspar ( mostly mi crocline), 60%
Sodic oligoclase, 15%
Indeterminable, 25%
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
Limestone 6 ft. above base
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48%
Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52%
K.feldspar (mostly microcline), 65%
Sodic oligoclase, 20%
Indeterminable, 15%
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
Limestone 8 ft. above base
Quartz .... .... ........ ..... .................. ......... ... . .... .. .
72%
28%
F eldspar .............. . .... . ....... .
K-feldspar (mostly mi crocline), 45 %
Oligoclase, 15%
Indeterminable, 30%
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
Sandy layer 10 ft. above base
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48%
Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52%
K-feldspa r (mostly microcline), 5fi%
Oligoclase, 15%
Indeterminable, 30%
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
Micaceous sandstone above limestone
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39%
Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61%
K-feldspar (mostly micTocline) , 65%
Sodi c oligoclase, 12%
Indeterminable, 23%
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
110
Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
the borders of quartz grains appear to be corroded. Bent muscovite
tlaKe::; and barite crystals are also present. The heavy residue coh
sist s mostly of authigenic b r i t ~ mid a vaded suite of rare minerals
including imlicolite.
One of the principal sandy interlaycrs in the limestone is found
at the 10-foot level (l oc. D). It is 5 to. 6 em. thi c.; k, and can be sub-
eli vided into a nnm her of extremely fine, contorted laminae ( 0.25-
1 mm. thi ck) composed of si lt, sand, clay, or clark organic matter.
The general color of this layer is yellow bu1f. Under the microscope,
the rock appc.ns t o be made of calcareous and sandy lenses whi ch
interfinger in a complicated way. Some of the curved b yers suggest
st ylolites. The calcareous lenses contain around 76 per cent of cal-
cite, the sandy lenses not over 1;"\ per cent. In the calcareous parts.
the fa.mi liar cycli c change of coarse li ght-colored calcite grains and
fine dark paste is to be observed. Doubtful clark calcareous bodi es,
possibly organic, arc al so present. Some of them are dendritic, with
dark material disposed between their branching layers. The cal-
careous parts contain also a number of isolated sand g rains which
generally are surrounded by a film of dark micro-crystalline calcite.
It can not be said for a ce rtainty whether these are incipi ent oolites
or young algae. Lensin!.!,' and cross-bedding are prominent and in
places it appears as if certain calcareous layers had been pushed o\cr
sanely bands.
Limest one at Shuttle Meadow
General j eatn1es. A limestone layer from 1 to 1 1/ 2 f eet thick
is found near the base of the lower Meriden dark shales of central
Connecticut. It is, stratigr aphically, the equivalent of the 15 f eet of
limestone of the N orthforcl area. One of the best exposures can be
seen in an old quarry at Davi s Orchards, near Shuttle Meadow re-
servoir, 4 miles southwest of New Britain.
The rock is blui sh-gray aml weathers to ::t yellowish-buff color. In
one instance, a band ( 5 mm. thick) of a light-colored, dirty-white
calcite 'vas observed. The limestone is layered and banded (1 mm.
n p to 2 em. thi ck). Thi s banding is usually extremely curved and
contorted, even roughly parall el layers being bordered by crenulatecl
planes.
There are practically no solntion c.; avities (Plate XIII-A) , this
being a marked difl'erence from the N orthfordlimestone, 'vhich shows
these cavities abundantly. Upon treatment with cold dilute HCl
there is no formation of the thi ck layers of black and white foam ob-
senecl in the Northford specimens. On the other hand, the rock
etches into an ama zingly irregular pattern of complicated curved
thin bands marked by detrital impuriti es (Plate XIII-A) which
contrast with the simpler protruding of sand grains in the southern
facies of the rock.
The amount of insoluble residue is high, r eaching 17 per cent.
Most of it is fine dark-gray silt, in part apparently organic, but
not bituminous (insoluble in ether).
Microscopic study. The r ock is composed essentially of a mosaic
of calcite re-crystallized to various degrees of perfection. The cal -
cite varies from ver y fine (almost cr yptocrystalline) and clark, t o
coarse and light-colored. There is some l ayering between these t wo
kinds of calcite, but it is much less clear cut than at Northford. On
the contrary, the two kinds of calcite intermix to a rather consider-
able extent, and are much less suggcsti ve of depositional cycles (fine
to coarse ) than they arc farth er south. There is also no of
organic structures.
A remarkable feature of the rock is the large amount o fantas-
tically contorted and curved planes marked by very thin laye rs of
black, opaque, probably organic material. Sand grains are almost
wholly concentrated in these clark b yers, where they arc imbedded
in organic matter or dark, fine-grained calcite. The whol e system
of cnrvecl layers possesses only a very faint parallelism t o the main
bedding planes, and in many places the most curiously shaped
pockets, lenses, and clusters are present. A fact to be noted is that
these zones of disturbance oft en occm wi t hin the same layer of cal-
cite (i.e., there is no morphologi c differ ence in size, color, ot shape
of cal cite grains on either side of the " break" ). Thi s may cast some
doubt upon the interpretation which won ld consider them as desicca-
tion marks, for indeed, in the case of the interruption of cal cite depo-
sition, a new cycle marked, first , by the formation of dark crypto-
crystalline calcite would be expected. The possibility should not be
ignored that, to a certain extent at least, the soft calcareous mud was
disturbed by bottom currents whi ch also moved sand grains t o and
fro and concentrated them into pockets. The exist ence of such cur-
rents seems quite probabl e from the cut-and-fill stratification observed
not much higher up in the section. Finally, many of these features
::;eem to bear some resemblance to st ylolites.
The insoluble res illue f om1s 17 per cent of t he limest one. This
is one of the very few Connecticut Triassic sediments which shows
any appreciable degree of rounding, both in the light and heavy frac-
tions . In the fo rmer , the feldspar s arc decidedly better r ounded
than the qlla rtz, some of them perfectly so. The heavy minerals are
also markedly r onncl ecl , some t o an absolute degree of perfection , mus-
cO\-it.e especially, and to a l esser degree tourmaline. Tourmaline, ac-
cording t o Freise, is the toughest of all minerals, and r equires a con-
siderable amount of abrasion bef ore becoming rounded. Thi s sug-
gests a prolonged to-and-fro shifting o material in the lower Meri-
den lakes. The gentleness of these currents is seen from the perfect
r ounding o even small fl akes ancl from the micr oscopic
cut-and-fill stratifi cation in some of the shal es and siltstones.
112 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey LBull.
P:E..'TROGUAPHY OF '!'HE PYROCLAST IC ANn CoNTACT Roc Ks AT REED GAr
Location and Section
The Triassic sediments nsnn 11 v show some thermal alteration in
the vicinity of igneous bodies. An excellent outcrop of the lower
contact of the middle lava sheet is well exposed near the southern
end of the trap quarry at Reed Gap on the Airline Railway (loc. 7) .
This locality is interesting in showing not only contact metamorphic
effect s, but also a layer of what may possibly be an altered tuff ( ,
separated by more than 16 feet of normal sediment from the lava
body.
A-
B-
B-C
C-
D-
E-
F-
G-
H-
I-
The follo,ving section is exposed (see Figure 15):
Blue basalt and dolerite, microbrecciated near base ...... .
Altered basalt, finely jointed, somewhat vesi cular . .. . . . .
Contact zones; vesicular and amygdaloidal . . ... . .... . .. . .
Massive gray tuff (?) -like lJed, layered near base . .. . .... . .
Massive gray a1' kose, fine gr ained .. . . ....... . . . ........ .
Laminated purple mi ca.ceous siltstone . .. . .. . ... . . ... . .. .
Banded maroon siltstone . . .... . . .... . . . . ........ . . ..... . .
Gray tuff (?)-like layer, obscurely lJedded, base covered . . .
Talus .. . . . .. . ..... . . . .. . ... . .. . .... . . . . . . ....... .. .... . .
Reddish purple arkos e ; top and bottom covered ... ... .... .
Normal Dolerite and Basalt
100 f t.
1 ft. 6"
6"
4 ft.
2 ft .
10 ft.
2 ft.
5 ft.
1 ft .
6"
The normal blui sh dolerite and basalt (both varieties found in
hand specimens from the talus ) is exposed for 100 feet in a steep
cliff. It is characterized by widely s paeecl (2-4 feet) columnar joint-
ing which persist s until within 1 112 f eet of the contact. The lower
4 or 5 feet contain sparsely spaced, elongated vesicules, in the shape
of vertical pipes or chimneys, 20 to 50 em. long, and 2 to 5 em. wide.
A specimen collected from 5 fert above the contact appeared to
be normal, though rather coarse-grained basalt, with the hand speci-
men showing visible pln.gioclasr crystals. Under the microscope
(Plate XV-A) the rock proved to be a brecciated basalt, exhibiting
a seriate porphyriti c strnetnre with phenocryst s of all sizes embedded
in a matrix of smaller diabase fmgments, and a dark isotropic mass.
The rock consist s of labradorite and angite, in places strongly re-
placed with calcite. There is much contorting and brecciation. The
rock is almost a fl ow breccia.
The lowest 1-1 1/ 2 f eet of the trap show a narrow columnar
jointing (1/ 2 foot anclless ) . The fresh rod\: is of a very pale blui sh-
gray color, which can be seen only in the cor e of the largest hand
specimens, made possible by the nanow jointing. Otherwi se, the ba
salt is weathered t o a pinkish-buff color. The rock effen esces with
cold HCL
Under the microscope (Plate XV-B) the rock shows a. vestigial
rliabasic texture ::md a subordinate porphyritic structure with larger
feldspar phenocryst s. Extreme alteration and r eplacement have
No. 73]
Triassi c Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 1!:\
takrn plaee. The labrallorite has Leen in many p laces rrplaeed by
calcite. The originaJ f erromagnesian mineral (augite) has been en
tirely altered to browni sh-red limonite and siderite. The rock con-
tains large yesicles and amygd ules (np to 3 em. in dia1neter) fill ed
mostly with carbonate, though, in some of them, a gossan-like box
structure of limonite can be seen.
The line of contact bebnpn the lan1 and the nnderlying 11pper
tuff-like la:vH is extnmely sharp and " ell defined by a layer 0.5 t o
1 em. thi ck of amygclaloicls or empty vesicles and limon ite dust.
Thi s nano" conta ct : ~ . o n e is stron!!l.V oxi<li:t.ed. It may possibl y r e-
presPnt a bakC' ll fo::;::; il soil.
Tu !fa ceo us L ayers
The t11o tu fl'aceous ( n layers at Reed Gap consist essentially of
a colorl ess or pale-brown isotropic substance with a r efractive index
of 1.525 0.004, in places greatly altered to calcite. H eating in a
closed tube di scloses practically no water (not over 1 per cent). Thi s
material can either be volcani c !!lass or an isotropic mineral with
n = 1. 525. The latter is not very probabl e, for only three or fom rare
and infrequently f ound minera Is \vith nnlikely paragenesis ancl dif
f erent properti es have such an in<l ex of refraet.ion. If the i sot ropic
material is Yolcani c glass. its pohahle composit ion on the basis of
George's table \Yill be ancl esitic.
Such a Yolcanic glass conl<l ha,e ori!!inate<l either in a tnif or in
a Jaya flow. The f ollowing crit eria bearin!! upon its poss ible ori g in
are prC' sentecl :
A- The lower contact of the volcanic material shows an intimate in ter -
layering and interfingering with the underl yi ng normal sediments. Such an
intermixture is to he expected in t he case of r eworli ed pyroclas tic materi al,
l>ut does not occur frequ entl y at tl1e base o.f a lava flow.
B- No vesi cleH. nmygdul es, o1 flow structures usually associated with
lavas are .present. Tl;e rock is very compact and has a tuffaceous appearance.
C-The pres umed ori ginal vitroclas ti c t exture is almost entirely obliterat .
ed by later a lteration. This abse!lce of positive identi<fyinl': feat ures such
as glass shards or a tuffaceous reli c texture prevents the definite labelling
of th e materia l as a tuff.
An intense search with t he hi ghest ma gn ifi cation poss ibl e r e-
vealed only three instances of minute t extural f eatures which ap
peared to be nuthentic curved a.ngular glnss shards. Thi s cnn not
lend enon!!h stlpport to the finnl interpretation of the ntatrrial ns a
tuff. However, Ross says (1928, p. 14G) , concerning the obliteration
of vitr oclns ti c structures, "'Vhen the ash depos its fall on land and
are r eworked and redeposited , the characteri sti c structure may be
complet ely cl estroyecl.
The lo\Yer t uff-like rock sepa rated by 17 feet of sediments from
the lan. is a fine-f!Tainecl light-gray r ock, ver y poorly and obscurely
bedded (2-10 mm.). Only 2 f eet are vi si bly exposed, the base of the
bed being covered by a talus mantle which persists or 5 feet. Hence,
the thickness of this layer is possibly much greater than 2 feet.
Under the mi croscope (Plate. XVI) the rock appears to be made
mostly o isotropic glass, with a refractive index below 1.54, con-
siderably replaced by calcite. There is a considerable amount o ex-
tremely smnll blnck opaque bodies whi ch could not be positivel y iden-
tified. The est imated composition is :
Trans parent vol canic ( ?) glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50%
Black opaque specks (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20%
Minute mica flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 to 8%
Quartz and orthoclase grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2%
Secondary calcite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 to 25%
The upper tuff ( n is a light-gray, fine-grained, and somewhat
porous rock. Near its base, it grndnally passes into the underlying
arkose, the two rocks showing interfingering. The upper contact
with the middle lava flow is unconformably abrupt. Under the
microscope considerable alteration nncl evidence o contact action
can be seen. The est imated composition is :
Volcanic ( ?) glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25%
Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20%
Quartz and feldspar grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15%
Micaceous material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1%
Calcite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40c.. 45%
The glass hns a r efractive index of 1. 525. The impurities consist
of quart;,, orthoclase, and nlbite (Ab 95) grains. Graphic inter-
growth between quartz and orthoclase can be seen in places. Some
o the feldspars are entirely fresh, others are somewhat replaced by
iron oxide. The absence of labradorite rngments suggests that this
tuff is not connected with the overlying lava.
Gray Arkose
The upper and lower tuffs are separated by 12 1/2 feet of fine
grained arkose. The upper 2 feet o the arkose have been bleached by
thermal contact action o the lava, the hematite having been trans-.
~ o r m e into magnetite.
This gray nrkose (Plate XVII-B) is a massive unstratified rock
with a very pale-purplish tinge. The constituents show poot sort-
ing, but good sizing, the average particle being 0.08 x 0.12 mm. in
diameter (range of si;r,e: 0.04 up to 0.5 mm.). The angularity is
extreme. The absence of stratification is notable, even the mica flakes
showing no traces of parallelism.
The composition is:
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41%
F'eldsp.ar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42%
Ort110clase, 50%
Albite, Ab 95, 50%
Magnetite, muscovite, biotit e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15%
Calcite, tourmaline and minor constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2%
115
Among the constituents the quartz shows no strain shadows
and almost. no inclusions. It is probably of igneous origin. Tlw
potassium-feldspar is remarkable in that it is exclusively orthoclase
and not microcline. This total absence of microcline has not been
observed anywhere else in the Triassic rocks. Both the orthoclase
and the albite are fresh.
The magnetite is extremely abundant. It occnrs either as octa-
hedrons or as irregular, sharp-edged grains, of all sizes from fine
dust to parti cles 0.1 mm. in diameter. It is of secondary origin.
The ma crnetite is mostlv disseminated in the cement. but in some
places r eplace biotite or, rarely, the feldspar. This magnetite
was formecl through thermal contact action on the r eel iron oxide of
the normal, unaltered reel arkose. In spots a faint "running" of tho
macrnetite and local secondarv browni sh and reddish strains clue to
"eathering can he A small amount of ilmenite, partly
altered to leucoxcne and anatase, is present.
A not vel]' intensive r eplacement by carbonates can also be seen.
Apparently both calcite ancl dolomite occur, with the latter predom-
inating, and forming well-developed, in places saddle-shaped, rhombs.
Some of the rl olomite is r elated to ankerite. Differ ent stages in this
alteration process can be seen. The carbonates are interstitial and
do not appear to replace any definite mineral.
The cement is scarce, most of the grains being in direct contact.
It consists of a little kaolin and disseminated magnetite dust.
The hea vy r esidue is given in Table 4C.
Nor mal Red Arkose
The normal reel arkose (Plate XVII-A) below the zone of con-
tact action is identical in all respects, save the form of its iron oxide,
with the bleached and metamorphosed gray arkose.
The red shale contains some interesting calcareous concretions
(Plate XVIII-B)), that have grown inside of the shale, pushincr the
bedding plane slightly apart. "'
No. 73) Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut
117
CHAPTER V
STRUCTURE
GENERAL FEATURES AND HIS'l'OIUCAL R EVIEW
The Triassic rocks of Connecticut form a homocline that strikes
almost north-south and dips eastward , the average angle of dip k
ing in the vicinity of 15 o . On the east the Triassic is bordered by
an immense fault, the "Great Fault", with an estimated minimum
throw of 16,000 feet. Numerous faults break the Triassic homocline
into a seri es of block faults. Most of these faults trend northeast-
wa rcl, and the throw of some of them r eaches 3,000 f eet .
The present attitude of the Triassic rocks is partly the result of
the primary structure which they acquired during deposition, and
partly the result of subscqnent, post-depositional deformation. In
the her oic clays of geology the Rogers brothers thought that Triassic
sedimentation was obli que and that these strata were laid clown on
the sudnce at the sa.me angle with the horizontal which they possess
today. These ideas were thoroughly disprO\ed by \V. M. Davis
(1808), \Yho, besides showing that Triassic rocks were of "normal"
continental origin, also thonght thnt. their deposition took place in
a clowmva rped trough. Emerson ( 1899) replaced thi s downfoldecl
trough with a graben, dO\vnfanltecl on both sides. Barrell (1915)
inttwlnred the concept that Triassic sedimentation took place in a
wedge-shaped trongh, subsiding on the east along the Great Fault
with most of the sedimentary detritns coming from the Eastern
Highlands beyond the scarp of the Great Fault. Thi s view was
supported by C. R. Longwell , by W. L. Russell, and by Foye (1922).
It is also fully in acconl ''ith the r esults of the present investigation.
An attempt to introduce the iclra of a <lownbent canoe-shaped trough
filling from both sides was unsuccessfully made by Roberts (1928) .
The ti lting and blocldaultin/2" which followed the close of Tri -
nssic sedimentation ha ,-e bern interpreted by Barrell as clue t o the
arching of the so-call ed Tnconi c geanti cline between t.he Connecticut
and New J ersey Triassic areas ancl to the collapse of the flanks of
thi s arch. Thi s view, with some modifi cation, is generally accepted
today.
The Gr eat Fault has been held by Barrell and all subsequent in-
vestigat ors with the exception of Bain (1932) to be n normal fault.
Bain considers it to be nn o\crthmst. The r esults of the present
study are entirely in harmony with Barrell's views.
PRDL-\HY STHUC'l' URE OF THE 11nAssro BASIN OF DEPOSITION
According to Barrell (1 915), the Triassic rocks of Connecticut
were deposited in a wedge-shnped trongh, bordered on the east by
the Great Fault and in the west rotating downward around an axis
located somewhere to the west of the present Triassic boundary. Dur-
ing the period of sedimentation the surface of the basin remained
almost level , with a slight westward inclination. The bottom of the
trough, however, as it was bei ng more and more depressed, assumed
a greater and greater inclinati on. Hence the lower beds
of the Triassic have a greater primary dip than the upper ones.
Post-depositional tilting was superimposed upon, and added to, this
primary eastward clip. It follows from this that the lower Triassic
beds (which outcrop in the western part of the hn sin) should as a
whole show a steeper dip than the upper beds (which outcrop farther
to the east). In general thi s is trne and was so r eported by Davis.
The difference in dip, however, is very slight.
Depression of the wedge-shaped trough proceeded along the
Great Fault whi ch was recurrently active during all of Newark
time, and in fact -controlled Triassic sedimentation. Fanglomerates
along the fault , found as low as the nppermost New Haven beds,
have been offered as proof of the existence of a fault scarp by
Longwell (1922) and \V. L. Hnssell (1922). Vein quartz pebble:::
coming from a large qnartz lode along the Great Fault are found
at all horizons of the Triassic, and this is offered by Russell as
further proof that the Great Fault was already active in pre-Newark
time, when the quartz lode was f ormed by magmati c waters circulat-
ing along the fault plane. The fanglomerates of the Great Fault
point to such an intense erosion that a r ecurrent r ejuvenation of the
cliff-like scarp whi ch provided them appears to be inevitable and
essential for their existence.
Fanglomerates indicate an abrupt break in slope and a bold and
rugged r elief in the scarp region. Tlwy clo not, however , snggest
high relief and considerabl e altitude of the scarp. The relatively
modest, and frequently smalL size of pebbles and rock fragments in
the fanglomerates suggests only a moderate r eli ef. The largest boul-
ders do not exceed 6 f eet in diamet er and these are only rarely found,
most of the material being much less than 6 inches in diameter. There
are none of the enormous boulders whi ch mark the high scarp of the
Sierra Nevada in Owen's Vall ey (Knopf, 1918). It is belieYed on
the basis of this evidence that the nltitufl e of the sca rp may have
fluctunt ed between 2fi0 and 1.00(; f eet and prohn hly never exc: P-eded
1,500 f eet. In this connection it may be said that, if erosion is suf,
ficiently potent, a c1 i fference in reli ef of less than 500 feet between
mountain top and valley floor is amply suffi cient to provide boulders
exceeding 8 feet in diamet er (as will be shown in the discussion of
the geneti c significance of arkose deposits in the following chapter
on climate).
As a further proof of the correctness of Barrell's hypothesis of
a depressed, fault ed, wedge-shaped flepositional trough. the present
investigation aims to offer a study of the relative thickness of strata
119
and the general mutual relationships between the Connecticut mam
area and the Pomperaug basin.
The Pomperaug basin represents an outlier of the main area,
and, as shown el sewhere, can be correlated with it stratigraphically
and mineralogi cally. Hence, an original westward extension of the
Newark basin of deposition at least us far as South Britain is indi-
cated. The New Haven arkose is approximately 800 feet thick in
the P omperaug basin. It is apparently from 5,500 to 6,000 feet
thick west of Meriden. If these fi gures are plotted to scale and pro-
ject ed (Fig. 33) it is seen, first, that the thickness of the New Haven
arkose in the immediate vicinity of the Great Fault may have
reach eel 8,500 feet ; second, that the basin extended at least 2 miles
west of South Britain and, third, that by the end of New Haven
time the angle bet"een the sagging bottom of the trough of depo-
sition and the surface of the ground was 3 o .
If the r elatiYely uniform thi ekness of the ?vferiilPn formati on is
superimposed upon thi s pris mnti c ,;pction anrl in arlrliti on a proj ec-
tion of the -:1: .000 fr et of tlw Portlanrl bmb is drawn above it, then t he
following results are obtained: the maximum depth of the basin
reaeherl at least 16.000 feet. the maximum width was 3:) miles or
more, and the of sagging r eached 5 . The basin. then, at the
close of Portland time formed a wedge-shaped prism with a triangu-
lar section as sho,vn in the midclle part of Figure 33. Thi s figure
also shows how much of the ori ginal extent of the pri sm has been
left untouched by erosion.
Sixteen thousand f eet of thi ckness and 5 of primary clip are
minimum figures which do not take into account the amount of
Portland beds eroded away. Both the original thickness and the
real primary clip may have been greater , with approximately an jn-
crease of 1 o for each adrlitional or 3,500 feet of strata deposited
along the Great Fault.
The sagging of the basin bottom was accompanied by a. sagging
and warping of the basin snrface. As a whole, the basin was fill ed
with sediments as fast as it sagged, and hence its snrface was at all
times nearl y flat. However , during certain periods (especially dur-
ing later :Meriden time) structural warping of the surface appears
to have been marked enough to <li slor ate the drainage nnd result in
the formation of huge s" amps.
The downward mo\ement of thr Tria ss ic bas in t ook place along
the Great Fault graduall y as a whole, bnt apparentl y in recurrent
stages of Yariable intensity. The pesence of a steep fanlt scarp,
pointing t o an actiYe f ault, can be tracell ( as shown by fanrrlomer-
ates ) as f ar back as the uppermost New HaYen beds. The
intensity of the movement along the f anlt is suggested by the pre-
ponderance of material of different degrees of coarseness at clifl'erent
horizons. Coarse material (conglomerates ) snggest s a steep t opo-
[Bull.
graphy and hence a rejuvenated scarp and !ln active fault;
terial (shales and siltstones) conversely pomts to a lower rehef m
the source area, and hence to a scarp somewhat worn down by ero-
sion ancl not rejuvenated with sufficient vigor. Basalt boulders in
the fanglomerate above the upper lava sheet suggest a local retreat
of the scarp somewhat east of the fault.
Conglomerates are abundant near the base of the lower New
Haven arkose and again in the uppermost New Haven beds. It is
t entatinly suggested that, at the Yery end of the New Haven epoch,
internal stresses become extremely pronounced and structural relief
was sought in an exacerbation of the movement of the Great Fault,
but was finall y adequately provided only through the extrusion of
the lower lava sheet.
The shal es and siltstones of the Meriden beds indicate a dis-
location of the drainage and, possibly, also a somewhat decreased
supply of coarse material. The first item can be best explained by
structural warping of the basin's surface. The second condition (i.e.,
decr ease in amount of coarse material entering the basin) is some-
what debatable, for fanglomerates and coarse conglomerates are a
f eature of the Meriden beds near the Great Fault. Hence, a certain
quantity of coarse material was still coming into the basin, although
apparently in somewhat lrsser amounts than in New Haven or Port-
land times. Thi s coarse material, however , did not get transported
far away from the vicinity of the Great Fault.
The r eal displacement of the Great Fault during Triassic de-
position cannot be calculated exactly. As pointed out by vV. L.
Russell (1922) , this displaeement may have easily been differential on
both sides of the fanlt, and hence would have comprised not only the
16,000 feet of the Triassic strata untouched by erosion plus the un-
known amount of eroded strata, but also a certain amount of eleva-
tion suffered by the upthro>vn crystalline block east of the Great
Fault. In other words, the Eastern Highland block may have been
elevated more than the Triassic basin was depressed. This view finds
supporting- evidence in the composition , mineralogy, and total volume
of the Triassic beds: most , if not all , of the Triassic sediments ap-
pear to have been derived from a source area extending not over 5
to 8 miles eastward of the fault, but this block, 5 mil es wide and 3
m.iles high, appenrs to have been suffi cient t o furni sh only between
50 and 6i) per crnt of the total volume of the sediments of the Tri-
assic basin. It is t o account for thi s, that a differ ential
movement along both sides of the fault plrtne appears to be the most
likely explanation, with probably an uplift of approximately 22,000
to 25,000 f eet on the east ern sicle, corresponding to a depression of
16,000 feet on t he west ern. This wonld account not onl y for most
of the total volume of sediments of the Trinssic basin bnt also for
the steepness and almost constant 1:ejuvenation of the fault scarp
east of the fault.
121
Barrell, Longwell, ,V. L. Russell, and the present writer con-
sider the Great Fault to be a normal fault. Bain (1932), on the basis
of his work in northern Massachusetts in the Mt. Toby region, inter-
prets it as a reverse overthrust.
However, an examination of the Mt. Toby area showed that the
major structure of the region is in no way different from that of
Connecticut (i.e., a normal fault) and that the peculiar sculpturing
which caused the Mt. Toby topography is apparently due to differen-
tial erosion along a fault zone.
PosT-DEPOSITIONAL DEFORMATION
A considerable increase in dip at many places in the Triassic
beds close to the Great Fault suggests that movement along the fault
plane took place even after the close of Triassic sedimentation. The
main post-depositional deformation, however, as interpreted by
Barrell, seems to have been due to a tilting of the Triassic prism
and its breaking into a series of fault blocks by a large number of
faults, usually trending from northeast to southwest. The amount
of tilting, as r epresented by the visible dip minus a primary dip of
at least 5, is not very high: from 7o to 10 only.
It is probable that tilting and downward blocldaulting went along
simultaneously. Figure 33 shows schematically the amount of up-
tiltinO" necessary to bring the present eroded surface of the Triassic
parallel to the horizontal. Such a tilting impli es an upward move-
ment o:f approximately 15:000 feet in the Pomperaug basin area and
a subsequent down-dropping of the same magnitude following block-
faulting.
Barrell explains the tilting as clne to the arching of a geanti-
cline between the Connecticut and New Jersey Triassic areas. This
hypothesis of the Taconi c geanticline has been generally adopted with
only slight modifications by other students of the problem; it appears
t o be entirely possibl e, bnt can not be definitely proved.
The collapse of the wings of the arch is said t o lune provided
the down-faulting which broke the Triassic pri sm into a series of
fault blocks. These blocks have been described in detail by \V. M.
Da Yi s. The di splacement of some of the larger faults bordering the
fault blocks r eaches 3,000 feet . These numerous faults are marked
on the surface by the di splacement of the outcrops of the lava sheet s.
It is almost impossible t o follow in the fi eld the faults within the
area of the Triassic sandstones. However, sedimentary analysis
shows that in the vicinity of the faults considerable amounts of cal-
cite and especially barite are present. It has thus been possibl e to
proj ect some of the larger faults into the sandstonB areas on the basis
of the r elative abundance of barite (as for instance at loc. 15).
anw
(1) Shape of Triassic trough at the close of New Haven time.
The bottom has been rotated 3" eastward.
The surface remains almost flat.
Solid portions represent uneroded part
of Triassic sediments.
(2) Shape of Triassic trough near the end of Portland time.
(3) Idealized tilting after close of Triassic deposition
prior to block faulting.
(4) Present shape of remnants of Triassic sedimentary prism
after dovm faulting and erosion.
[JJ Portland Arkose
Meriden Formation
New Haven Arkose
0
5
10
miles
[Bull.
Figure 33. Development of the structure of the Triass ic basin of Con-
nect icut.
There is some doubt as to the primary attitude of these trans-
verse and oblique faults. From the examination of the fault planes
where they are well exposed, snch as at Hanover pond, south of
Meriden (Plate XXIV-B), or at locality 17 on Shepard Avenue,
Hamden, and from the data, published by Longwell (1922) on the
faults of the Saltonstall tunnei, it appears that these faults dip to
the west with the downthrown side also to the west and, hence, are
to be considered as normal faults. Barrell, however, has suggested
that the present attitude may be clue to rotation of the fanlt planes
caused by tilting, and that the original fault planes may have been
vertical, or even dipped east , i. e., that these fault s were reverse fault s.
The fact that at some places the present and westward clip of the
faults is in the vicinity of onl y 70, however, would not be in har-
mony with the concept of an original reverse dip.
CHAPTER VI
CLIMATE OF THE NEW ARK EPOCH
GENERAL CoNSTDEilATro:-<s
Definition of Terms
121>
It appears desirable to preface a discussion of the climate of the
Newark epoch by an exact definition of the terms arid, semi-arid, and
humid. These terms can be made t o possess a definite quantitative
significance. This has been done by geographers and climatologists.
Koppen and Leighl y (1 !:126) have developed eqnations to show the
absolute precipitation that is characteri stic of an arid, a semi-arid,
a sub-humid, and a humid climate at different t emperatures and un-
der various systems of precipitation (uniform, rainy winter, rainy
summer) .
No such standardized usage exi sts among geologi sts. The t erm
semi-arid, especially, is often used rather loosely. At best, it appears
in the past to have been tacitly assumed to mean low annual rain-
fall with marked seasonal di stribution. Often it does not mean even
that, but rather answers to the personal ideas of a particular writer as
to what a semi-ariel climate should be. Regions with a low rainfall
h:n-e been indi scriminately assigned to a semi-arid climate r egard-
less of t emperature, and r egions with a dry seas on have suffered the
.same f at e, regardless of absolute rainfall. For instance, some of the
Brazilian highlands with a seasonably distributed rainfall of over
~ i inches (and a rather moder at e t emperature of only 66 F.), and
eertain parts of \Vyoming, with a low t emperature of 37 F. and a
snhuniform precipitati on of 18 inches (a climate like that of east ern
Sweden or Finland) have both been described in the geologic litera-
ture as semi-ariel or even arid r egions. The western slope of the
Sierra Nevada, a decidedly humid country, especially in its central
and northern portions, has been referred to as semi-arid.
To avoid snch errors and t he resulting confusion, it seems highly
desirable to adopt the quantitative procedure of the climatologist s.
The climati c t erms, arid, semi-arid, and humid, generally correspond
to the desert , steppe, and f orest belts (Russell after Koppen, 1!)26).
Each of these zones is cha ract eri zed by a certain amount of soil mois-
ture constitnted by the r elation of evaporation to precipitation. Both
plant growth and chemical ncti on in the soil depend upon thi s. To
assign a climate to one of these groups, a certain precipitation, de-
pending upon the mean annual t emperature, will han, to be present.
This necessary amount of r ainfall will vary according- t o t he charac-
ter of its di stribnti on. It will be smallest if most of the precipita-
tion comes cl own during the winter (Merliterranean t ype) , for evap-
orati on will be lmn='st dnring the col d >=e nson. Conversely, it will be
126
[Bull.
highest with a rainy summer (monsoon type), for then evaporation
is highest. It will be intermediate with a uniform or sub-uniform
type of rainfall.
These relationships h:ne Lwtn thoroughl y analyzed by Koppen
(1930 edition) and the results SIImmarized in a series of very si mple
fonnuln. s. These equations serve to cal cnlate the absolute precipit&-
tion characteri sti c of a desert, a semi-arid, or a humid climate at
di1ferent t emperatures and nnder various types of preci pitation.
Leighly has expressed these equations in graphic form and made them
easily available to American readers.s The t erms arid, semi-arid,
and humid are nsecl in thi s paper in Koppen's !:;ense. As an illustra-
tion, in central and south-central California, a region with a Mediter-
ranean type of precipitation (rainy winter) and a mean tempera-
ture of 60 F. , desert r egions will be characterized by a rainfall of
less than 9 1/ 2 inches, semi-arid ones by a rainfall of between 9 1/2
and 16 inches, and sub-hnmirl ar1<l humid ones will have a rainfall in
excess of that figure. The dividing line between a sub-humid and
a definitely humid climate nnder those given conditions has been set
at 30 inches by Professor Huntington (personal communi cation of
May 7, 1935).
s Leighly (1926, p. 62):
The following table presents the critical values used in the case of
the three main classes of seasonal distribution of rainfall. In the formulae,
Ns represents the mean annual precipitation in centimeters on the moister
limit of the steppe, i.e., the b-oundary between steppe and torest climates;
Nw is the rnaan annual depth of precipitation on the moister limit of tile
desert, i.e., on the boundary between desert and steppe; t, the mean annual
temperat::: e in degrees Centigrade:
F,or stations with:
Uniform distribution of -precipitation throughout the year
Summer rain, winter drought . . .. . . .... . .. . . . . .... ........ .
Winter rain, summer drought . ... .... .. .. . . . ........ . .. . . .
Ns = Nw=
t+33 t+lG-%
t+44 t+22
t+22 t+ll
When the temperature values are c'banged to the Fahrenheit tempera-
ture scale and the inch scale (5 -em. equaling inches) for depth of pre-
cipitation, the r elation, of course, is not so simple and the values above
become the following, in which tF represents temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit, and Ns and Nw are expressed in Inches.
For stations with:
Ns= Nw=
Uniform distribution of precipitation throughout the year tF+27.4 tF- 2.3
4.5
Summer rain, winter drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tF+47.2
4.5
Winter rain, summer drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tF+ 7.6
4.!>
tF+7.6
4.5
tF-12.2
4.5 4.5
No. 73]
History of the Probl em
One of the first modern interpretat ions concerning the probable
climate of the Newark epoch was given by I. C. Russell. From a
study of the r ed soils of the southern United States and t he west ern
slope of the Sier r a Nevada, and from occurrences of red soils abroad:
he concluded (1889, p. 46) t hat
"The reel roc ks of the Newa rk s ystem and of the Rocky Reel
Beds wer e formed fr om the debri s of lands that 'had been long exposed t o
t he action of a warm, moist atmospl1ere."
Russell 's views were accepted by Davis, who likmvi se ascribed a
mild climate to the Connecti cut Triassic (1898, p. 39). A heavy
rainfall was also postulated by J. D. Dana, with the possibility of
cold periods and even t emporary glaciation (1883, p. 385 ; "the era
of the Heel Sandst one was one of great precipitation"). These classic
American views were at variance with hypotheses developed on the
other side of the Atlantic. Aridity for the Triassic was accepted by
European workers.
Bai:rell departed from the path :followed by Hussell, Dana, and
Davi s and ascribed a semi-ariel climate to the Newark epoch. He
compared the sedimentat ion and climate of the Triassic with those
prevailing at the present time in the Great v alley of California.
Many of Barrell 's ideas are well supported by :facts. They have
been most convincingly presented (1908, p. 180; 1915, p. 30). As a
result the theory of semi-aridity was adopted by the majority of
American geologists.
Barton (1916) attempted to reconcile the vi ews of Russell and
Barrell by explaining that while the source detritus of the Triassic
was formed under humid conditions, its deposition followed later
when temperate conditions gave way to semi-aridity and erosion
supersedecl residual accumulation. This explanation, whi ch had been
invalidatecP by Davis as early as 1898 (p. 3G), apparently did not
sati sfy either Dorsey (192;'i) or especially Raymond (1928). The
latter again proposed for the Triassic a warm and very humid cli-
mate. l{aymoncl 's ideas have not beon very widely accepted as yet,
although many of his arguments are diffi cult to refute.
Thi s int roduces the crux of the problem, and explains why the
discussion between the followers of the theory of semi-aridity and
the adherents of a uniformly very humid climate has been so un-
satisfactory so far. The fa cts are that an impartial review of the
statements made by either side show a curious mixture of weakness
and strength. Some of the arguments are almost irrefutabl e. Othe1
arguments are hanlly t enable or downright erroneous. The impres-
sion ari ses that there is some truth in both and that the real truth
lies in neither.
a simple quantitative check on a volumetric basis shows
that assuming a rather hi gh thickness of 50 feet the "9ource detritus"
the tilling at one fell swoop .of a Triassic trough only 20 miles wide and
8,000 feet thick would require a source a r ea 3,200 miles wide, a fantastic
absurdity.
128
[Bull.
Semi-aridity vs. Humidity
The main arguments advanced by Barrell and other supporters
(Glock) of the theory of semi-aridity are as follows:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Arkose deposits containing fresh feldspars are indicative of
rigorous climatic conditions.
Red beds can be formed best in regions where the absence
of vegetation precludes r eduction of the red ferric oxide.
This is supported by many instances where red beds are as-
sociated with large deposits of salt and gypsum.
Mud cracks, rain pits, footprints, and other desiccation
marks indicate a sub-arid climate.
Fanglomerates, as defined by Lawson, are a feature of arid
(or semi-arid) regions.
The fauna and flora of the Triassic can be interpreted as
those of an arid or semi-arid r egion with isolated, intermit-
t ent water bodies. The bipedality of the dinosaurs and the
general absence of animal and plant remains specifically
sug..,.est a clesertic environment.
Glauberite, gypsum, and halite form at the present time in
Death Valley. The presence of their crystals or casts in the
Triassic beds is a strong indication of aridity.
The fine1-grainecl sediments (shales, clays, and matrix of
coarser clasti C's ) are, after Barrell , of critical significance:
decomposed and leached, pale-colored material indicates a
humid climate while red and undecomposecl material points
to aridity or semi-aridity (Note: Thi s color scheme is a very
critical point and unfortunately it has been invalidated by
modern work on chemical 'veathering).
The arguments of Raymond run in the opposite direction ap-
proximately along the following lines:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Red soils at the present time are forming not in semi-arid
areas, but in warm and humid regions. There is no con-
vincing evidence to proYe that the reel detritus will be re-
duced upon deposition in a humid basin.
Fresh feldspar may have been suppli ed by erosion from
"deep down" (if steep-walled ca nyons were it feature of the
country. P . D. rr.).
Sedimentation of such an enormous thickness of sediments
suggests large volumes of water pouring into the valley.
The fanglomerates are reall y consolidated scrres (Note:
This is not correct. P. D. rc).
The fauna and flora are difficult to interpret as to
a semi-ariel climate. ""' ,...,
There is no evidence of eoli an acti on.
No. 73]
7) Coarse conglomerates and barren mudflats (showing desic-
cation marks ) should not be impossible in a humid climate
if erosion is sufficiently rapid.
The tenitory of the United States possesses elimati c provinces
ranging from extremely cold to sub-tropi cal and from deserti c to
ultra-humid. It does not, however , contain ruggeLl mountain ranges
eroded under lmmid tropical conditions.
To a geologi st well acquainted with the and re-
cent sedimentary processes of the North American continent the ideas
of Haymond will appear int eresting, possibly somewhat disturbing,
but on the whole decidedly nnconYirwin!!. On the other hand, the
theory of semi-ari flity seems at fir st sight to be well supported by
easily observable phenomena in the ariel and semi-arid Southwest .
Glock pointed ont that all the f eatmes of the Triassic can be dupli
cated in the semi-arid deposits of the Southwest "save the r ed color".
Thi s last point, however , presents a formidabl e obj ection, and a
hypothesis to be consider ed valid mnst account for all the fact s 'vith-
out a single exception. Other rliffi cult fa cts, not known when Glock
wrote, have been brought to light by the present investigation.
Summary of the Sediment ary Hecorcl
The sedimentary r ecord of the Connecti cut Triassic has been de-
seribed in the cha1; t ers on Stratigraphy, P etrography, and Struc-
ture. A brief summary of the fa ds, inasmuch as they affect paleo-
clirnatic r econstruction, follows :
1) :More than 15,000 f eet of coarse. angnlar arkose deposits
present, with an abnnclance of fresh f eldspars and other
chemi cally un st able minerals. :Most of the material of lo-
cal orip:in. Congl omerates pr esent throughout whole sec-
tion. Fanglomerates along- east em border Yi sible in upper
half of section and probably al so present at much l ower
horizons.
2) Prevailing pt imary r cll color o-f: sediments. In places alter-
nation of g rayish and reclclish arkoses, bright-red and
maroon-colored finer-grained siltstones and shales. Abun-
dance of fine r eel cla y in matrix. Interlayering and inter-
fingering of black and 1wl shal es. Dark shales blanket whol e
valley at certain horizons. Iron concr etions JWPSC' nt at vari -
ous levels. The clay contains gibbsite.
Chemically unstable minerals such as f eldspars and biotite,
coming _f1'0?n t_he same smaY:e a1'ea may show differential
weathenng wh1eh can be seen in every sample within the
area of one thin section. In some instances l ess stable min-
erals such as orthoclase may be actually fresher than more
stabl e variet ies snch as mi crocline.
130
4)
5)
G)
7)
8)
Extreme abundance of desiccation marks (mud cracks, rill
marks, raindrops, animal tracks, etc.).
Infrequent presence of crystals or casts of soluble salts (hal-
ite, glauberite, gypsum, anhydrite). Abundance of calcite
us a cementing medium, but only near faults.
Fossil wood present throngh 15,000 feet of strata, although
never abundant quantitatively. Carbonized wood remnants
tend to form definite horizons of black or grayish arkose.
Silicified wood present as isolated pieces through entire
section .
.Almmlant megaphalous flora in the black shales.
Outside of the black shales fossil plants not of typlCal xero-
phytic types, but rather large-leaved ones.
Extreme abundance of fossil tracks and almost complete
absence of skeletal remains. E\en outside of the black shales
and their fish fauna, a notable proportion of the better pre-
served fossi ls is of aquatic origin. Large herbivoro11s forms
present.
Each of these sedimentary features possesses some climatic sig-
nificance. These features are generally, even if somewhat loosel y, re-
ferred to as climati c criteria. The value of such criteria may be very
diverse depending 11pon the method of their interpretation. .A short
discussion of such methods may well precede their application to the
solution of the problem of Triassic climate and paleogeography.
Cl imatic Criteria and Their Value
Paleoclimatic work can be based either upon the orcranic or
upon the sedimentary record. Fossils, notably specialized (if
properly understood!) can be generally accepted as eli rect evidence
for a certain emironment. Thi s, is not true at aJl in the
case of inorganic phenomena, because sedimentary features are not
the product of a gi , en but only of certain processes,
and these processes may take place in se"ieral very different environ-
ments.
For mud cracks really do not indi cate semi -aridity. .An
enti rely puristic interpretation of mud cracks would connect them
only with dehydration of clays, which phenomenon for some clay
types may tnke place spontaneously even nnder water ( J ungst, 1934).
A less extreme, but essentially conservative view is that mud cracks
definitely pro, e only the sub-aerial exposnre of a wet, muddy sur-
face for a period \Yhi ch may not haYe exceeded twenty-four hours.
ConsetTati vc interpretation ean not proceed any further unless quan-
titati ve information is at hand as to the frequency and type of mud
cracks in a given formation. Numerous mud cracks suggest a definite
period of dryness, very ab1mclant and deep mud cracks suggest a
lengthy dry season. But none of these clnta can be legitimately used
to infer the amount of rainfall during the wet season--that is, of
131
the real factor whi ch det ermines whether the climat<l is arid, semi -
arid, or humid. The dry season may last for nine months, but the
rainfall during the remaining three months may exceed 70 inches
(monsoon climate of India).
As another example it may be stated that deposition of soluble
salts indi cates only : a) concentration of water in a closed basin;
and b) a certain rate of e,a poration suffi cient to precipitate the salts,
depending upon the charact er of the original brine and its subsequent
concentrati on. The essential requirement is a closed basin with no
outgoing drainage, and not an ariel climate.
Arkose deposits prove conclusi,ely onl y that erosion of a gram-
ti c t errane anrl dqwsition of the ckbri s are proceeding at a fast er
rate than the work of chemical decay. The rate of chemical decay
may be very lmY ancl the eros ion barely active, or the rate of decay
ma y be extremely high, bnt the rate of erosion so rapid as to pre-
Yent decay from taking place. Topography again is just as impor-
tant as climate, if not more so. Striated pebbles and surfaces, differ-
ent types of cross-bedding, fangl omerates, all these features are the
r esults of dynamic processes, whi ch m a ~ take place for any one phe-
nomenon in as many as half a dozen different environments.
These scattered examples, whi eh will be cli sc nssecl more fully
later on , show that it is impossible to regard sedimentary features as
absolnte climati c criteria. They merely indicate processes. and it is
up to the l!eologi st to interpret under \\'hat conditions of climate and
topography these processes may have opemted.
This concept of dynami c process rather than of stati c environ-
ment, although absolutely fundamental. is of course very elementary.
The writer woul rl feel almost apologetic f or bringing it up were it
not for the fa ct that it has been consist entl y ignored, especially
abroad. Confident and dogmatic statements as to the value of cli-
mati c criteria are mnch too frequently f onnd in the literature.lo
In conclusion it ma y be said that
1)
2)
3)
Sedimentary f eatures are criteria f or a process and not for
an environment.
A purely qualitati,e interpretation of sedimentary f eatures
is valueless unless reenforced by a conservative evaluation of
their quantitative importance. "
Structure ancl topography are j nst as im pol'iant as climate
in shaping sedimentary processes and probably are even
more so.
10 As an exampl e, Mortensen ( l n30, p. 481) approvingly mentions " the
explicit definiti on of Kaiser, who emphatically sa id that the formation of
gyps um is a positive si gn of an extremely a rid climate" ("die ),!are Aussage
Kaisers, der die Aus s eheidung von Gips aus drii ckli ch ein deutli ches Zei chen
extrem arid en Klimas nennt"). Four superla tives in a singl e sentenc e con-
c erning a somewhat deba table question!
132
GENETIC SIGNIFICANCE OF A RI<OSE DEPOSITS
Introduction
[Bull.
It will not be an exaggeration to say that a large number, if not
the majority, of geologists usually associate arkose and graywacke
deposits with a rigorous climate. Arkose deposits of any kind are
genemll y connect ed with at, least semi-aridity, and frequently with
complete aridity or glacial conditions. Arkose deposits with very
fresh feldspars are still considered by many a modem textbook as
a valid criterion of a desertic environment.
This concept, which followed the classical researches of Judd
(1886) and Mackie (1899), \Vas best expounded by Barton (1916),
who showed that arkose deposits can be divided into two classes-
namely those formed under:
1)
2)
Rigorous (preferably desertie or glacial) conditions, and
characterized by very fresh feldspars and other chemically
nnstable minerals (augite, biotite, hornblende, etc.).
Semi-arid or temperate humid conditions, and characterized
by some\Yhat altered and decomposed feldspars.
Thus, Barton restricts fresh feldspars to a rigorous climate and
fail s entirely to li st arkoses formed under extremely warm and very
moist climatic conditions such as those present in the hnmid tropics.
However, more than t"-enty years ago l<ldings (1915) commented
upon the prevalenct> of frt>sh rocks in the Dntch East Indi es. wool-
nough (1930) also noted the extraordinary vigor of erosive processes
in the South Sea I slands mHl the freshness of the rock debris. The
potency of erosion in the humid tropi cs has been emphasized by
Sapper (1935a). Typical arkose deposits on a large scale were de-
scribed from southern Mexico (Krynine 1935a). Other instances of
the same kind can be fonnrl in the newer literature.
As a r esult of these latest clisco\eries it appears that the absence
or defici ency of rainfall (and hence of potential chemi cal decay) is
not the controlling factor in the f ormation of arkose deposits. what,
then are the controlling factors?
Conditions under whi eh Arkose Deposits Can Form
Theoretieally at least, sed iment wi ll be inftncncecl by the
conditions of its environment during the following three stages:
1) Erosion; i.e., breaking up of the parental rock, and loosening
and removing of the fragments.
2) Transportation.
3) Deposition.
. In the case of arkoses which are usually continental eoarse clas-
tr_ansportation is genemlly relatively short and the deposi-
tion IS rapid. Hence, as a rule, arkoses decay bnt little in transport.
No. 73l Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
13:3
Also, they arc covered ttp so rapidly as largely to elintinate the effect
of Hnfa,orable chemical inflnrnces active at the time and place of
deposition. E ssentiall y, then, lYe are concerned with the environ-
ment under whi ch a I!I"Hnit.i c t errane c-an be crorl ecl in such a way as
to prt> 1ent the dtcomposit ion of the f el<l::;pars, an:! possibly of even
the lc ss ehrm ica lly sta blc nti nera Is sndt as biotite. !torn blend e. a Hgite,
etc.
H is ob1ion" that an erniroHntL'IIt in tYhi <: h chentifal deeay is in-
hibit ed will be ideal for tlw forrnation of arkosr rkposits. Quite
naturall y the i<lea arose that arkoses were the product of a rigorous
climate (cl esr rt. semi-arid. or glacial) \Yht> rc elwmi cal fkeay was at
a minimum.
The fundantental rni stakL in this !!P.neralization IYHs that the
ntte of chemi cnl <leea_v was accepted as the factor of ar-
kose f ormation. instead of the more important faet or of total nrnount
of chemical decav sulfered bv thr roek. For it is indPed a nwtter of
elementary nrit.h;neti c: to t hat 1 x 10 equ:;ls :) x 2. nnd thnt a
,cry high rntt' of chetni<:al decay appli <' d :Ill extremely short
periml of tilll e " ill prorlttl't' no nt Or<' results than a very low rate of
decay ncting OYer n ntttch lon!!r r periorl. Tlworet ically. then. ar-
koses ca n fonn uncler nny kintl of climate if <' ros ion is suffi ciently
rapid nncl Yiol ent to break up rock an<l retllOI' e the debri s before
it clreays appreci ably. The Tabasco arknsPs aml the obsenations
of Tdclin!!s. \Voolnongh. nncl pron' that this is not theory
only. This stat Pnlent is advaHce(l. not as a JH' I\. clisfo,rrY. bnt as a
faet unfOJtttnat<'l.v. has been eonsistPntl .v ignored too many
geologists.
The tot a I n tnottnt of ehent i1a l detotn position to \Yhi ch a gmnitic
ternmt' ha s liN' n s nbjPdPd. ancl not thP rat e at \Yhich this decay pro-
ceeds. will hence be tlw dP< icling- factor in prennting or fa\orin:r the
formati on of arkose deposits. .\ rkosl's arc fomwrl \Yhe11 fclclspar-
bearing roeks arP procll'd and dcposit ed lwfore their feldspars hnve
time to cl eea_v. Henee. the tiYo priman faetors in tlw fonnation of
adwst>s are the rate of chtnJi cal clecay and the t imf' rlni inr; 1ohirh thij]
dec((,y '/8 a.t 11! 01-Tc. TltP latter (duration of decay) is in1e. rsely pro-
portional to the intensity of Prosion. By erosion i:-; mea nt the loosen-
ing and nnwnll of fragntents from tlw lwclrock any process
''"hatli1er (nwchani cal di sa<.rg-rc!.[a tion. hy<lration. hyclranli c action,
abrasi on , eollapse of c- anyon throngh nnder!1lining, ete.).
Now, bot h chemintl decay and erosion can be snbdi\ifl ecl into a
se nes of separate factors.
Factors C'ontrollin!! the Fornwtion of Arkose Deposits
The two fnndatllf'Htal fadots of che!1li cal <l<cay and erosion (or
mthct thei1 res pectin rates) can be expresse<l in t erms of climate
and relief- i.L'., rainfall and character of it s distribution , tempera-
134 Conn ecti cut Geolo;:; ical and Natural Hi story Survey
rBulL
t nre ( ma xinntnt. mininlt tm. awl elen1t ion, and angle of
slopt> . Tlwse met r orol ogir al and t opog raphi c factors possess defin1te
nllnl eri ca l ralt H'S ancl can be subj ect ed to mathematical t r eatment.
Kenw r -Marilann ha s eYoherl formnla s to in rl ient e the eli-
mat ic condi t ions cont rolling the fo nnation of la te rite (1027) , t he
1\Jeclit er rnncnn t r na rossa (1!)30), anrl mcz hani cal weathering in de-
se rts ( 1!)30) .
Jn nrl wsr a nrl rl epos its thr. probl em is much more
compl ex. for these rocks can f orm in a Yari et y of climat es. The de-
t ailed chnn1der of the rr rtnired meteor ologi ca l data and the h igh
nnml :c'r of Yariables innll\crl. fttt'thennore compli cated hy an equal
numl :er of 11 !lknmn1 rtualif,ving coeflicients of thr ir importance
(at least f or t he time lw.!n!f) . precln cle the pos;; ibili ty of a satisfa c-
tory qna ntibl ti,e m:dhcmatir al treatment.
Hate of Chemical Decay
The ra te of C" hr tni ('rd rl l'composition rl PpC' nrl s upon heat and
amonnt of nwistme. Tt is knmr n (Robinson. Hm2. p. 2GG) t hat the
s pee<1 of a clwmi r al nact ion in :'l' t'::sps hwfol rl \Yi t h ever,v 100 C. of
i ncreasr in tPmJX' l': lh l i'e. ThP in fl tl l'nrr of ra inf all i s quant itati,ely
l ess ,,rll knmm. hut to n lrn.!!P e:\tl'nt it is probably directly propor-
t ional t o tl1 r total amonnt. at least 11p t o a cc"rtain saturation point
" hen raim,at r r i.s sllppli <' d fa st er than it r an pr d orm its chemi cal
\York. Thr infill eneP of ra i nfall sill al so he modifi ed by st eepness of
slope (fast r t nm-oif on a si<' <'P slo De ) anrl t he charactBr of the
draina!.!C'. J n a elose. sat 11rated hr1s in (swa >np) chemical action will
be less. po"prf nl than r. n a ,wll -r1rainer1 np1an r1. Thus. chemi cal de-
cav is most rapi cl a nrl potPnt on a flat. \vell-drainerl uplam1 in u hot
ar{d humicl elimate. The rerl sanmnas of the tropi cs are
t he best exampl es of thi s.
Rate of E rosion
Season al distributi on of rainfall anrl a high and bold reli ef in-
crease the rate of L ms ion. On thP. other hand. a cover of vegetation,
a nniform <1i st.ribnt ion of rainfall. anrl a lo\Y r eli ef tBnd t o r etard
eros10n. These nega.tin\ factors will be considered first..
Frwfms R d o1di nrt E N!Sion . F cgrtati on dr' Jwnrl s directly upon
climate, i. e., upon light, t emperature, and rainfall. In general (Hunt-
in!.!t on. 103:\). a s i:r,abl t> ' egetntion (that is. one suffi cientl y luxuriant
to inhibit erosion) dops not develop in regions \Yhere the average an-
nual t empr raturr is below 4 1/ 2 C' . ( 400 F . ) . Nor do forests flour-
ish in di stri c-ts ''"here the t emperature of the warmest month fall s be-
low 14 1/ 2 ( 58 F.), when the climate is a seasonal one with severe
wint ers (high latitudes ) , or conrersely, wher e the warmest three
months fail to average 1 oo C. ( 50 F.) if the climate is uniform (high
altitudes in the tropi cs ).
The amount of soi l moisture necessa ry for plant growth will be
proportional to the annnal rainfall, snbj ect t o modifi cation by the
temperature, f or the higher the ternperatme, the greater the evapora-
tion.
The influence npon the Yc,c...:etation of -.dwtcn:r moi stnre finally
!..>:e ts into t he soi l is n some\Yhnt r oun dabout one. The main control-
linn factor is reall y a snb-nniform di stribution of the maximum
of rain during the growinu season of the plants. An analy-
sis of thi s factor is a ll() prl essly iJwoh-ccl affair. It will snfli ce 'co
sav that the luxnri :mce of the co\er \Y ill be r oughly pro-
portional to t he average an nu al r ainfall and its faYorably uni for m
distribution.
Hence, a high temperat ure nntl a heavy rainfall will handicap
erosion by f ostering a luxuri ant forest coYer. Thi s, however, is en-
tirel v true onlv on flat snrfacrs or on Yery moderate slopes. As will
be sl1own late1:; a high r ainfall on a st ee p sl ope may ci rcunnellt com-
pletely the inhibiting efl"rct of any kind of Yegctative cover. It ap-
pears, then, that in the absen ce of topogmphic con f1'ol , a
climate is mnch more :faYorable :for thr fo rmati on of a rkose deposits
than a hot and hnmicl one.
A 1tni fo7'7n di-st1ibution of 1oin.fall will ltanrli ca.p erosion, for a
\-ep:etati\e cover adapts itself t o t.he aYcrage rainfall of the country.
Hence, in order t o break through the Yegctation and start erosion,
domlburst s well above the avera ge precipitntion are required. Such
cl ondbmsts are n featnre of regi ons with a seasonnl distribution of
rainfall , regardless of its absolute f]llantity.
A low 7'Clief obvi onsly retards erosion.
Facto1s F wuming Erosion. II eM.' If 7'ainfall, seasonally distribnted.
This can be s ubcli videcl into the following elements :
A) Cloudburst intensity, con1eni ently expressed as the maxi-
mum precipitati on obsen ed in a r egion during a thirty-minute
period. Reall y dcst.rnct i\ e clown po11rs nsually clo not la st nmch
longer, regardless of the charact er of the climate. The destructive
effect of such a cloudburst will be a fnnction of the differ ence be-
tween the precipitation during the cloudburst and the average preci-
pitation to whi ch the plant cover is adapted.
B) Frec1nency of clouclbnrsts. P otentially each downpour
a.bo\e the average l_1a s er?sional possibiliti es. Practically onl y a frac-
twn of the days w1th rnmfall above the a\erage will have a precipi-
tation large enough to do some erosional work. Thi s is not quite
true of deserts where every rain r esults in erosion. \Vhen comparing
the work flone by the rainfall in an ariel (or semi-arid) r egion \Yith
that produced in an extremely humid tropical r ecrion. it is well to
keep in mind the following differences : "'
a) Clonclbmsts in an arid region, literally coming out ot a blue
sky, remove the mantle of waste produced by mechani cal clisint e.!.!Ta-
tion. Their effect n pon solid bed rock is generaJly slight.
b) Cloudbursts (or better. abnormally heavy rains ) during the
wet season of a tropical humid reg-ion may do the following work
(subject to the presence of an a clef] nate topography, as di scussed
later) :
1)
2)
3)
nreak through the ,egetation cmcr already strained Jl ea rly
to the l i rnit of its endurance by the soaking of the soil can sed
Ly the preceding normal or only slightly supernormal pre-
ci pi tat ion. This takes place especially along preferred paths
of tiny depressions or incipient gnlleys.
HPmoYe the mantl e of Ylaste aml denude the r ock.
Attack the fresh Le1lrock either thro11gh direct hydraulic
action or abrasion especially by undermining of canyon
walls. O n l ~ first -hancl rxpPriPn{'e can give an idea of the
colossally cl estrurti1e possibiliti es of onlinary rain water
rasca(lin!! rlmYn tlw steep slopes of a (l enucl ed canyon in the
tropical jungle belt. after a really stiff downpour dnrinp-
the rainy se:1son. The arnaz;ing r rcnperative capaciti es of
tropical ,egetation (1Yhirh g rows literally overnight) ex-
plain why sneh ureaches are not permanent and why de-
forestation is prevented through the prompt re-establi shment
of 1egetati on hetwren breaches.
c) In the permanently 1111111id tropical rainforest t he wgctation
is so clense as to pl 'E' I'ent normal rainwash and soil erosion. Never-
tlwless. e1 en nnclrr snch nnfayorahl e conditions erosion may be ex-
tremely Yiolrnt. Tlwse perul i a r erosi l' e processes of the permanently
humid tropirs have been clesr ribecl by Sapper (193:'5) and summ:ui7.ecl
by Kryninl' (1DHG) in the following way (p. 301):
"The supremacy of vegetation and of c'hemical decay is unchall enged in
the flatl ands. In the mountains, however, there is an eternal struggle
between the tforest and running water. The tripl e roo'f of the jungle di s -
poses o{ the impact of the tropi cal r ainfall as an eroding force. The force
of this imp-act is otherwise terrific and plays havoc with unprotected soil.
A considerable runoff howeve1 is inevitable, for the soil is almost always
near its s aturation point. As soon as the slope permits, the runoff unites
in rivulets which take a dv{l.ntage o1' the slightest depressions to begin
gul!eying. Lateral erosion and spreading out is most effectively inhibited by
t11e vegetation which holds the soil in a vise-like grip, but the verti cal ero-
sion downward (Tieferosion or Linearerosion) is possible. This vertical ero-
sion is the main geologi c process of the humid tropics, the .fundamental fea-
ture which controls both geomorphology and sedimentation.
"Steep gulches and valleys soon develop, and the streams cut through
the 20 foot layer of r ed soil into fr esh, nonweathered bedrock. Through
direct abrasion and hydraulic action the stream carves its bed downward
without benefit of mechanical weathering as we know it. Small creeks are
incised from 15 to 20 {eet a nd some larger streams hundreds of feet into
the bedrock. It is difficult to understand tfully the erosive rpossibility of a
tr-opi cal mountain torrent wi t hout having seen it in action after a normal
(i.e., t errific) cloudburst .. . . . . Even the violent erosive processes of the
arid and semi-arid re:gions are weak compared with tropi cal erosion."
Surh exten1e erosi,e proecsses haYe al::;o been described by
(H>30) and by Robinson who states (1932, p. 66):
"The extent of erosion in the tropics and certain parts of the sub-tropics
is scarcely apprehended by t1wse who ar e Only familia r with British con-
ditions/'
and furth ermore ( p. G-1:) :
"Here O.e., in U1e humid tropi cs) the rain occurs to a lar ge extent in
intensive 'falls of comparatively s hort duration,- as much as six inches per
hour having been r ecorded."
It appears. then, that a rainfall o<cntTing in cloudbursts '"ill
greatly fa, or erosi on. The tnaximum tl estructive effect will take
plar<> pither ,dwn the a bsolut<> ptw:i pitation is Yery low (little or no
vegt>ta tion coYer) n1 1dwn it is high (the vegetation cover
is onnome by tlw sheer brutality of t errifi c downpours canalized
cl own into ra,i nPs an<l can.yons ). Thr absolute amount of erosion (a
function of the ndtm e of watPr and t he frequency of its application)
is much higher " ith a he a , . .V rai nfa 11. Al so the tropi cal seasonally
hnllli<l re.riom: arc just. ns rxtcns iH as the desert or semi-nrid areas
of the if not' n1n<: h more so. Ho11e,er. the arid re!!ions hal'c
been better studi ed antl are much more accessible. This ex-
plains " hy the geologi(al 111ind usually associates extreme erosion
with a ri el regions nnd not IYith the humill tropi cs, as it really should
be.
Tl ir; h and lj(ild J'cli cf. This fador ean be snbtliviclPtl into two
thu ents-nan ely, absolnte nltitml e nnd st eepness of slope.
a) EleYa tion of ridgE' tops o1er ndl ey floor s. The Yelocity of
falling will be p roportional t o the square f oot of the eleYation.
b) Steepness of slope. Hi s ob1ions that a sttt- p angl e of slope
" ill promotr erosion by gi 1ing hss of a foothol!l t o yegl'tation and
al "o by reducing the cli stanee to he travell ecl by " att- r before it r eaches
the strca m grntl ienb. Bot lt slopt-s :nHl gradi ents are usually closely
associatetl in character t1!:'pPmling upon the stage in the r rosion cycle.
If the angle is 0. then its influence npon the Yelocity of wnter com-
in,!! (lown it IYill hP proporti ona l to the nlue of the s ine (at 90,
sin = 1. and 1ratPI' falls llllilllpf'(l ed clue (o gravity: nt oo. sin = 0, and
there is no 111 01 ement. of "ater at nlL with all possil>l e vnriations
within t hese limits ).
InaSillll('h as the auras il e power ma y be equal t o the square, cube,
or C' len sixth po1r er of the the influence of reli ef will be
proportional to a ce rtain functi on of tlw sqnal 'e of the sine of rhe
angle of slope ra t her than to t he si111pl e sine. Thi s is in accord with
Barrell's statement 'vhen he said in HH7 (p. 757):
"Denudation in the same rock formation varies with the slor;e a nd
probably at a somewhat higher r.ate than the .change in the angle of slope."
A study of the wnes which express the change in the angle of
slope (st rai ght line), the sine of the angle (sinusoid), and the square
of the si ne (concave si nnsoic.l) show that for the last curve (whi ch
probably is also the erosion cune) the ehange is much more rapid
than the increasr in slope between the angles of 10 and 600. Ap-
parently, below that mininn1m steepness (10) not enough momen-
tum is available, an :l ahove GOo the slope for all practical purposes
behaves like a vertical cliff.
Thi s last faetor (steepness of slope) is easily the most funda-
mental one. A very steep slope will accelerate erosion beyond all be-
l ief. nullify the e:Fcctiveness of the vegetation cover, and make chem-
ical decay The absolute elevation need not be very
great: it is the ruggedness that counts. In sonthern Mexico
(Krynine, 1D35a, p. 358) the ridge tops are only 500 feet above the
Yalley floors and only 1.000 feet above sea level. but the violence of
the erosive processes in this region is unparalleled (Plate XXVII).
A rnggecl relief may result in the formation of arkose deposits
cnn in hot regions of heavy and constant prec.; ipitation, provided
the rain fall occurs as sharp and violent cloudbursts (as it does jn the
tropical rainforest). This has been noted by Sapper (1935) and by
Kryninc (1D3G):
"Hence the factor s typical of the mountainous regions or the tropical
rainforest belt and which control both sedimentation and the sculpture o{
land forms are: deep chemical decay, absence of mechanical weathering
as we know it, almost complete absence Of rainwash and lateral erosion and
an extraordinary development of ver tical erosion acting on fresh bedrock
along the floors or extremely steep canyons.
In the field or sedimentation an apparent paradox can be seeu immedi-
ately: whereas most of the region is blan!{eted by a thi ck layer of red
soil and laterite this layer is not subject to erosion. Instead tl1e sedimen-
tary detritus is furni shed almost entirely from the stream beds cut into fresh
nonweathered bedrock. F'urthermore this detritus is produced not by me ..
chanica! weathering, but by direct fluyial erosion. Sapper menti ons that
tropical mountain torrents usually carry boulders 3 1feet (1 m.) in diameter.
The writer (Kryninel has seen angular boulders 8 fe et in diameter carried
by the torrents of Chiapas in Southern Mexico.
It follows that in the 'humid tror1ics the sedimentary detritus coming
fr01n a s teep mountainous r egion cover ed by a virgin rainforest and bl a nketed
with a layer of red soil or laterite will consist mostly not of fine grained,
deeply weathered material but of coarse, non weathered sand, gravel a.nd
cobbles. The 'fat e of this coarse nonweathered material will vary according
to the length or the supplementary transport outside of the mountain area.
It deposition takes place on a piedmont in the immediate vicinity of the
mountains, then large f.::ns cons isting of coarse arkosic material are fo-rmed.
Such deposits may be marine if rivers from the mountains empty directly into
the sea (as on tropical islands) . H, h owever, the coarse material is subject
tu lengthy transport along the course .of a large stream, it is abraded, ground
into fine sand and silt and after further dilution with clay matter it finally
forms the fine s il ty deposits of the coastal plains of the great tropical
139
ri ver s, Our pres ent ideas of tropical s edimentation, ha ving been bas ed on
the s tudy of s uch large rive rs as the Amaz,on, a re r estrict ed to thi s t ype of
nne s ilty deposits. To thi s old cuncept we must mid the possibility or coarse
a1 koses and conglomerates forming in the proximit y of a mountainous mass
Such coarse depos its of the humid tropics will h ardly be distingui shabl e
to freshness and s ize gr a ding from similar deposits of s emi-a rid or even
arid regi.ons."
Horizontal YS. V crti cal Eros ion
The diff'ercnt factors anJ proel' sses di seusstd aboYc, which eom-
bine to proJuce physical erosion , can be classifie<l under two basic
types of erosion
11
as shown on Figure 34.
1. llmi zontal erosion, i. e .. latt'ral nmoYal of SO'il nwntle by
wind, rainwash or icc . . This is the common process observed
in the t emperate zone under conditions of gentle relief. Thif"
type of eros ion may be greatl y inhibited by a vegetative
cover.
LATERAL EROSION
(ttQr,z.on \&1 , cr <=. rep type)
lillJ \/ o lw.ne o( O<Jo.ood .tlht'e<1 "''ie<
o# fr e"'
Figure 34. Comparison of lateral and verti cal eros ion.
2. Vertical erosimt , i. e. deep lineal erosi on of both soil mantle
and fresh bed1oclc by impaet and. undercutting of canyon
walls in regions of steep topography and high rainfall, es-
pecially if seasonally (listrib11ted. Thi s type of erosion may
not be inhibited at all by a Yeg-etati \'e cover. The TriasslC
arkoses of Connecticut were formed by physical vertical
erosion.
140
Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [BulL
n The following discussion of physk al erosion is given by P. D. Krynine
In Lecture 9 (Period XXI) of the mimeographed syllabus of his course on
" The Petrography of Oil Reservoirs" at the Pennsylvania State College (1944-
4& edition) :
(2) Physical hori:::ontal crosiou of llllCOIISo!idatcd regolith or soil mantle.
(Shallow sheet, lateral, surface or rainwash erosion). Results in 100% re-
moval of loose material but is very ineffective against hard, consolidated
bedrock.
AGENT
Gravity ......... . . .
Wind ..... .... . . . . .
Ice ..... . .......... .
Water (little)
water (more)
Water (much)
Creep and talus.
Deflation (operates only on weak unconsoli.
dated mat erial).
Ablation or exaration.
Creep and r ainwash- a slow process through
.a soil mantl e 'held together by vegetation.
Mudflow.
.Sheet fl-ood.
The rainwash or horizonal or s mface type of erosion is the common
denudati-on process in temperate humid regions of low or moderate relief
and as such is described in all t extbooks. Jt is a moderately effective
process although a slow one. It can lbe compared to the removal of pancakes
one aHer the other from a stack of pancakes.
(3) 1-'hysica/ v crt1:cal crosiou of both soil IIWHtlr a11d solid
(deep, line or impact erosion). Extren1ely effective in removing any kind
of material.
AGENT PROCESS
Ice ... .. ......... . .
Water
Glacial c-or rosion and ice plucking (ice quarry.
ing).
Linear erosion through impact, undermining
and flushing (hydraulic quarrying).
The vertical or impact type of water erosion is especi.ally active in hilly
regions of steep (not necessarily high) relief and heavy r ainfall. Found both
in the t emperate zone and particularly in the humid tr-opics. Proceeds
through impact of boulders at bottom of steep V -shaped canyons whi ch act
as battering rams; undermining and collapse of canyon walls follow, thus
introducing large amount of fresh debris from unweathered bedrock into
detritus. Regolith and soil in very steep canyons may contribute less than
20 per cent to detritus; bedrock, the other SO per cent. Verti cal erosion
be compared to the slicing of a cake (soil is i cing).
LOCI OF ACTIVITY AND TIME-SPACE RELATTONSIHaP
DURING EROSION
.Maximum chemical erosion takes place on moderately dissected a nd well
drained surfaces in regions of high rainfall.
Maximum phys ical erosion t akes pl ace in r egions of steep and rugged
relief .al s o in regio1s of high rain[all, although for limited peri-ods of time
pl1ysical erosion may be prominent in arid regions.
Latera l physical erosion is stl"Ongest on moderate to steep s lOl)es de-
veloped -on weak materia ls (soils or un consolidated bedrock) unprotected by
vegetation. A balance exists between the f ormation of soil by weathering
and its removal by erosion. Climatically high rainfall promotes rainwash but
it a lso increases at au even faster rate the thi ckness of vegetati-on which
holds . the soil in place. If chemical weathering outstrips lateral erosion the
depth of soil increases; if a balance is maintained the land surface wastes
gradually through rotting followed. by removal: and finally if erosion be-
comes accelerated (usually through loss of vegetation cover due to defores -
No. 731 Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut
1-H
tation, forest fires or droughts and superposition of .aridity and semi-aridity)
then the soil mantle is very rapidly strip,ped away. However, after this fast
spurt, erosion may become very slow .as soon as the solid 'bedrock is reached
unless this bedrock consists of weak, uncunsolidated sediments. The rapid
and potent erosional processes in many of the younger present ct.ay deserts
are due to the stripping of soil mantles developed during the pluvial periods
of the Pleistocene and this apparent erosional efficiency will come to an
end (as it did in many of the older deserts) as soon as solid bedrock is
reached
Rejuvenation throug h increased relief usually promotes a combination
of vertieal and lateral erosion.
Vertical physical erosion is strongest in sharply dissected and steep
youthful regions with relatively fl.at interftuves held by vegetation so as to
keep up the steepness of canyon walls. Vertical erosion is not inhibited by
vegetation sinee the locus of maximum a cti vity is at or near the botto m
of Vshaped canyons ; hence this erosion is promoted by rainfall almost in
a direct ratio or even better, with no antagonistic retarding effects due to
vegetation. Verti eal erosion probably supplied the bul'k of sediments in the
periods of strong deformation (orogenesis) and much if not most of the
detritus during the period of moderate (geosynclinal) deformation.
Topo:.rraphi c Control anll Seasonal
as the Ileal Factors in Arkose Formation
The ennmeration of the fa ctors co ntrolling the formation of ar-
koses makes a somewhat formicla.bl e li st. To. a certain extent this
proYe nsefnl in showing the compl ex r elationship of climatic
and topographi c factors and of their component elements. Its main
purpose is to hrin:.r to the attention of the :.reologi c mind the neces-
sity of aclcling t\YO new major factors to the time-honored twins of
t empPratnre and absolute rainfall. These new factors are topography
:mrl periodi city of rainfall.
The profonnll inflnence of these fa ctors is illustrated in southern
Mexi co, in a r e:.rion with an annnal rainfall of 100 inches and np
(seasonally tli stribntecl) and a mean te111pcratnre of over soo F. , in
which fresh nnweathered arkoses originate in youthful mountainous
cli stri ct s anrl are laicl clown in basi ns on the flat savanna, si cle by side
\Yith clerply <lecayerl reel soils of l ocal r esidual or cl ettital transported
Ol'l_!!lll.
Practical
The :.reol ogic colunm boas ts of an extremely large number of
so-called ari<l or semi-ari(l deposits, a number out of all proportion
to the relati\ r areal di stribnti on of humid and arid sedimentation
basins at the 1wesent time. On the contrary, a very high proportion
of the lar:.re contemporaneous aeenmulations of continental sediments
is taking place in humid pi ellmont basins. from detritus derived from
mountain rnn:.res with a Yer y heavy rainfall. Very likely a ca ref u)
r einwsti gation of the deposits ascribed in the past to deserts and
se1ni-arirl rl\gions will show that lt lnrge proportion of those not
142 Connecticut Ge ol ogica l and Natural History Survey [Bull.
defmitel y connected with salt or gypsum are of hnmiu, or e,en more
prol>ably of ultra-hnmiu (seasonal) origin. In such work the appli -
cati on of the conrepts of t opographic control and seasona l precipita-
tion will Jw of great help. It. has lJecn shown that the for mation of
arkose tlrposits is controll e<'l by rainfall , temperature, srasona l dis-
tri but ion of rainfall , :\ml topography. Hence, it some of the factors
a re known, nllteh conc:e rning the others ma y reasonably be inferred.
F01 i nst:mce. a known low 1-cl ief genetically associated \rith arkose
deposits will point to a rigorons climate; conversely' a h igh t cm pera-
ture and henvy precipitati on (as inditatecl by fossils) nlso genetically
connect ed with arkose. wi ll strongly snggest a bold and rugged topo-
grnpl!y. H igh reli ef alone will suggest a series of possibilities. Its
I'Pcoc:nition will be useful in that it shouhl prevent the attempt to
eoni ;ect an arkose deposit with semi-nri:lity without having on hand
stronger supportin_l! e,idenec t han the mere fact of the arkose's
presence.l
2
Finn ll y, a systemati c nse of the two c(mcepts of topogra phie con-
trol and hen ,y rainfall \Yhen attempting to interpret de-
posits of the geologi c past mav be extremely useful in explaining
obscure and apparently mutnall y excluding evidence. Fot insta nce,
12 The following classific3tion of a r kose deposit s was worked out by P.
D. Krynine in 1943 and will be publis-hed in detail in the neat if utu:a. At
the present time a brief treatment of this .problem can be .found in the mim-
eographed syllabus outline of a lecture presented by Krynine on June 2. 194 3.
hef.ore the Pacific Section o! the American Association o! Petroleum Ge-
ologists at Los Ang8les.
The classifi cation of arkoses is as follows :
A. Non tectonic .arkoses: residual and "blanket" types not connected
with a majm orogenic period.
1. Residual arkoses- thin ".granite wa.sn" of t'he Mid Continent and
mos t "basal" arkoses.
2. Glacial arkoses-Pieistocene drift.
3. Desertic a rkoses- Very probl ematic types, possibly the Torridon-
ian sandstone (?).
4. Marine modification of preceding types- basal Ordovici an of
Canada.
B. Tectonic accumulated and "thickly pri smatic" basinal types.
directl y produced by intense orogenic deformat ion.
1. Structural classes
a. Connected with folding (Pennsyl vani an of Colorado, some
Te1tiary .. . of Cali fornia).
IJ. Connected with faulting (Tri assic of Connecticut and Penn-
sylvania, some Tertiary of Californi i1 ).
2 Climati c classes
a. Tropi cal h umi d and savanna climates (Triassic of eastern
United States , Chinl e, Tertiary o-r California, Recent of Central
America).
b. Two-province type (humid in area of erosion, semi-arid in
area of deposition. Recent of Cali fornia).
3. Marine modifi cation of preceding types (2) and (3) . (Thi ck gran-
ite washes of the Mid Continent type.)
No. 73]
why arc fresh :ukoscs interbedded with red argi llaceous siltstones on
one ha nd and mud-cr acked black organi c plant- bearing shales on the
otlt er '? Such an :tssoeiati on becomes easily understandable if the
locus of sedinJCntati on or "e1wiromncnt" is ass umed to be a lmmid
f1 opical saranna in the i-mmediate vicinity of n 1' ugged area. In t he
following pages an attempt will be nwcl e to show how the application
of these concepts enables us t o draw a coherent and reasonable pic-
ture ottt of t he welter of apparently confli cting evidence found in
the sedinJCnts of the Connecticut Valley.
S TGNTFICA::'\ CE OF Co::'\Tl-:'<E:s<TAL RED BEDS
Origin of the Red Color
The red color of sediments ma y be due to:
1) Presence of inherently reel minerals (such as pink f eldspars) .
2) Impregnation with red iron pigment which may have the
following origin:
a) Primary (pre-depositional) , clue to subaerial weather
in g.
b) P ost-depositional, bnt essentially penecontemporaneous
with deposition, also clue to sub-aerial decay.
c) Diagenetic, clue to deep-seated process (dubious outside
of sicleritic layers).
d) P ost-diagenetic due to weathering of outcrops.
c) Seeoncl cycle or secondary (reworked)
In the first case the red color is usually caused by the abundant
presence of fresh or only slightly weathered pink f eldspars. In the
latter instances, the reel color is clue to coating of mineral grains or
to the dissemination throughout the rock (or at least the matrix or
cementing medium) of a red pigment consi sting of f erri c oxide
( F e
2
0 :
1
) , preferaLly clehycl rated or an hyclrous.
ThP. chemi stry of the iron oxides has been the subj ect of a very
prolific literature. At the present time the f ollowing fact s appear
to be reasonabl y well established:
Iron is sol11bl e either as a bicarbonate, a sulphate, or an organi c
eompound; aftet solution it may remain in the soil , or be transported
far away, or br depositerl elose to its source. The greatest concentra-
ti on takes place in the regolith. The most favorable environment for
iron soluti on and concentration is found in a warm humid climate
where bacterial /!l'O\Yth is uninhibited and leaching of si lica t ends to
take plaee. After solution and deposition, the iron occurs either as
ferrous (FeO) or ferri c (Fe20a) oxide. The f errous oxide (color-
less or blue in color) is very unstable and t ends to pass easily into
the ferri c form (orange or yellow). Eventually all the iron in a
sediment or soil passes into hydrated iron oxide provided no active-
144 Connecti cut Geologi cal and Natural History Survey
[Bull.
ly r educing en vironrnent is present. The process beeomes obs<:ure at
this stage. Dehydration of yellow iron oxide into red anhyclro11s
oxide takes place at surface temperatures in many of the warm re-
gions. but cannot be fluplicatNl in the laboratory unless much higher
tern peratures are nsed.
Refl color may also appear directly in son1e of the
hydroxides ( tu and then the sediments are r eel from the begin-
ning. Raymond says that treatnwnt of ferric chloride or nitrate (a.s
produced by bact eri al action or even directly by tropi cal thunder-
storms as described by \ValthPr) by an alkalinP hydroxifl e gi,es ori-
gin to a r eel hydroxide. Tn this comwrtion. it ma y be interesting to
mention that, acconl i ng to Hohi nson ( 1932. p. 139). tlw n mount of
nitri c acid brought flown b,v rainfall is in England only 4 ponnds
pe1 acr e per year, \Yhereas in Indo-China it incrPases tenfolcl. reach-
ing 30 to 33 kgs. per hectare.
FortunatPly en'n thougl1 n11r knO\dedge of the genet ic- clwmi stry
of the r eel iron oxi fl cs is f a r from we possess definite
information as to the natural eonrlitions under whi ch rNl iron pig-
ments are formecl at the present time.
Post-diageneti< l'l<l eolor in ,.;p(liniPnts initiat{'s a nP\\. cyde of
red pigment formation clue to \Yeat.hering of outerops. Tron-hearin,!!
minerals are altered and the iron goes into soluti on and i,.; rNleposited
either as a f erri c or fe1Tou,.; compounfl. in the latter case to be oxi-
dized to f erric. This process. which account s for most of the rm;ty
and buff " eathere<l ro<:k sndaces of t.lw temperate zone a11<l the r ed
exposures of the tropics. has been ref erred to collo(]nially among
[reologists as " nmninp:"' of thr iron ores ot "leaching" of the biotite.
Some of the German geologi sts (\iVasserstein, Kantsch) ha,p dain1ed
that the r eel C"olor of the Hnnt,.;a ndstein is clne in toto to Sf'Condary
C'hanges and \Yeathering. On the ,,hole. hownel'. thr possibility o'f
great and deep penetration of reel color into a. sedimentary layer ap-
pears to be definitely limited . The Hnf'ches f or mation of East Texas,
red at the surface and p:reen (glauC"oniti c) at fl epth is a goocl example
of thi s.
The poss iuility of cliagerwtic rl'd color as,.; niHes s ponbtnPfi ii S cle-
of ycll fm iron oxicl e nncl er hypotheti <'a l eonditions of long
time and extreme pres,.; ure. If this br true. then the process is highly
selective, ' for r eel antl yell o\\ beds nre intimately interlay<" rccl in
systems as olcl as t lw Ca mbrinn (Potsdam sanflstone). This process
is theoretically possibl e, but it is <lifli cnlt to ,isualize. with the ex-
ception of the deep-sl"at ecl oxidati on of some iron carbonat<> npml
introduction of oxygen by fluctu ation of the water table or similar
processes.
Prilllary pre-cl epositional red color is d11 e to t he depo,.; ition of r ed
,] etritus originating from the erosion of red soils; primary post-
depositional pencontcmporaneous reel color is clue to snb-aerial
weathering of a se<lirnent arul is nothing bnt the fonnation of a red
soil on alluvium. The color of ]J1'acticall!J all non-calcareotts contin-
ental red beds, imclurling those of the Connecticut 1'1iassic, is of pri-
mary 01igin.
Climati c Significanee of Red Soils
At the present time reel soils formeJ O\'er enormous areas.
'They cover more than half of Africa and South America, one-fifth
or more of Asia, a sizable part of North and Central Ameri ca.
and smaJier areas in Enrope. Hundreds of papers and pamphlets
describing these soils and their elinrati<.: environment have been pub-
li shed by the soil al1ll agricultmal surveys of the various govern-
ments. All thi s st ri ctl y fa ct nal and norHlebatable information has
been summarize<! in several r eputable t ext and reference books
(Blanck, Marbut. TwenhofPl). Boiled clown to the barest
fundamentals, the facts are that:
1) 95 per cent or more of r eel soils are foul1ll in warm and hu-
mid r egions, specif-ically in regions with a t emperature ex-
ceeding 5i5o or 60 F. and a rainfall in excess of 40 inches.
2) i) per eent. or les.c: nre fonn<l in regions \vhi ch at the pPesent
time lra, e a small er rainfall, or n l ower t emperature, or both.
This statement can be imrne<liatel y Yerifi ed by a simple compari-
son of the soil di stribution rnap in the third volume of Blanck's trea-
ti se with nny goorl rainfall nncl trnrperatnre map of the earth's
surface.
A discussion of the subj eet appea rs, ne, ertheless, necessary be-
cause some p:Pologi st s nrc of the opinion that rPCl soil s are proof not
of a humid climate, but only of a warm one. As an example, it has
been sai<l that r eel soil s in Europe flo not occn r above the 61 o iso-
thernr , aml that this :Mediterranean region possesses a sub-hnmid
rather than a humid climate with some of its districts bordering on
scm i -aridity.
The following remarks can l.Je made concerning thi s opinion:
1) Most of the Mediterranean red soil s are terra rossa, a red
earth developed on limestone and of entirely different origin and
genetic signifi cance from the ordinary red soils formed on cr ystalline
silicate rocks. So far ns total areal extent goes, red soils on crystal-
lines ontnum her the t erra ross a at least 50 to 1.
2) It has not been proved that the Mediterranean reel soils
(both t erra rossa and ordinary reel soil s) are products of r ecent
weathering. On the contrary, it has he<>n suggested thnt to a con-
siderable extent they are very old, of Pleistocene or even pre-
Pleistocene age, and, t o an unknown degree, are the products of cli-
mates different from the present one, and probably much more 1m-
mid. On the island of Capri, the t erra rossa ( 5 meters in thickness )
has yielded skeletons of elephants, hippopotami , ete. (Walther, 1924,
p. 3D1) . Incidentally, a similar situation exists in certain of the
An1nican deserts of the Soutll\n'st where mo:-;t red are really
fossil r eli cs of tl1e much more humid climates of the Pltt vi:ll Pleis-
tocene.
0) Heel soil s in jWe-glacia l time extended o\er most of Europe.
The Heel Crag o-f England, the red ground moraines o-f the N ethcr-
lmHls and Holst ein. tlw "bloocl_y rlays" of Bavaria are, accorclinQ to
'Yalthcr. re\Yorkccl , deeply " eathercd red soil s (Hl24. p. :3Dl : "rli e bei
cler cliln,ialem e1lwlten gehliehrncn Hcste Ansgedelmter
rot er. ti ef!.!_Tlmrli g 7.C'rsrtzcn Gesteinmassen" ). Red soils apparently
extended as far north :!" judging by the r erl nned
of the Stockhol m <li,d:ri ct. (De Gee r. 1902, p. 2::1 ). H ence, it
seems that t o some rxtent the Mcdit en ancan rPcl soils owe their oxis-
tome and stu,in ll to t he fact l ha t. thev arc Incat t>cl in a rl'!.rion whi ch
\\as not glrttiat e<l <lminp: the
These n' marks shm, that, rlnc to the rxt.remc complexity of the
!:>:COlo!!.i c anrl climati c r rcorcls. tlw l\ferliterranean rerl earths can nC'i
be as a valid ex ampl e for the rl efinition of the climati c si!.!;nifi.-
ca nce of r eel soils. In addition it shonl rl be remembered that so Lu
as t otal arral r xtent ,<_ro es. the sonth BnropPan soil s arc as nothing
compared ,....-ith the gigantic areas of red soils in Sonth America,
Africa, Asia. and, t o a lesser extent. the United States.
A perfect t est case can he made out of Africa. This continent
lies almost entirely within the 70o isotherm. Hence all of its Rur-
fa ce Rhonl rl he wholly reel. The literature contains many descrip-
tions of the Sahara desert and the semi-ariel st eppes and velds of
Africa, in all of "hi ch the reel color is conspi cuous by its absence.
Bnt, if we turn to the excell ent '"ork of Marbut and Shanz (1920) on
the soil s of Afri ca we see that reel soils occnr only in the very humid
parts of the continent. Looking at Marbnt's m'ap it is r eri1arkable
to see to what an rlegroe the di stribution of reel soils fol-
lows the sinnous line of the 40 inches isohyet. In South America,
where red soil s cover more than half the continent, Matthei (1931)
describes r eel soils as forming nncl er a rainfall exceeding 1,400 mm.
(56 inches ). Comin!!. to Asia. it can be seen that in China (Thorp,
193:"i ) podsolizcd red soils are limited by the 35 to 40 inches isohyet,
and trne lateritizecl reel soils are forming in r egions with a rainfall
of 45 inches or more. Simil ar r esults come from the Dutch East
Indi es, with possibly oven a heavier precipitation (Mohr, 1933).
Finallv. an examination of Marbut's classical atlas of the soils
of the States (193i'i) will r o,oal that the red soil s ( a major
unit of the "broad climatic environment group") are decidedly re-
stricted to r egions with a rainfall of 40 inches or more, and only very
infrequently make forays into the zone where the rainfall fluctuates
between 35 and 40 inches (compare with \'Vard' s 1925 rainfall map
147
of the T"nited States) . The lower tcmperatnre limit <i efinincr t he
(li stribntion of the r ed soil s in the Unikcl States is not GOo b::t
55o F. and p ossibly even somewhat less than that.
Specifi cally, the red soils i.n the United States occnr in t,m lllajor
groups: 1) the red soil s of the southeast ern states, where the rain-
fall an ra)..'<s 4-:i inches; and 2) th e r ctl soi ls of tl1 e "estcm slope o f
the S ierra XeYacla. " here the r:1infall al,.: o aYci'a!!rs bet\Yeen Ll:O anrl
:iO inchr,.: . The rainfa ll on the slope incr<>a sPs with the altitude and
decrease,; f rom north to s outh. lmt r emain s hi !.!."h eYen n car the south-
Nil e;.; trr mity. Sprinpyillc. direct.ly ra f' t of L:a ke Tuhre has. aee:n<l-
ing to the oflicial data of the 1 . S. \YPnthrr Ht:rra n, a precipitat ion
of :\:i 1/ '! in chrs ]WI' Yl' :tr. A stu lly oi' thr; ra in.fa ll map of the Cali-
fomia Drpartml'nt. ol' Publi c- \Yorks (Hl2:l ) shows that in no plac<' on
tiH 1\(';;trrn slopr oi' the S ierra do<c s tlH r:1 infall shrin:c to less t han
2:1 inchrs. :tnd that IIIOrc than four -fifths of the slope r cc<' ives in cx-
er,.;s of 0:i incll<' s. and at least tlue r-f01 :rths o, r r 40 inches of rain .
In [uldit.ion to these t\Yo major g-ro1:ps . reel soils arc f ound to
a wry mneh snwi!Pr amnnnl in f'C illi-nrid parts of Ca lifo:n ia. . Tlwsc
arc the San .To:lf!tlin sC' rils. wh! eh hal<' h<'<'n sa irl to be of local. ariel
migin and :1 s s nch :tl'(' gi1cn by Hobinson p. 2:1(), after Shaw.
1!>2S) as OJH' of the only tir o recPnt e:'\:linpks of ari rl r e(] soils on the
surface of the globe. HoiYHer. marl e the followin!.!." state-
ment concerning the San .Tonf!uin s('l'i<'s (Hl;) :), p. 83 ):
"It is not at all eertain that the San Joaquin and Madera soils are not
the prodnet of development under a former and different. elimati c environment
from that now prevailing in the regi-on."
Thi s brin!-!s the necessity of the rest. of the 5 per cent
of red soils which nrc found outs ide of warm and hundd
The San Joaquin se ries ami the tena rossn ha1e both been ment.ion0d
already. Other instances of non-humid r rrl soil s arc some of the red
snnrl s of the south Algerian Sahara, of the Arabian desert. some red
soils of P ersia, and the red sancl and soils of Australia. The Alger-
ian oreurrPJH'PS han llL'C'n shmnl IJv .\ufn;re (l!):rJ) to be rrd Oliuo-
cene fluYial sands. the Asiati c arc r ecognized by \'Valther
(1024, pp. 2;);1 and 2SG) as the proclnrts of another more lmmitl cli-
matfl . the red dust of Australia is due to the er osion of a fossil la-
teriti c "dmi crust " (\Voolnough , 1030, and \'Valther , 1924, p. 286).
\Yalther specifi cally cautions ( p. 2:)!)) against interpreting red soils
as results of recent arid or semi-arid when they are the
product of an older climati c cycle.
It ''"ill thns lw see n that 11pon criti c,d examination, this il per
eent of n on-humid r ed soils di sappears entirely and that the ratio of
hnmicl to non-hnmid r erl soils beeomes somewhat like 100 to 1. This
is not d1fficnlt to llll(l crstand if the essentials of the formation of a
red soil are considered. According to Robinson (1932, pp. DO and
92) reddi sh. brownish, or yellowi sh clays r epresent considerable
leaching:
"These conditions obtain in all humid climates in situations with
fr ee drainage. Conct!rrently with degradation silici c acid may be r emoved
under c"ltmatic conditions which favor rapid mineraliza tion of pl a nt r esi-
dues (i.e., oxidation and bacterial action) a nd a slightly acid soil reaction
. .. . The red and yell ow soil s of tropi cal and s ubtropical climates probably
ditl' e r from the brown earths of t.em:tJerate climates both in the extent to
whi ch free Sesquioxides have been liberated ,and a lso in their degree of
hydration. "
On the otlwr hand, or clays are formed (p. 90)
by " path(ring nncl er rcst ricti ,e (arid, semi-ariLl climate, or
impeded drainage). Thi s tnodcrn description has reversed Darrell 's
assumption that the fine-grained reel material inrl icates semi-aridity,
\Yhereas the paler clays point to those postulated by Barn-' ll.
Robinson explicitly thi s fa ct (p. 24G):
" In humid clima t es red colours indi cate degradative changes aff ecting
t he weathering complex nuclei the influence of a l owered base status. This
ca n s carcely be th e cas e in r ed desert soils and, if the red colours have
actually been develoverl by desert wea thering the mechanism still r e mains
to be explained. "
Having thns comtn cntc(l npon the apparent impossibility of non-
humic! red soi ls. Robinson nen:rthclcss proceeds to gi ,e several ex-
amples, presumabl y as thl' exceptions to the rule. These examples are:
1) The San .Joaqnin seri es of California (see the comments of
Marbut).
2) The Old Heel sandstone (p. 169).
The Triassic ( pp. D2 anrl lG!)).
4) The Karoo of Sont.h Afri ca (p. 257).
It appears that in tlwsc last t hrcr, examples the past should be
the key to the present : not considr ring the fact that these are not
reel soils but trans portell sediments of a very delmtable origin. As
was sai(l lwforl:'. Hobinson 'Illite frankly admit s that these so-called
"red desert soi ls" arc diHicn lt to ncconnt for through processes which
arc known to be operatire at present on the snrface of the globe. He
accepts their desert origin, ho\Yever, because geologists say so (!).
Qnoting Robinson (p. 92) :
' 'Certain tropical desert s oil s , in spite -of the restri ction of leaching by
arid conditions, ma y show bright r ed colours s uggesting the liberation of
s esquioxides. It see ms possibl e that in s uch oases th e s t a bility o.f the s ilic-
eous clay minerals is a ffected by the hi gh tempe:ature. The wri t e r has
found silica-sesquioxide ratios consider a bly greater than 2.0 in certain sedi-
ments of the Trias, a formation which is considered to have been l a id down
under dese r t conditions. "
Thi s again imli catrs the necessity of a re,ision of much of the
work clone 'so far on these pseudo-a ri el and all egedly semi-arid forma-
tions of the past.
In conclusion it seems that, with the exception of a few scattered
and isolated patches of red soi ls of dubious ori gin, practically all the
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut 14!)
red soil s are formed at the present time in warn1 humid climates only,
mostly in tropical and sub-tropical regions with a seasonal and heavy
rainfall. A good drainag-e is necessary, but thi s does not necessarily
imply hilly topography. A gently undulating, almost Hat saYanna
with intermittent streau1s provides an ideal pla ce for the formation
of red soils, to depths \rhi ch may reach :)() f eet or more. Flattish inter.
fimes betwcPn canyons antl e1en lllotlerately 1-!Cntle slopes within
some mountain ranges al so rno ,ide . retl soils.
It has been said before that a certa iII a n1ount of time is necessary
f{)l the de, elopn1 ent of the red color and that the reel soil s grade
into yellow ones at depth. This is confirmed by the color differenres
observed by the writer in Mexi co between a fiat sa ,anna where
cal decay proceeds uninterruptedly an<l the adjoining forested foot-
hills where erosion is active. As described abo,e, the freshest debris
often comes from the tl enntled canyons. Decomposition , ho\Yever.
takes place on the bett er protecterl gentler slopes. In the hill s, in-
stead of the monoton-o11 S 1wl soils of the san1nna , there is among tho
residual clayey material under dense jungle much r ed, somewhat less
yellow, a little white. and a rather small amount of blue color (Kryn-
ine, unpubli shed ob,.;etTation. 1 !)HO). It seems that here indeed can
be St>Pn a c01npl ete rycle from blue ferrou s t o n' d ferri c compounds
with the f ornwr finally spontnneunsly pa ssing into the Jnttrr nnder
011 r 1ery
In contrast \Yith the enorm011S extent of reel soil s in the humid
tropi ts. no in<lis pntabiP recent red soil,.; an known t o form in desert
or SCIIIi-aritl rcl!i ons. 'J'hp.c; e fads ha,e ueen Sllllllll:trized by Tllcnhofel,
1dw 1nites (19:12, pp. 2TR and 280) : .
;o Red soils a r e formed On a c-onsiderable s cale only in warm and moi s t ,
usuall y upland regions with good s ubs urface drainage" a nd "It is tltought that
the materials of the 'Red Beds' origina ted under moist and wa rm conditi ons.
If the present is tlw hy to the past , one thin/! appears t o b<:>
celtain: that is that witlespread primary re:l color in sediments is
prima faci e elitl eme for a warnl. humid (pr<:'fernbly tropi cal or suu-
tropi cal) climate in tlw source regi on fr01n \Yhi ch tlwse ::;ecliments
came.
This introtl11ces the necessity of di11'erentiatinl! between the con-
ditions pre,ailinl! at the sonrce area of a sediment and those present
at the place of deposition. Reel al"l!illaceous matter arriving from a
hot, moi st country may come t o rest in a desert basin in the company
of salt aml 1-!YPSIIlll beds. Suc-h red beds will be red in spite of their
deserti c associates, not on account of them. In order to prove what
conditions pre1a i led in the ba sin where these sC' d i ment s were depo-
s ited it is necessary to resort to additi onal evidence besides that of
red color properY
1
Deposition of Heel Beds
\Vhile there can be no argument whateYer as to the humid origin
of red soils, the possiuility arises that the resulting red dctLitus may
be deposited under other cl imat ic conditi ons. The prevailing vi ew
0 11 tl1 e subj ect is well statecl in "Textbook of Geol ogy" (Longwell,
Knopf, and Flint, pp. 229 and 228 ) :
"In conclus i.on, r ed strat a occm chiefly in terres trial f.ormationl5 , especial-
l y in those tha t accumul ated in warm arid or semi-arid r egions; but r ed
color in it s elf is not proof o f any one depositi.onal environment .
"However, r ed s oils form wh<'! r e the r elief is sufficien t to ins ure fr ee
circul ation of t he oxygenated water of t he r ainfall ; but in the lower, swa mpy
tracts. vegeta ti on is luxuriant, t he s t agnant waters become depl et ed of their
oxygen, and strongl y r educing conuitions exis t because o ~ the excess carbon.
Therefor e , even if r ed sediments ar e depos ited in the s wampy tract s of humid
regions, the r ed color t ends to disappear and the sediments turn d.ark. As
sedimen t s are genera ll y depos it ed in t he lowes t places, it foll ows t hat
there is s ma ll chance o:f forming r ed deposits in humid basins. But
in the desert a nd in r egions of seasona l ra infall, life is s p:wsc, and t he soil
beco mes dry and it s content of humus becomes oxidized during the peri ods
of drough t. No r educing conditi ons obtain here, and i.f r ed s ediments a re
washed in <f rom the more humid u plands Or slopes they are likel y to r emain
red."
Thi s Yiew is quite sound and it appli es with full f orce to the
depressed central port ions of humid basi ns of deposition. The areas
covered by t hese swa 111 py t racts are indeed very great, especially in
the l arger humid bnsins such as the Amnzm1 region. However , sedi-
mentation may proceed in n some,Yhat different way on the fl anks of
t hese lnrge hmni d basins, or iu some cleltns, or on pi edmont plains.
There, sediments are deposited not in n t opographic depression, but
on a cltained slope (fl oollpla.ins) . As a result, although the fl oor of
the major unit of depositi on (delta, pi edmont ) et c. ) subsides, its snr-
J :l The foll owing dassifi cat ion of " Red Beds" was worked out by P . D.
Krynine in 1942 and has been publi shed in t he Trans of t he New York Aca-
demy of Sciences, Vol. 2, p.p. 60-68, J anuar y 1949. An wbbreviat ed discussion
is t o be found in the A.A. P .G. syll a bus ment ioned under arlwses :
1. Detrital r ed ueds (gener ally continental):
Sespe of Cali fomi a; Tri assic of Connecticut and other eas tern
U. S. basins; Tri assic and Permi an of vVes t Texas; Devoni an Ca t-
skill of Ap:palaehian r egion; European " Old Red" and " New Red."
Most of th ese a r e of t r opical humid ori gin ; a <fe w a r e of semi -
arid or a rid origin.
2 Earl y post -depositional r ed beds : Irawady delta near Rangoon.
3. Authigeni c and chemi cal r ed beds: gener all y marine of the Clint on
iron ore type.
4. Di ageneti c r ed beds (intrast rat al or post-emer gent oxida tion of iron
carbonates or glauconite): some P ermian types and the Tertiary
Hueches formation of East Texas.
5. Second cycle, r eworked, detrita l r ed beds (eolia n, glaci al and so on) :
Navajo formati on of the w e ~ tern U. S.; "bloody elays" of Scandi-
navia; "Pi nk sand" and glacial clay of Connecti cut.
151
face at all times remains well drained. Hence, swamps--which are
a major feature of the central parts of the larger humid basins-are
a distinctly subordinate feature of piedmont deposits. On the con-
trary, piedmont alluvial deposits are usually made up of a series. of
coalescing, dissected and well-drained, alluvial fans and floodplams.
It appears, then, that it is necessary to differentiate between two
distinct realms of continental sedimentation: deposition in a topo-
graphically depressed basin and deposition on a drained slope. This
concept of a non-reducing environment on a slope of deposition was
set forth by Barrell in his discussion of the Mauch Chunk shales
(1907, p. 468):
"The sunface of the Mauch Chunk delta . . .. possessed ;a fair . grade
to the westward, sufficient to prevent the development of broad swamp
areas, since in those regions decolorized shales are practically absent.
The grade which this indicates varies with the
The downhill slope necessary to maintain dissection and a good drain-
age can be very low, especially if the rainfall is heavy and seasonal.
It is only from one-half to three-qnarters of a foot per mile in the
Tabasco piedmont. Barrell postul ates a slope of 2 feet per mile in the
Mauch Chunk delta.
\Vhat is the fate of reel sediments deposited upon such a pied-
mont? If the climate is arid or semi-a rid, they usually stay red
(Great Valley of California). If the climate is uniformly humid,
their fate will be diverse. Possibly some of them will be reduced.
but there is no conclusive proof that.this is always the case. Twenhofel
says ( 1932, p. 281) :
"The redness probably would be retained if the climatic conditions .
were such as to . permit plant growth not beyond the distPosition ability
of t'he bacteria . of the region."
Finally, if the climate is seasonally humid (savanna type), not
only does the sediment stay reel, but it even becomes redder, for this
is the ideal environment for super-oxidation regardless of vegeta-
tion. The fluctuating water table brings a l arge amount of oxygen
to the upper layers of the sediment before its final burial. A dense
jungle may grow along the water bodies of such a savanna, but the
soil under it is red, sometimes to a depth of 50 feet. The vegetation
not only does not reduce the reel soil. but is itself entirely destroyed
by oxidation and bacterial action. These phenomena have been ob-
served in deep pits dug on the Tabasco savanna. Thick red soils
under dense tropical forests have also been described by Behrmann
( 191fi) and Sappe1 ( 1935). It can be said in conclusion that ?educ-
tion in the presence of an excess of free oxyqen is i1npossible regard-
less of the absolute amonnt of organic matter present.
152
BASIN OF DEPOSITION
Swamps Savanna
In undrained (dissected & drained flood
depressed areas plains, fans & river channels)
REGION OF EROSION
Dissected mountain area
SECTION THROUGH THE REGION OF EROSION
Red soils form on interfluves,
provide fine red clayey material
Freshly denuded canyon walls
supply unweathered coarse debris
SECTION THROUGH THE BASIN OF DEPOS ITION (SAVANNA)
Mud flat Present channel
Coarse, fresh, pale colored arkoses
(white, gray, buff, pink, yellow)
interlayered with red siltstones
and maroon shales
Interfluve (old channel)
Red soils passing into
weathered & iron-coated
arkoses underlain by
.fresh sediments
F ig ure 35. Sediment at ion on a r ecent tropical piedmont showing a double
l ocus of chemica l and physical weathering in ar ea of er osion and a donbl e locus
of sediment at ion in r egion of deposition. Illust rat es formati on of arkoses and
r ed beds under t ypical conti nental conditi ons.
The Tropical Piedmont-Typical Site of Deposition
for Non-arid Red Beds
153
Sedimentation on a tropical piedmont, as obsen ed on the Tabas-
co savanna, proceeds along the following lines. During the rainy sea-
son the stronger floods bring in the coarser fresh materi al from the
denuded canyon wall s of the foresteLl mountains. SeYeral floods per
year are of the type of s uper- fl oods mentioned by Von Engeln (1936).
They produce marked major erosion and sedimentation, directly ob-
sena ble (Krynine, 1935a, V 361). w eaker floods transport, sort,
and deposit the red mud deri vecl from t he red soils washed down t he
slopes from the mountain interfluves. These sediments form alter-
nating becl s of coarser , pale-col orrd (white. gray, yellowi sh , or green-
ish) arkosic sands and finer-grained r eddi sh or maroon siltstones and
shales (Fignre 35 and Plate XXVIII-B). Partially decomposed and
iron-coa t ed mineral gmins and iron concretions from the snbsoil may
be incorporated in either the finer or coa rser be<l s. A.s erosion is lo-
calized in the canyons. most of t he dctritns is coarse-grained and
fresh. In t he meantime. tl cpending ttpon the rapidity of the sedi-
mentation process aml the freqnency with ''' hich the river channels
shift their courses. weathering of the sediments proceeds on the sa-
Yanna interflnves (i.r., on the older clmnnels ). H depos it ion slows
cl oll'n, then ehemical decay becomes Yery noticeabl e. Heel soils are
f ormed and the top layers of the nn<l erl ying coarser sediments be-
come coated with ferric oxide and change their color from pale tints
to r ed. The deeper underlying arkoscs r emain fresh. If sedimenta-
tion is Yer y rapid, then thi s post-depositi onal weathering is not ver y
important.
During the dry season mnd cra f' ks :tl1ll other desiccation marks
develop on the mnd flats left Ly the shrinking; water bodies (Krynine.
193:'5a. p. 362). Sandstorms fi lling these cra cks with finer material
have been not infrequently obsen ed. Even the soil s on the interftuves
often become deeply cracked (Bennett and Alli son, 1928, pp. 89, 212,
218), and crystals of soln Lle salts (g-y psnm. halite, et c. ) may form
(Rr nnett, etc .. pp. 184 and 218) .
F inally, if the drainage is disturbed ( clalllming, tilting [as on
the lower coa::; tal p lain of' TaLasco I, or loss of reli ef of the monntain
re:rion, etc.). n1 eancl erin:r rivers and S\\' amps make their appearance
and r erluction of the 1tJJPM' layers only of the sediments may take
place.
As a whole. the sed int ents of a sa ntnn a. show color lmJ1(ling and
vari egation (Krynine. J!:)35a, p. 359) . nnd also a variation in the
freshness of the sediments from the freshest feldspars through
weathered. iron-coat r<l or somewhat altere<l grains anrl into deeply
weathered maroon clays and shales . Such an alternation of vari-
colored and differentially weathered (i .e., partly pre- and partly post-
depositional) material can hardly be duplicated nn cler any other com-
bination of climatic and topographic conditions. Such an alternation
of variegated and differentially weathered beds is typical of the Tri-
assic sediments of Connecticut, of the Sespe formation of California,
of the Siwalik beds of India, of the Juniata formation o P ennsyl-
and many other continental reel beds of the past.
J:\TTEHPHETATION OF THE TRIASSIC SEDDrENTS
Fanglomerates
Fanglomerates have been described by Lawson (1913) as the
coarse, angular material formed at the apex of alluvial fans under
conditions of " bold reli ef and aridity." They represent an inter-
fingering combination of cliff talus, mudflow material, and ordinary
water-laid deposits, bnt are definitely alluvial in origin, differing in
that r espect from screes and other gravity deposits.
Lawson originally defined fanglomerates as coarse continental de-
posits depending upon "bolt! r elief and aridity." Consolidated fan
glornerates "ere described as t ypical of a local base level of erosion
in an ariel climate. These defi nitions are based on environment rather
than on process and for this reason cannot be accepted as final. An
analysis of the factors involved in the formation of a fanglomerate
(or to a minor extent in the formation of any alluvial fan) shows
that the real controlling elements are:
1) A localizing factor consisting of an extremely sharp break
in slope (Lawson's bold relief and local base level), providing for
the instantaneous deposition of most of the jumble of very coarse and
ill-assorted material debouching into the flat. from the short :mel very
steep valleys of the region of erosion. An ideal localizing factor is
a fanlt scarp, especi all y an acti Ye one whi ch is being constantly
rejuvenated.
2) The presence of intermittent streams providing t he bri ef and
catastrophi c floods which al' e a!lmitteclly well suiteu to transport and
deposit angular, nnsorted detritus.
It is obvious that an adeq uate locali;-;ing factor , such as an active
fault sca rp, can be located any,Yhere on the surface of the globe. The
question is the kine! of intermittent strea m necessary for the for-
mation of fangl omerates an excl usive feature of arid r egi ons or n ot?
Leuchs (1933) strongl y objects to this view and points out that
the s1Hlt.l en thawing of snows in a glaciated, oversteepened mountain
valley " ill accomplish exactl y the same kind of work and r esult in
the deposition of precisely the same kind of coarse, angular debris.
The presence of fanglomeratcs in the Berkeley hills suggest s that the
,iolent seasonal precipitation of a semi-ariel r egion is also adequate
for the purpose. Finally, as shown by Sapper, rainfall in an ultra-
humid tropi cal region wi t h its short catastrophic downpours is able
No. 73] Triassi c Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 155
to account just as well for the formation of fanglomerates on a large
scale if a suitable topogmphy is present. Specifically, extremely
angular material is provided by the slumping of the steep, rocky
canyon walls. No large-scale recent fanglomeratcs have been described
as yet from the humiu tropi cs, bnt consiLl ering that to a large extent
thi s region geologically is still a t erra incognita, thi s is not a power
ful argument. :Minor fangl omerati c deposits have been observed by
Krynine in Chiapas in the shape of small incipient alluvial fans
at the confluence of intermittent tnonnt-ain t orrents or where these
streams debouch into valley flat s (Plate XXVTT-13). These little fans
contain extremely angular bonl<lcrs up to 5 :feet in diameter em-
bedded in a matrix of small er fragments of varying size and angu-
lari ty mixed together .. with fin e sandy material (Krynine, 1935). The
possibility of mnd flows in the tropics (Krynine, 1936a, p. 3Ci2, and
Sapper, 1935) al so must not be ignored in this cormec_tion. It is
indeed permissible to specnlate as to the size to whi ch the small
Chia.pas fans would grow if an active strnctnral f eature, the size
of the Connecticut Great Fanlt. were present in the hilly parts of
t he humid tropi cs. waibel (1034) has also reported fangl omerutes
from the central part of the sarnc state of Chiapas.
HoweYer , if no large-scale f anglomcrates of recent age have as
yet l>een reported from the tropi cs, at least one fossi l occurrence can
be cited where there is good reason to suspect the climate was just
as humid as it is today. This is the so-called " Big Conglomerate" of
pres umably Lo\\er Oli gocene age from northern Chi a pas, Mexico.
From the fossil record (lignite and tropical fauna both nhove and
below the congl omerate and some lignite within the conglomerate
itself) and the broader geographical climatic r elati onships which
apparently were not different from the present day, it appears that
the climate at that time was probably similar to that of the present
- i.e .. hnmid tropical. A cl<>snipti on of the B i ~ Conglomerate (con-
il ensed from an tmpnl>lished report prepa red in 1930 by P. D.
Krynine for the Standard Oil Company of California) follows :
"The Big Conglomerate, exceedingly hard and massive, is composed
mostly o{ limestone boulders (pink, bl ack and gr ay) and to a lesser ex-
tent of granitic a nd schi s t pebbl es. These pebbles s how but littl e round-
ing, some being extremely angular , and they r ange in s ize .from 1 inch
to 20 feet , averaging well over 2-3 inches in di ameter. A large per
centa.ge of big ones is to be f ound an))ong- them. E normous isolated
sandstone boulder s up to 20 feet in diameter (from the underl ying Eo-
cene"! ) have been seen several ;times. The conglo merate is cemented
with calcareous cement at mos t places, but in some instances the cement
is s iliceous or ferr uginous. In a quite subordinate pos ition are a fe w
layers of banded ::;a ndstones and shales. The Big Conglomerate extends
for 30 km. '"in an E-\V direction. It reaches a maximum thickness of
2,000 fee t in the middle, thinning to a few hundred lfeet on both flanks."
In conclusion, it appears that fanglomerate cannot be r estricted
to ari d or semi-arid regions, but should be considered as possible
under any strongly marked seasonal system of precipitation, provided
an adequate break in slope is furni shed by the topography.
156
[Bull.
Fanglomerates are one of the most promi nent f eatures of the
Ne"ark, extending all along the Grent Fanlt, almost from the shore
of Long I s\nnd Sonnd past Northfi eld to the New Hampshire line.
As described in t he previous chapters, they form rather small -fans,
the really nngular material not extending more than '2,000 f eet away
from the fault. The angular, brecciat{'l <l fragment s show a rnde bed
ding nnd at man.v places are interlaycred with perfectl y banded ar
koses (Plate XXV-A, East Portland) , reel laminated shal es (North
Guilford, Northfiel<l , and other places) . and extremely fine, ]ami
nated, dark-col ored siltstones (Plate XXIV-A, Lake Quonnipaug
reser voir ). Lignite is present in these arkoses within 2:)0 feet of the
fault (northwest of Chestnut Mountain). I solated woocl fragments
and organic mate rial in the arkoses and s iltstones interbedded with
the fangl omeratcs haYe been observed in several instances within 100
feet of the fa ult. Large. tabular boulders, roughly ori ented in n fine
matrix and possibly suggesting mudflows, arc fonnd one-half mile
west of the fault on the roacl from Lake Qnonnipang t o the North
Guilford church. Similar tabnlnte "mmlAow deposits" occur at Mount
Toby and ha,c been clesrribed by Bain (1D32) .
:Most of the material appears to be extremely fresh, but a careful
examination of the f ace of one of the better and fresher out crops in
a r ecent r oadcut will sho,,- that some of the fragments are weathered
and possess a r eel iron coating. Exactly the same phenomenon can be
seen under the microscope. In a thin secti on of fangl omerate from
Lake Quonnipau,g the fragments of Bolton schi st show differential
weathering: one is perfectly fresh, whereas its neighbor in the same
section is weatherecl , being coated with ferric oxide and all its
cracks filled with it (Plate XIX-B).
All t hese phenomena associated ''"ith the fanglomerates are not
restricted to one hori:wn , but occu r at all leYels in fanglomerates of
both the Meriden and P ortland formations. Summing up, it can be
said that the Triassic fanglomeratcs of Connecticut, besides being
typical fanglomemtes, possess in addition the follmYing -features :
1) They are intimately associated with plant remains and extremely
fin e. dark sediments containing organic material. 2) Their coarser
local constituents show di ffe rential red ''"eathering, and in places they
are c-onformabl y interla yered with r eddi sh shales, which presumably
debouched from t he sa me valleys as the coarse angular debri s.
These Connect icut Valley fanglomerates, inasmuch as t hey con-
sist to some extent of local red detritus, must have originated in a
climate acleqnate for the occurrence of red soils. The hi gh humidity
postulated by th is hypothesis also explnins the occurrence of lignite
and plant remains within the fanglomera. tes, pointing to a forest
cover on the very short slopes from which the debris originated.
Arkoses and Sa ncl stones ; Significance of
Differential :Mineral \Veathcring
157
l\:leclinm-grainecl clastics form almost 63 pet cent of the section
(76 per cent of the New Hal"en arkose, 38 per cent of the Meriden
formation, 37 per cent of the Portland arkose ).
The most remarkable feature of these arkoses and sandstones is
thei r angularity of grain and their high content of unweathered
f eldspar, to which can be added, for the truer arkoses and the semi-
graywackes, an extremely poor sizing. These are all features of con-
tinental deposition and unmistakably suggest violent erosion.
From a study of over 12i) thin sections, it appears that as a
whole, the feldspars are very fresh. Some of the so-called "weather-
ing" may be either hydrothermal seri citization (only locally de-
,-eloped ncar igneous bodies) or replacement by carbonates, generally
calcite (also a somewhat local process, in the general vicinity of fault
planes ). Calcitization may r esult in the destruction of feldspars by
piecemeal attack and replacement, but the unreplaced portion of a
feldspar /!rain is qnite fresh inside ancl does not show any internal
changes, i.e., remains unaltered nnd " unweathered."
vVhen replacement by carbonates is not present and when the
specimen is not unduly affected by r ecent weathering, it is possible
t o notice distinct differences in the degree of alteration in the scmw
variet y of feld spar (microcline vs. microcline or plagioclase vs.
plagioclase) 'vhich, as shown in the chapter on P etrography, are of
primary origin. This can be seen well in Plate XXIX.
Thi s mixture of very fresh and weathered material becomes
much more conspicuous in the finer-grained brick-red f elJspathic
sandstones of t.he lledstone type. In the Redstone, perfectly frpsh
grains of feldspar and biotite are often embedded in a reel gibbsite-
bea ring clayey matrix which may form as much as 45 per cent of t he
rock. In other words, the primar y constituents of the arkoses range
from perfectly fresh f eldspars and ferromagnesian minerals through
somewhat alter ed material and into lateritic clays, the final product
of a process of extreme chemical decay.
Thi s mixtnre. whi ch was found to be present in every Newark
specimen examined, implies a double locus of erosion in the source
area. One of these loci provided the fresh minerals, the other locuo;
the deeply altered material. Since it is impossible to get two dif-
ferent climates to operate at the same moment at any one place, it
follows that the same climate was operative in both loci, but that in
one of these loci the chemical action was suffi ciently prolonged to pro-
duce a lateritic clay, whereas in the other locus, this action was inter-
rupted by violent erosion nnd rl id not haYe time to become effective.
The exact structurJl and topo!Trnnhi c mechanism necessary for this
is shown in Figures 34, 37, and 38.
[Bull .
On the basis of these fact s, and knowing also that a11 extremely
steep topography was provided for erosion by the scarp of the <;treat
Fault, the following interpretation of the arkoses becomes possible.
The fresh f eldspars and the very decayed red gibbsite-bearing
elayey matrix incli r-ate in the source. area tl.le of both .ex-
treme erosion and very potent chemi cal actton. 'Ihe latter r eqmres
a hi p:h t{l mpcratmr and a heavy rainfall. The steep relief
to provide an erosion rate suffi cient to account for the fonnatwn o:f
nrkoses is present. providell the rainfall occurs mostly as cloudbm:sts.
Snch an uneven di stribution of hen vy rainfall is a feature of tropical
humid climates, especially of the se;1sonal savanna t ype. Thi s is the
climate whi ch can be safelv inferrerl for the som ce area of the arkose.
The prescn ntion of <l eposits under t.he same.
tropi cal conditions has been shown to he possible If depositiOn Is
rapid enough (Kr,vnine, 1935n, Sapper, 1935). As shown m the. pre-
cedin.r section dnrino Triassic time both source area and basm of
of 'the valley sedime.nts .formed one single
dimatic province. More eompl ete proof of th1s will be offered later.
Reel Beds
A small amount of the red color of the Connecticut Triassic is
due to recent wea.t.lwring (as at Pine Rock). Usually, however, the
weathering of Triass ic non-reel beds yields yellow limonitic material
(a s \rith the white :ukoses of the upper Meriden formation).
Not counting recent weathering (i.e., on the basis of fresh and
relati,el y unweathered outcrops ) more than 52 per cent of the section
is fonncl to be definitely reel (i.e. , not mottled in shades of pink and
gray, etc.) ; 45 per cent of the New Haven 50 per cent of t he
Meriden formati on, and (i3 per cent of the Portland formation consist
of reel beds. On a. lithologi c basis, 31 per cent of the arkoses, practi-
cally all of the siltstones. and 70 per f'ent of the shales are r PCl. \Vithin
the coarser sediments ( arkoses and conglomerates ), possibly in as
many as half of the occmTences the reel f'olor is rlnc t o fresh pink
feldspar or to feltl spar r e<lclened incipi ent decay and infiltration
b_,. hcrnatit e. The ot her half, together with all the r ed siltstones and
reel shales. are colorerl by di sseminaterl red iron pigment. Not Jess
than 40 per cent of the section is reel becanse of primary ot ea.rly
post -deposi tional coloration with f erri c oxi de. That thi s color is pre-
diageneti c can be conr.lusivcl y proYe<l at Reed Gap quarry where a
red arkose is bleached to a white col or by thermal action immediately
below the lower contact of the middle lava flow (see the section on
stratigraphy and petrography of Reed Gnp fJUarry, gi,ing the mi cro-
scopic desc ription of the passing of hematite in the lower arkose l ayers
into magnetit{l in the upper ; also sec mi crophotographs on Plate
XVII). Inasmuch as the lava sheet s ft owerl oYer Connecti cnt <lming
the Ycry process of Tria ssic sedimentation, it is certain that reel color
existed already in the topmost unburied sediments as the result of
primary depositional or post-depositional sub-aerial action before the
extrusion of the lava.
The primary, pre-depositional character of some of the red de-
tritus has already been discussed in the section on fanglomerat es.
Most of the color of the red clays which form the finer red shales and
most of the matrix of the siltstones is apparently of primary origin.
A very small part of these red clays, which al so form t he fine lami -
nated red shales, may have been imported into the valley from a
great di stance by some longitudinal master streams, bnt most of
them are definitely of l ocal derivation as shown from their associa-
tion with fanglomerates and especially from their mineral composi-
tion, as described in detail in the correlation between the Lamentation
and Redstone facies (Tables 8, 0, 10); some of the f erric-oxide films
coating single snncl grains in the coarser clastics appear to be also
of primary origin, judged by their relati on to the cementing medium.
The color of the differentinlly weathered reel pebbles of the fanglom-
erates is primary. In other instances, however, these iron films seem
to be post-depositional, being of a later origin than the clastic con-
stit uents and some of the cement (no coating at point of direct contact
bet"een some of the grai ns ). Thi s seems to be the case in some of the
ll!'koses from Portland, where, in addition, small , round, compl ex
concretions consisti ng mostly of ferri c oxide apparently occur as
primary depositional or detrital constituents of the rock on a par
with sand grains. Similar concretions occur also at Shepard Avenue
(Joe. 17). These ronnel concretions appear to be closely similar to the
pen1igon (buck shot) of the soils of Cuba described by Bennett and
A Jl ison ( 1928, pp. 77-80).
The following conclusi ons can be arrived at from these observa-
tions :
1) Primary reel detritus has been derived to a considerabl e
ext.ent from local sources immediately east of the Great Fault within
a f ew miles, or possibly within a few hundred feet , of the basin of
deposition. There is no evidence that the fault scarp formed a l ofty
monntain range towering thousands of f eet over t he vallev. On tl1e
('Ont rary, its n.bsolnte reli ef seems to have been Yery l-Ienee
it is imposs ibl e to postulate two different climati c proYinces, one for
the moderately elc,atrd (and very narrow) scarp, another for
the lmYlands less than r; mil es (or possibly in part less than 500 f eet)
nway. If reel soils eonld form on the interfinves of the r egion of
erosion. then the climate of hoth the sca rp region and of the valley
immediately west of it must ha,e lwen warm and humid.
2) In aclrlition to the elirnati e e,irl ence J!l' O\iuecl by primary
red detritns of local deri vation, it seems that some of the r ed color
of t he Triass ic is clue to ea rly post-depositional sub-aerial weathering
of the <l<>positNl sedirnents. Thi s is direct evidence of a warm and
humicl climate in the vall ey itRelf.
-
On the basis of all this, it appears that the climate of the Newark
epoch in the Connecticut Valley must have been warm (and probably
hot) and decidedly humid (rainfall in excess of 40 inches ). \Vhile
providing a good clue to the absolute rainfall (high), the red color
does not furni sh satisfactory rvidrnce as to the charact er of its dis-
tribntion (uniform or seasonal). This problem must be solved on the
basis of other climatic evidence, such as the presence of highly alumi-
nous clays (gibbsite).
Dark Shales and Limestones
The t erm black shales introduced bv Davis to describe the dark
fossiliferous beds of the :Meriden includes not only true
black shales. but also blni sh-gray and dark-gray shales, limestones,
:mel clolomites. grayi sh, blni sh, and greeni sh siltstones. white, gray,
and black feldspathi c sanfl stones, all of which are interbedded to
some extent ''ith red arkoses. siltst ones, and shales, and in the vicinity
of the Great Fault H en with conglomerates and fanglomerates. The
beclding, however. is rather thin. and the finer , dark-colored sediments
are a feature of almost every outcrop and permit an immediate identi-
fication of the series. Deposits of thi s type are universally present at
least at two major hori7.0ns in the 1\'[ericl en formation: immediately
aboYe the lower lava sheet and in the middle of the upper division
of the Meriden beds. These two major horizons form a continuous
cover over the whole Triassic basin of Connecticut, including the
Pomperaug valley, and their outcrops can be found without a single
Pxception at the places where stratigraphy and structure require their
rresence. Thi s complete continuity indi cates that the Connecti cut
basin of deposition was entirely blanketed at least twice by dark
sediments.
The lowrr horizon consists to a ,erv large extent of lacustrine
deposits: perfectly banded and laminated dark and r ed shales, lime-
s1 ones, and very fine siltstones, partly organi c, partly cal careous,
partly (to a very minor cl egree) dolomitic. These lacustrine deposits
extend from Northford to New Britain and are also prrsent in the
Pomperaug area. They gradually pass at top and bottom into less per-
fedly banded and coarser variegated siltstones ancl nrkoses.
The npper clark shale horizon does not hnYe such n marked
charact er , but consists of a hewilderin:r compl ex juxtapo!Oi
twn of beds from hmestones to arkoses, very lenticular in cha meter,
hnt homogeneous in their heterogeneity in the numerous exposures
from Branford to the north of Massachusetts. :Mud cracks in some
of t_he black shales indicate sub-nerial exposure and suggest that the
boch es of water , although numerous. were cli scontinnous and shallow.
The general scarcity or even absence of definite lacustrine or fluvial
features i_n _these beds suggest s that the? are of swamp or
marsh ongm. An en?rmons. poorly drained marshy lowland com-
posed of swamps, mmor lakes, slnggi sh meandering streams, and
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut -
161
pawhes of dry ground seems to have cover ed the Triassic basin dur-
ing a large part of .Meriden time. As shown in the chapter on Struc-
ture, this was clue to a disturbance of the drainage, probably caused
by warping. A luxuriant vegetation flouri shed on the shores of t hese
marshes, and myri::ws of fi shes thrived in the clearer of the water
bodies, most of whi ch were definitely shallow and flnc:tnatin g in their
extent, judging by t he eYidence of mud cmcks (although mud cracks
are absent in the fi sh-bearing parts of the shales ).
After the erupt ion of the lower laYa fl ow, the damming action
"as sudden and complete. This resulted in the complete closing of
the drainage outlet and the (]eYelopment of large lakes in which fine-
1-!rained sediments inelnding limestones were deposited. The perfect
banding of the lacustrine shales south of New Britain, almost varve-
like in ;tppearance, points t o recurrent processes of cyclic sedimenta-
ti on due to the chano-e of wet and dry seasons. No desiccation marks
have been found as in the t y pi ca( lacustrine shales. Indisputable
clPsiccation marks have not been positively proved to exist in the
limestones. either. Contorting of li mcstonc layers is frequent, but it
seems to be clue to the disturbing action of bottom currents. The
perfect ronnding of many minerals. e\en including mi cas, in the
lacustrine beds (an 1m heard of feature anywhere else in the Triassic
sedi ments) nnd the mi croscopic chnracter of some ultraminute cut-
and-fill strati fi cation in the dolomitized siltstones prove the existence
of very gentle bottom currents. Finally, some of the features in the
limestones which appear to hnve been possibly mud cracks do not
resemble anthentic polygonal mud cra cks. but rather the shapeless
cracks obtained hy .Tnngst in hi s experiments on synaeresis.
a process t ypi cnl of calcarem1s mml s (snh-afJneons cl ehycl rntion of
colloids) .H
It has brcn said that lacnstrinc sediments pro\ e an arid climate.
As a matter of f act. a lake pro Yes : 1) the presence of a bnsin; and
2) an abnnclance of wnter t o fill it, the water in most cnses being
supplied by rainfall. The lacustrine deposits of the lower Meriuen
formation show banding, indicating recurrent seasons; the limestones
nrc very impure. and contain mnch snncl , pointing to active erosion;
there is no salt or gypsum indicating compl ete desiccation; even mud
crncks are absent or at least of a verv debatable nature. The lnke
beds finally pass into cal careous shales; silts, clark arkosrs. and other
sediments more t ypicnl of a swamp than a playa deposit.
The swarnp beds of the upper Meriden formation arc remark-
able for their thiclmess (up to 400 feet), enormous extent , and con-
tinuous character. They cover close to 2,000 square miles. At the
J.l Similar poorly defined mud cr acks, some standing below water,
were seen by the writer in a calca recus mud while inspecting a water
softening plant at Lansing, Michi gan, in 1943. Lansing is loca ted in a
humid ,f,orest clima te (subuniform rainfall of 31 inehes with an annual
mean temperature of 46. 8F.).
present time such large continuous swamps are not easily found
outside of definitely humid regions.
A basin-like depression on the surface of a savanna results in
the development of such marshes. This can be observed in Tabasco
at the junction of the well drained red savanna and the lagoons of
the coastal plain. Structural tilting there has resulted in the forma
tion of a swampy trough between lagoons and upland, 10 miles wide
and consisting of blaek-water marshes, small lakes, patches of dry
ground, meandering rivers, ete. , all of which is covered with a dense
Similar conditions exist; in some coastal districts of
equatorial \Vest Africa (Sapper, 1935).
In conclusion, it seent s that the formation of a series of continu
ous swamps covering 2,000 square miles of territory and depositing
400 f eet of sedi ment ean hardl y be possible, so far as our lmowledge
of the present goes, outside of a humid d1mate.
Climatic Significance of Desiccation Marks
Desiccation marks have been well described in the literature,
and the following bri ef review based upon Twenhofel (1Ut2) , Grabau
(1D24). and personal obsetTation, is inten(l ed only to bring out their
climatic significance. Desiccat ion marks can be divided into two
major groups:
1) 'l110se formed through the breaking of a clay upon drying
(mud cracks). To be preserved, they have to be fill ed with some
foreign material before the day flows together again upon wetting
and closes them. Filling with eolian sand before the next submersion
is admittedly the easiest way t o aecomplish thi s, but this is also quite
possible by ultra-rapid sand or silt deposition, immediately after
flooding, and bef ore the clay r esumes its plasticity. In additi on, it
has been shown by Jungst (1934) that as the r esult of synaeresis,
spontaneous dehydration of clays may proceed under water, especi-
ally if the clay is calcareous.
2) Those formed through the filling with extraneous material of
an impression made in the clay by a foreign body (footprints, rill
marks, rain pits). The accepted idea of this process is that a wet
plastic mud surface receives npon sub-aerial exposure an impression,
then it hardens, and the impression is fill ed with eolian material
which preserves it when the clay is again submerged. HmYever , rapid
filling by silt upon submersion, again, will be just as effeetive. \Vork
by Krynine (1D35b) has al so shown that if the clay is sufficiently
tenacious, a naked, unprotect ed impression (footprint) can with-
stand as many as seventeen different successive submersions caused
by 5.75 inches of rainfall without beeoming much blurred. This work
(based upon the observation of natural phenomena and not upon less
conclusive artificial experiments under laboratory eonditions) indi-
cates the necessity of caution when interpreting desiccation marks:
163
a dozen floods may have passed unrecorded upon them before the
overlying sediments finally cast their protective cover.
while these observations on submerged footprints were in
progress, Krynine also noted that the same clay, in layers up to 1 em.
thick, would dry up and crack in less than eighteen hours (including
approximately six hours of bright sunshine) after a rain. These clay
layers were derived from Triassic shales nearby, and were underlain
by finely crushed trap rock from a quarry. These conditions closely
approximate those which prevailed during Triassic deposition, when
r elatively thin shale layers were deposited over coarser arkose beds.
It is probnble, however , that thicker layers of clay may take a longer
time to dry and crack. Severnl days, weeks, or even months of sub-
aerial exposure (depending upon the nature of the clay) may be
r equired t o produce deep cra cks (20 to 50 em.). Shall ow mud cracks,
on the other hnncl, are formed easily and very qui ckly.
It nppenrs then that, even if Jungst 's work on synaer esis is dis-
regarded, desiccation marks cannot be considered a conclusive proof
for nnything more than a brief period of sub-aerial exposure which
may have been not longer than twenty-fonr hour s. It is totally UTI-
permissible to claim that desiccation marks are by themselves a proof
of semi-aridity. On the contrary, desiccation marks of all kinds can
form with extreme ease in humid climates. Such desiccation mark:;;
have been obsened in Connecticut (uniform precipitation of 46
inches per yenr) nnd on the savanna of Tabasco (sensonal rainfall
exceed inQ" 8:) inches per year). Bennett and Allison mention the ubi-
quitous deep cracking of the clays o Cuba during the dry season of
a savanna climate, with a precipitation of 50 to 70 inches. The preser-
vntion of these ftntmps is entirely possible. Raindrop impressions
rnn be seen in the lomw layers of t he l aminated Recent clay described
from Pine Roek. Conrwct icnt (Krynine. 1D35b) . As sueh, they are
already a part of the fossil record. Sandstorms which rage over the
barren, dry. channels and rnndflats of the Tabasco rivers, durinr-: the
rainless season. fill the mud cra cks with eolian materinl. E xtremely
rapid deposition clmin:.r the next fl ood also g: rently favors the preser-
vation of these features.
A consen ' at i,e CJn alitative interpretation of desiecation marks
cannot go beyond the nssu rnption that they indi eate a sub-aerial ex-
posure between t"o submersions, the length of the exposure possibly
being extremely short. It is here that the quantitative element beeornes
of importance. If desi ccati on marks begin t.o be abnndant, thi s rea-
sng-gests nn increase in t he freCJnency of periods of sub-aerial
t'xposnre. unt il finally at a eel'ta in point, the existence of definite
periods of drought or e\en of a definite dry season e:m be safely
nssumecl. Unfortunately, no exact definiti on can be given for the
term "abundant," bnt if mnd crneks. ct(' .. nre easil y obsen ed in a
given formntion and are not isolated occurrences. bnt a eornrnon fea-
ture whi ch does not require any special search to be seen, then the
164 Connecticut Geological and Natural' History Survey [Bull.
word abunclant can be applied . . Further information as to the length
of the period of subcaerial exposure may be derived from the depth
of the mud cracks. Again such interpretation must consider not only
the character of the <hying up period bnt al so the character (tenac-
ity) of the clay.
It must be remembered thongh, that a dry season and semi-
aridity are two very different things. At Bombay not a drop of rain
fall s for almost nine months, uut during the remnant of the year
there is 71 inche;:; of rai11fall.
:Mud cracks, rain pits, and fossil tracks are very contmon in the
Connecticnt Triassic. These desiccation marks usually occur in the
finer shales ancl shaly siltstmws, but mud cra cks and footprints are
also present in the coarser arkoscs, apparently on account of the
abundance of clayey matrix and especially thin cla yey layers along
bedding planes. l\h1cl r racks ha\e also been obsen ed in the dark
shales of the upper Meriden swamp but .have not been positively
proved to occur in the lacustrine sediments of the lower Meriden
formation. As a whole, mud cra cks are shallow (1.0 mm. to 1.0 em.)
and only excepti onally exceed 1.0 em. in depth.
F ootprints arc treated in detail in the section on Triassic fauna.
It may be said , in the meantime, that while ma11y of the footprints
are of sub-neria I ori gin. ot hrr:-; (especially those in the coarser sedi-
ments ) appear to ha\e been formed under water. Two points can be
ad\anced in snpport of thi s vi ew: 1) blurred borders, clue to the
flowage of mud. Thi s. however, might mean wet mud, not neces-
sarily a cover of water. 2) Some of the prints are in Yery coarse,
clark gray arkose which, presumably, wonld dry and crumble very
rapidl y upon snb-a.r rial expostll' e and thus : a) fail enti rely to receive
an impression, or b) destroy it if it wns r ecorded while the surface
was still moi st. Snch snb-a<]ueons prints, recorded under the sluggish
waters of the Meriden swamps, would have an excellent. chance of
preservation, being gradnally and slowly fill ed up 'vith silt and fine
sand before the coming of the next viol ent fl ood. Snch sub-aqueous
impressions have been <lnpli catecl experimentall y to the sati sfa ction
of the writer.
It is belieYecl that the abunllant desiccati on marks of the Triassic
o Connecticut attest t o the exist ence of a. well -(lefinecl dry season
and the presence of a seasonal ty pe of rainfall. Any further assump-
tions as to the amount of rainfall cannot be made on the basis of the
desiccation marks.
Climatic Significance of Soluble Salts
Large deposits of salt and gypsum produced by the complete
evaporation of extensive water bodi es are a conspicuous feature of
desert regions. Glauberite, halite, gypsum, and other soluble salts
are forming at the present time in Death Valley and similar places
No. 73]
either as playa deposits or as t he procluct of desiccation of more sub-
stantial lakes. All these phenomena crr n be eas ily observed and have
been profusely described. It is understandable that the presence of
these salts has been generally associated with the extreme evaporation
characteristic of arid r egions. Sudt a sweeping generalization can
be snbj ecte(l to criti cism on the familiar ground that the formation
of soluble salts is the product of a process and not of an environ-
ment. An arid environment happens to be extremely favorable for
the lar rre-scal e development of such processes, but its operation is
it has been r epeatedly obsene<l and described- under
se\eral other entirely differ ent climt1tic- conditions.
The essential s of t he process are :
1) Concentrati on of <t solution in a closed basin or at least in a
place with a very deficient drainage. On a small scale, and if deabng
with a tough, fairly impervious clay surface, depressions 12 inches
dee.p are s nfti cient to fo rm acleqnate basins (Bennett and Alli son,
1928, pp. 37 and l Si\ ) aml to provide fo r a complete stoppage of
circulation aml an excessi,c concentration of salts near the surface.
2) Precipitation of the salt duP to fi nal supersaturation of the
brine, thi s being achieveLl best by a high ev::tporation rate.
In addition to arid an<l semi- arid area s, s11 ch processes of con-
centrati on and prec-ipitation of soluble salt s have been observed in
many humid regions. Bobinson p. 2ii9, after B. Aa rni o) men-
tions the presence of saline soils in Finland. Bennett and Alli son, in
their monograph on the soils of Cnba, ha,e exhaustively studi ed the
ob1;oxious concent ra t ion of sa lt ncar the surface of the ground, a
senous pr oblem for the sngar cane i n!lll stry. The rainfall of Cuba
averages between :JO and 55 inches, seasonally distributed with a
short bnt marked drv st>ason. Bennett and Alli son summarize t he
sa lt-forming process thus (p. 30D):
"The low-lying- soils sub.i cct to long periods of saturati on or excessively
moist conditions, have not been severely leached because per col ation has
been reta rded; a ncl the materia l but slightly oxidized because of poor aera-
tion. On the other hc nd, these soils have a ccumul ated excessive amounts of
salts, because o.f their inadequate dra inage. In other words,
some of t he fi at, impervious cl a ys have gained rather than lost soluble con-
stituents. This has not been the r esult of climate, but rather the result
af accident o-c pos i t ion. "
Bennett. and Alli son gi ,.e literall y dozens of instances of forma-
tion of salt ::t nd gypsu111. A f ew examples will suffi ce. On pages 37
and 38, describing the Alto Cedro clay in a r egion with a, rainfall of
42 inches, mention is made that:
. " In the s ituation, notably along the drainage ways salt, chiefly
sodiUm chlonde IS present from the top down in sufficient quantities to form
crystals on the dry surface."
166
[Bull.
Describing the Jucaro clay (p. 3>):
"Sodium chloride ... frequently present in the subsoil or the higher
lying areas and through the entire section of the lower area . . to give
rise to a fluffy structure at the surface (when nearly dry) ."
And on page 294 :
"In the Province of Oriente ... soil in open ditches . .. contained ...
1% of salt ... surface incrustations were observed on ditch banks."
It must be noted that mnch of thnt salt concentration in Cuba
occurs on clays of alluvial origin, or, in the parlance of sedimen-
tology, on unburied subaerially exposed sediments. Such a t erm fits
also the definition of mudflats and playa deposits, in arid r egions or
otherwise. Some Cnbnn clayey areas have a soi l depth of only a few
inches, and some ha,e none at all.
Passing to the presence of gypsum, and again quoting Bennett
and Allison, we see on page 37: " broad, thin, leathery sheets of 1-!YP
sum in fissures"; and on page 39: "amber-colored crystals of gypsum
are locally present." An occmrence of f!ypsum is mentioned in the
Bayamo clay of the Trinidad district ( pp. 151-152), a region with a
rainfall of 52 inches. This example, which is described as occurring
in an abandoned channelway of the Manati River in a heavy, sticky
r ecent alluvinl clny whi ch cracks dming the dry season, can hardly
be considered to be in a soil at all, but rather in a real, unaltered,
sediment.
On page 219 is shown a large photograph of a "Hardwood vir-
gin forest" growinf! on the Alto Cedro clay in eastern Cuba in a re-
gion with a rainfall of 44 inches. The picture leaves nothin<T to be
desired in the way of a dense, tropical jungle with ferns,
trees, vines, creepers, lnxurinnt and impassable vegetation, etc. A
description of the clay on the opposite page (p. 218) shows thnt it
"contains gypsum erystals in many places"; also that:
"Gypsum crystals are of common occurrence in the lower subsoil. In
one deep exposure extensive sheets of leathery gypsum were found in inter-
secting fissures of the dense clay."
and finall y :
"In some places salt is present in excessive amounts, especially in
depressions . . . here salt has accumul ated by seepage ... 1iorming a leathery
Him or crust."
In conclnsion, it appears that Bennett and Allison have satisfac-
torily demonstrated that:
1) Halite crystals do form on the surface of the ground in re-
gions with a rainfnll of at least 44 inches, even in nreas which may
be heavily forested.
2) Gypsum crystals also occur under similar conditions and
even under a rainfall of 52 inches.
No. 73]
3) Salt and especially gypsum form abundantly in the upper
layers below the surface, both in soils and in ordinary alluvial clays,
subaerially exposed.
The dry season during which these phenomena develop is rela-
tively short (p. 310):
"During the dry season there are often periods when not a drop ot
rain falls for two or three months."
The mean annual temperature, however, is high: 75 to 79 F., and
also uniform : 700 to 75o F. in January, 79 to 83 F. in July.
Bennett and Allison describe the recent formation of relatively
small bodies of soluble salts under tropical humid conditions. How-
ever, this process can go much farther, judging by the Oligocene pot-
ash deposits of Alsace, which contain a humid forest and swamp
fauna including very large butterflies.
The fauna and flora from the Alsace potash beds were studied
by Quievreux in 1035. Referring to the flora, he says (p. 174) :
"From the general aspect of the flor.a we can conclude to a warm tem-
perate climate of a temperature similar to southern. Japan. We can also con-
clude to the existence of .forests", and "a very marked dry season." ("De
!'ensemble de Ia flore nous conclurons a un climat t m p r ~ chaud dont la
temperature serait a peu pres celle du J.a,pan meridional. Nons conclurons
egalement i't "!'existence de forets" .... saison seche tres marquee.")
In describing the fauna, Quievreux mentions one bird, three mol-
lusks, numerous spiders, butterflies, giant moths, mosquitoes, etc.,
which he interprets as a combined swamp and forest fauna of mixed
temperate and tropical humid affinities.
Interpreting the fauna, Quievrenx says (pp. 179-180):
"This is a mixture of swamp and forest faunas. The swamp fauna is
indicated by the Diptera and especially by the numerous Chironomides.
But other insects indicate the presence of a forest, and this conclusion onlY
corroborates that arrived at from the study of the flora.
''In brief, Alsace during the deposition of its potash was neither a desert
nor a steppe. It wa.s a forested eountry with water c:our.ses, and nothing
indicates either the presence or the proximity of the sea." ("Le melange d'une
faune de marecage et d'une faune de foret. Faune de miarecage c'est l'lndi.
cation donnee par les Dipteres, en particulier de nombreux Chironomides.
Mais d' autres insectes indiquent Ia presence d'une foret, et cette concluston
ne fait que verifier celle tiree de !'exam en de Ia flore. Bref,. I' Alsace n'etait
ni un desert, ni une steppe au moment du dep6t de Ia potasse, c'etait un pay!>
boise avec des cums d'eau, et rien n''indique la presence ou le vioisinage
d'une mer.")
It seems then, that under certain favorable conditions of con-
centration the precipitation of soluble salts (including sylvite !!) can
take place even in very large amounts under almost any quantity of
rainfall, provided there is a definite dry season and an adequate
physiographic setup.
168
Cast.s of cryst a ls of soluble salts are infrequently f ound in t he
Triassic of the Connecticut Valley. Emerson (1895) r eports cavi-
ties representing halite crystals, some of them fill ed with calcite, at
vVest Springfield, \7\Tilbraham and Holyoke, Massachusetts. Abel
(1926) described as ice-crystals some cast s which later proved t o be
gypsum. Glauberite has not been discovered as yet in the Connecti-
cut Valley, but is reported as occurring throughout the Triassic of
Kew J ersey and P ennsylvania (Hawkins, 1928; \Vherry, 1916 ; etc. ) .
It occurs throughout the entire Triassic section but only as isolated
cast s whi ch do not exceed a frequency that can be satisfact orily ac-
counted f or by a mode of formation like the one operative in Cuba
at the present time.
Glauberite has not been mcntionc1l by Dennett and Allison. How-
ever, glauberite is less soluble than halite and is precipitated bef ore
halite from a solut ion. Gale writes ( 1914, p. 293) :
"Glauberite belon g (s) t o a clas s of less readily wa ter-s oluble s alines . . .
a mong the first to be deposited with the concentration of the water. " '
Hence glauuerite, as all indicator of evaporation , is less significant
than halite.
The abund ance of calcite in continental deposits has been fre-
quently associated with a low precipitation. Such a broacl interpre-
tation is not in harmony with t he general rule of the predominance
of process oYet environment. It is also di sproved by recently pub-
lished descriptions of caliche-like calcite and silica layers from the
humid tropics. Freise (as quot ed by Sapper , 1935, p. GO) mentions
larg:e-scale rapid calcitization and sili cication of soil mat erial and
sedimentary det.rit.ns in the coast r anges of Brazil in a region with
a seasonal rainfall of 79 inchc.s per year. The famous "Kankar" of
the Punjab may occur not. only in the Inrlian desert, bnt. also in re-
gions with a rain f all of 30 inches if linwstones j o1'1n 1n110h of the
bedl'oclc _15
Calcite is frequently and abnnclantly found at many places in the
Connecticnt. Tri assic. Usually it is definitel y of intra stratal secon-
dary ori gin and r eplaces f eldspars to a considerable degree (in the
way described uy Gilligan). The int rodncecl charact er of this varie-
t y of calcite becomes apparent from the fact that it occurs most. com-
monly and abundantly at places where fi ssures favored the circula-
ti on of solutions : contact planes, f ault planes, et c. Authigeni c bar-
Hi The associa tion of limestones with cali che deposit s has been deter
mined in a recent restudy of the cali che deposits of Arizona and New Mexko
by Armstrong Price (1944). Also a typical IRe cent caliche deposit was dis.
covered in central Pennsylva ni a on Ordovicia n limestone by P. D. Krynine
in 1941 (unpublished observation). This deposit extends intermittently for
severa l 1wndred yards along Spring Creek nea r Bellefonte. The rainfall of
Centre County where this cali che depos it is located is 39 inches per year,
uniformly distributed and the yearly temperature is 49 F.- a very humid
climate.
ite also occurs at such places. Some of the c alcareous cement,
ever , is of dubious origin. On a quantitative basis 80 per cent of
the specimens examined (outside of the limestones ) do not effer-
Yesce " ith acid and of the remaining 20 per cent at least three-
quarters are definitel y r elated t o fi ssures and the cal cite in them is of
late, secondary origin (see Tabl e 17). Thi s secondary calcite is very
abumlant and conspicuous. It will be seen. hence, that not over 10
per cent of the specimens possess in very small amounts a calcareous
cement of somewhat dubi ous origin. Now here does this cement sug-
gest a cali che. 1\fnch of the calcite in the Tria ssic shales occurs as
small seconclnry oval-shaped concretions (Plate XVIII-B) rather
similar . to the concretions of the Connecticut glacial clays described
by Tarr (193:3) . In conclnsion it can be said that the calcareous ma-
t erinl of the Trinssic sedinlCnts, while prorniJient and of frequent
occurrence, is not of snch type as to inclicate a primary origin under
sub-a erial semi-nrid comlitions. It is at best similar t o the secondary
calci t e of the Siwalik beds.
The climatic sign ifi canee of the limestone beds has a 1 ready been
reviewed in the section on black shales. It may be added. though, that
Branner (1911) has describe(} the extensi\e formation of a r ecent
limestone in contemporaneous strcnm channels in the province of
Bahia (Brazil). The climat e of the area has been r eferred to as
"semi -ariel." but an exnmination of meteorologic on the r egion,
as suppli ed in Vol11mc 3 of Kiippen' s "Handhtwh cl er Klimatologie"
(K. Knoch, Klimakunde Yon Sudamerika, 1930), di scloses that the
only weather station present within Branner's limestone area (Morro
de Chapeo) hn s a rainfall of 35 inches per yea r and a mean t empera-
ture of only G6o F., i. e., its climate is defi nitel y hun1irl.
P ossible Climati c Significance
of the Lava Flows
The lower part of the lower lava sheet shows everywhere a pil-
l ow structure nnd in many places brecciated pocket s of volcanic ag-
glomerate which appear to be the r esult of local st eam explosions.
Both these features haYe been accepted as evidence that the erup-
tion took plaee over a surfaee covered with water of Yarying depth
(as judged by the different intensity of the phenomena mentioned
above) . A caref ul st ncl y of the sediments exposed under the lava
shows that they are normal arkoses and conglomerates of fluviatile
origin, most of which rnust have been sub-aerially exposed on inter-
ftnves at the time of the eruption. There is no evidence \Yhntever of
any lacustrine or e\ en swamp deposits below the lava. Nevertheless,
the surface of the basin was nniversall y eovered with
water , judging by the ubiquitous presence of the pill ow structure.
A possible explanation is that the emption of the lower lava
took place at the height of the rainy season when the ground was .en-
1'70 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey . [Bull.
tirely water-soaked and covered with numerous puddles and pools.
Such complete soaking is a feature of a savanna during the period
of the rains: the surface of the ground then becomes a morass, abso-
lutely impassable for any kind of traffic. Such thorough and com-
plete soaking can best be accounted for if a heavy rainfall is assumed.
E vidence of Glacial Action
Since the days of Dana (1883 ), who once was somewhat partial
to the idea of glacial acti vity in the Connecti cut Valley Triassic, t hi s
possibility has recei ved scant considerat ion. Recently Bain (1932)
sugp;ested the exi st ence of a high glaciated mountain chain northeast
of the Triassic trough in Massachusetts. Hi s evidence is not conclu-
sive, being based mostly on several scratched pebbles thought to be
of glacial ori gin. The presence of high glaciers not ver y far away
from the Triassic basin is not impossible, but is not in harmony with
evidence bearing on the climate of the basin itself and its immediate
vicinity. It would, however- if t r ue-be a possible additional ex-
pl anation of some of the unweather ed feldspars of the Massachusetts
Triassic. Ne,ertheless, inasmuch as Bain's structural interpretation
of the Mt. Toby r egion and the hypothetical glaciated chain north-
east of it has not been accepted, either by Professor Longwell or the
present writer, it seems permi ssibl e to disregard any possible effects
of glaci ation on the Tria ssic of the northern part of the Connecticut
Valley.
E vidence of Eolian Action
Barton (1916, p. 442) reports that in the Connecticut Triassic,
some . mudstones "show glazed surfaces." Smooth mudstones and
shales are common at all horizons of the Newark. Their smoothness
or "glazing," as Barton puts it, is however a very subj ective thing,
and does not appear to have been due to any marked eolian action.
All the "glazed" surfaces seen in t he Triassic can be explained as due
to rapid drying of mud after superfi cial wetting. The same sort of
thing is common today. At that, a certain amount of glazing by
sandstorms over mudflat s during the dry season on the savanna is
f ar from impossible.
Pitted and frosted, ped ectl y rounded quartz gr ains have been
di scovered in very small numbers among the basal beds of the New
H aven arkose at Roaring Brook and Dawson Lake. They may repre-
sent the remnants of an old sedimentary cover over the pre-Newark
peneplane. when Triassic deposition began they were incorporated
in the lowermost New Haven beds. Hence they are the product s of
an older climatic cycle and have no bearing upon the Newark climate.
They may be even older, inherited from Paleozoic orthoquartzites.
Triassic Fauna
Character The fossils reported from the Connecticut Triassic
comprise fresh-water shells, one insect , numerous trails,
171
fishes, and terrestrial vertebrates. A listing of the different species
and an interpretation of their probable habitat follow.
Mollusca. Two fresh-water forms, Unio wilbrahamensis anrl
Unio C17Wrsoni, have been described from the upper part of the Tri-
assic of Massachusetts. These shells point to the existence of some-
what permanent, rather slowly moving bodies of water.
Insects. From the Upper Triassic of Turner Falls, Massachu-
setts, and from l\iiddleto,vn, Connecticut,IG comes M ormo"Vuco'ides
mticnlattts Hitchcock, which, according to Lull ( 1915, p. 33) :
"has been described as the aquatic larva of a neuropterous insect, hence
again implying the presence of water of some duration. If the period
of larval life was equivalent to that of the eu)Jhemerida of today, the water
must have continued not one season alone, but three. This may,however,
have been an annual insect the larval life of which would require but a
transitory stream."
Invertebrate trails. Up to 52 species of invertebrate trails have
been described by E. Hitchcock in his "Ichnology of New England"
and the later supplements added to it. These species are distributed
in the following way:
Hexapod A1thropoda, 8 genera, 24 species.
Inferior Arthropoda (including larval forms and worms), 10
genera, 1 G species.
Mollusca, 4 genera, 6 species.
Questionable species, 5 genera, 6 species.
All these trails were undoubtedly formed by continental animals,
but a review of the literature did not prove illuminating as to their
probable habitat and preferred environment.
Fishes. Ganoicl fishes occur in the black-shale horizons of the
Meriden formation. These fishes have been studied by numerous in-
vestigators and the results have been summarized by Eastman (1911).
Six genera and twenty species have been reported. These fishes, and
especially their extreme abundance, indicate the permanence of many
petnHment water bodies.
Terrestrial vertebrates are represented by scarce skeletal remains
and by numerous footprints. The vertebrate skeletons are all rep-
tilian and represent four genera and eight species. They come from
eleven localities and are well distributed stratigraphically throughout
the Triassic. It may prove interesting to discuss them in chronologi-
cal stratigraphic order.
In the New Haven arkose are found the remnants o:f phytosaurs
and aetosaurs. The phytosaurs were "large diapsid reptiles, strongly
resembling the Crocodilia in external fonn and habit." Also, they
I<> Specimen from latter locality may not be in situ.
172 Connecti cut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
" were more OL' less aquatic, inhabiting the fresh water l akes and rivers
of the Triassic period" (McGr egor , 190G, p. 92) . Their Connecticut
representati,e was R1ttiodon (Bclodon ) validus, whi<h has been
found at Simsbury. Rutiodon was about 12 feet long, a nd
to L nll (1\Jl:) . p. 112):
"was further cha r act erized by a long attenuated, gavial-like snout and
slender conical teeth. Modem gavials of doubtless s imil ar feeding habits
are found in the large India n river s and in t he Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and
Borneo, and fee d almost exdusively on fish .
"The presence of R utiodo11 7Ht!idus at Simsbury implies the exis tence
during earl y Newark time of a lar ge river or fresh water lake containing
sufficient fi sh for the maintena nce of animals some of which were about 12
feet in l ength."
The family Aetosanriclae is r epresented by 8tcgomus arcu.atus,
the remnants of whi ch were found. in Fair Haven in a coarse-grained
r eddish arkcse. The habitat of Stego1n1ts mcurrtus is rather obscure
as yet.
Further skeletal r emains occnr only in the P ortland formation .
They include another aetosaur, and several din osaurs. The aetosanr
is S t egmn1ts longipes, from Longmeadow, ?\Iassachusetts. Thi s is a
small t errestrial r eptile, six times smaller than Stegomus mcuat'us ,
and showing- a di stinct cursorial adaptation. The dinosaurs, most of
them carnivorous, belong- t o the following genera:
A and Podohsawus. They all are forms.
Podol.:esmtrus ''"as (' Sse ntiall y a slt!Hlr r. cnrsorial, camiYorous animal.
Vertebrate footprints. In addition to the scarce skeletal r emains,
innumerable a.ni ma 1 f ootprints occn r in the T riassic. The earli est
dinosaurian footprint s are f onnd in the l ower Meriden formati on,
and they continue to the Yery top of the Newark series. As s ummar-
ized by Professor Lull , the footprints r epresent 44 genera ancl 1:> 8
species. They have been found in enormous numbers ; t he collection
at Amherst Coll ege alone contains 20,000 specimens, that at Yale
Univer sity more than 10,000.
Most of the t ra cks occur in t he Meriden fo rmation and a. con-
siderable nlllnber also in the Portland becls. The Portland forma-
tion has been beautifully exposed by a seri es of large quarri es from
Portland to the north of Massachusetts. Thi s may explain why it
has yielded so footprints whil e the C'Omparati ,ely poorl y ex-
posed New Haven arkose ha s yield.ed none. The ?11eriden formation
is r eplet e with f ootprints. as could be seen Llnring- the construction of
the tunnel at the North Branford rese n oir. This is easy to under-
stand, for conditions of r elatiYe stagnation and r elatively sl ow move-
ment of water were then prevailing and much fine-graineLl plastic
material. faYorable for footprints , was deposited (51 per cent of sec-
t ion). Duri11g Portland time the cond.itions were less fa ,orable than
in the Meriden, but sti ll much more f avorable than durin" New Ha-
ven time (30 per cent of siltstones and shales in the Portl;nd forma-
tion against only 15 per cent in the New Haven arkose) . The main
fa ctor, howe,er, seems to be the lar-ge amount of qna.rrying done in
the P ortland beds.
A quantitntiYe stndy of the relati,e abundance of footprints is
possibl e from thr section through the 11pper l\Ieriden formati on at
the North Branford reservoir t unnrl , described in detail by Thorpe
( n11d rep rod tH ed on page GT. There 344 1/ 2 feet of strata
are exposed, 4!) 1/ 2 feet of t hem ben ring f ootprints ( 12 1/ 2 feet in
reddish nrkoses and siltstones, 17 112 f eet in black and dark-gray
arkoses and sandstones. 5 f eet in r ed shales. ancl 14 f eet in black and
dark shal es ). An analysis of the r elati ,c r atios is given in Table
3. It " ill be srPn from thi s section that where conditions are most
f:tyorabl e for the preservation of footprints (as in fine-grained clas-
ti cs ) the pmwntage of track-bearing beds becomes high (50 per cent
in the reel shalrs. 28 per cent in the black shales, 22 per cent in t he
dark-gray arkoses. ancl12 per cent in the red arkoses ). Probably t he
relatise percentage of footprints assigned t o the finer clastic should
be higher, fo r not infrequently, whil e a print is in a. coarse sediment
as a whole. its fo rmation is clne t o the prrsence of a ver y thin layer of
tenacious coating at the very top of the sanely layer.
S iqnificanre. The fos:-; il renwins fonn rl in the Conn(' cti cnt Val-
ley can be cli,i<hd into two gronps : those belonging to animal s \\'hose
habitat is pretty definite and those pertaining to species whose habi-
tat is debatable or obscure. Among the fi rst are t he fishes, Rutiodon,
and Jl[o?'mOlHcoides, all of whi ch indicate large permanent water
bodies. To the second group must be assigned practically all the
othrr fossil s. The abnnrlance of footprints and the great scarcity of
skelr tal r emains has led to the unfortunate necessity of basing many
of the interpretations on evidence of footprints alone.
Lull states tha.t the nnmber of species represented by footprints
is DS . . Abel (1926) questions thi s number , indi cating that in the same
species differences in footprint s due to age. sex (i. e., weight), speed
of running. etc., may be mi stakenly acce pted as indicating different
species. The argument is interesting, bnt of no particular bea ring
upon paleoclimatic interpretation. for thr abundance of individual s
,rather than of species appears to be the i mportant point in determin-
ing t he amount of t he necessary food supply, and hence of the prob-
able climate.
According to Lnll ( p. iH), most of the footprints arc to be con-
siclerc<l as fa voring arid conditions:
"From t he comp.act type of rfoot , long stride, sometimes suddenly length-
ening marvelously, and the narrow trackway of the many species, it can be
easil y seen that the eharacter of speed and great traveling powers imposed
by the desert was here at a hi gh premium . ... Bipedality among lizards of
today is, so far as I am awar e, confined to denizens of semi-desert environ.
ment . .. . That water was r are and at a premium when the rains did come is
evidenced by th e fr equency of the associaUon of rainprints with the dinosau-
rian t racks and the above mentioned mudcracks whi ch followed the passage
of the animaL"
li4
[Bull.
However, the fact that the celebrated Tymnnosau?'us rex
1
to-
gether with many other bipedal dinosaurs, lived in a humid envlron-
ment indicates the necessity for revising thi s interpretation. It may
be that bipedality among carni vorous dinosaurs is only a convenient
fighting posture, regardless of habitat .. On the other hand, Raymond
(1D27, p. 244) interprets the faunal evidence thus:
"Now it is obvious that the carnivores cuuld not !have fed entirely upon
each other, hence a large herbivorous population, very much larger than the
flesh eating one is indicated and these animals must have been aJbundant
because o.f the abundance o! vegetation. A semi-arid r egion could not have
Sllll[lorted the population indicated by the footprints in the Connecticut Valley,
and it is ve ry unlikely that so narrow a valley had one C'lim:ate a nd the
adjacent highlands, which were not mounta ins another .... The abundance o!
carnivores was probably as great .an incentive to the acquirement of bipedality
in running as would be the necessity of travel for water ."
In addition, in hi s discussion with Glock, Raymond ( 1927, p.
158) suggests that the carnivores, being more active and travelling
much more than the herbivores, w.ould be liabl e to leave more t racks
outside of the vast grasslands where the herbivorous population re-
sided and where tracks could not form very well. The discovery by
Thorpe (1928) at the North Branford reservoir of Eubront es g-igan-
teus, apparently an herbivorous dinosaur 20 feet long, lends weight
t o the presumed exist ence of a large herbivorous population which,
on account of its sluggish way of life, may have left fewer footprints
on the mudflats along the shores of streams than did the fast-travel-
ling and active camivorous animals.
This introduces the necessity of evaluating the footprints on a
quantitatiYe basis. The footprints are extremely abundant and the
ratio of track-bearing layers is also high. ( See Table 3 and preced-
ing pages.)
Such an abundance of footprints naturally suggests an abundant
fauna. An objection to this is, that a single animal may leave a very
large number of footprints on a 'Yet mudflat (Davi s, 1898, p. 36).
This, ho,vever, is only partially true when applied to the thin, quickly
drying mud layers of the Connecticut Triassic. An animal would
have (]ifficnlti es in l e v i n ~ more than one or at most two, trails upon
such a quick-clryinp: mud layer . ''T e find , however , at many places
in the Triassic section se rri ed batteries o footprints, trail next to
trail, in very great numbers, nll upon the same horizon. Thi s sug-
p:ests that, at least at cert ai n localities, animals were very abundant.
It does not prme, hmYeYer, Raymond's idea o a very large animal
population in the valley as a whole. It might have been that the
great abundance of footprints at certain localities indicates only that
the animals were congr egati ng around water holes (as they do in
Africa) and that they were tar less teeming over the whole area than
llaymond vwnld suppose. This congre!!ating may have easily taken
place during the droughts of the rainless season. On the other hand,
during the dry season the mudflats probably would be hard and dry
No. 73]
175
and could receive footprints only with difficulty. The thinness o:f
most of the Triassic mud layers -suggests (but does not conclusively
prove) that the footprints were made between rains rather than dur-
ing long periods of drought on a slowly drying thick layer of mud.
Thi s would permit an interpretation of the numerous footprints as
evidence of a roaming and abundant fauna. Among such a fauna
the presence of a larp:e herbivorous population to support the num-
erous carnivores remains a necessity.
Professor Huntington (personal communication) suggests a
method to solve this question somewhat similar to Raymond's way,
namely, to find among the climates uncl er which arkoses and r ed beds
can form, one ca pable of providing a su ffi cient amount of vegetation
to support these dinosaurian hordes all the year ronnel. It must also
be remembered that some of these creatures were of very large size and
probably needed considerable food. Approaching the problem from
thi s angle, it will be readily seen that the climatic classifications cur-
rent among geologists (Barrell, 1908; Blackwelder, 1917; Twenhofel,
1926 and 1033) are entirely too schemati c to be of much use. On the
other hand, J(i)ppen's clnssifieation ( 1030), although well nigh per-
fect , is much too complex and involved to be used successfully in this
particular problem. An adeCJnate classifi cation, simplified after
Koppen, has bePn cleYised by Hnntington (1933), and is used in ab-
breviated form in the following paragraphs.
It is not difiicult to see that arkoses and red beds can o r n ~ in
large quantities in only a few climatic environments, such as :
1) vVet nnd dry low latitndes (savanna) closely adjoinino- a
hilly, wet tropical region. "'
2) Deserts (reel beds must be imported, not of local derivation) .
3) Reg:ions ?f :Mediterranean type (such as the Great Valley of
Cahforma.).
li A description of the size of the animal population found on a present-
day savanna should prove to be interesting. Quoting Huntington (1933,
P. 246):
"The grassy pl ains a nd hills of the wet and Dry Low Latitudes; are
the El Dorado of animal life, especially in Africa. The tall and abundant
grass supports millions of herbivorous animals such as antelopes of a ll
sizes from little creatures no bigger than a cat up to the great harte-
beest and gnu. These in turn provide food for thousands of fieshea-ters,
including the lion of Africa, tohe tiger in Asia, and the jaguar in South
America. Here roam enormous herds o! striped zebras, and longnecked
giraffes among which ostrich.es with waving plumes may often be seen.
The dangerous African buffalo char ges the hunter suddenly out of a screen
of grass. Elephants, in spite of the ivory hunters, can still be found in
large numbers. Along the rivers the hippopotamus divides his time be-
tween iand anrl wa.ter, and crocodiles sun t hemselves on the banks. Jackals
and vultures live on the bodies of dead or dying animals. The photo-
graphs taken by men like Martin Johnson prove that the extraordinary
big game stories of explorers and travelers rfrom Livingstone to Roosevelt
are not fantastic."
li6
4) Chinese monsoon region.
5) Temperate grasslands, if m a piedmont zone (with diffi-
culty) .
Among nll these possible choices, there is only one r egion that
can make any substantial claims ns to its capacity to support a large
animal population nll the year around, especially if thi s populatio_n
is cold blooded. Thi s r egion is a savanna (wet and dry low lati -
tudes ) Y
T o be quite fair, it is necessary to mention that the earl y r eports
gi,,e glowing descriptions of the animal life that temecl in the semi-
ariel parts of California before the advent of the white man. The
California fauna, ho1venr, did not include any Yery large herbivores
comparable in size t o Ot ozoU1n :mel E1dnont es. On the other hand,
present-day mammals probably consume more food than dinosaurs
of equal size, for the sluggi sh habit s of large reptiles reduce their
food r equirements.
Th.i s discuss ion shmrs that an interpretation of the Triassic
climate based on animal footprints is contro,er sial nml
It is possible to harmonize the footprints either with a semi -ariel or
a savanna climate. Of these two hypotheses the second one (savanna)
appears, however, to be more creel i ble, for it is based on simpler rea-
soning and a less subtl e interpretation of facts.
In conclusion. tll l' infrrenC' es mny be drawn frolll the
Trinssie fauna of the Vnll c?:
1) Some of the fossil s are aquatic (fishes, Rutioclon, !lf ouno-
lucoicles ) an<l ind icat e large aml permanent water bodi es.
2) The habitat of the othrr animals hns not been positively
proved and is open to (1i scussion. Some of them, howeYer, arc ex-
tremely large herbivorous forms.
3) The total numbers of the animal population cannot be con-
clusively demonstrated but nppenr to have been great. In order to
support such a large r eptilian popnlation all the year around, nn
abundant vegetation nncl a rmiformly warm climate nrc indi cated.
Trias. ic Flora
Description. Plant remains are widely, but sparsely, di stributed
in the Triassic of Connecticut. F oss il wood can be founL1 from the
clark arkoscs at Forestville (approximately 1,500 f eet abo,-c the base
of the lower New Haven arkose ) llp to the Yery top of tlw
section along the plane of the Great Fault at any number of places
from East Portland to Lake Quonnipaug. In the Pomperaug valley
large silicifi ed tree trunks (25 x tiO em.) are present near the base of
the formation , almost but not quite in situ. But, if fossil plants are
No. 73]
177
found practically at all horizons of the Newark, they occur in great
numbers only in the dark shale members of the Meriden formation.
Davis and Loper give the following list of plants from these shales:
1) From the "anterior" shales (lower Meriden f ormation) :
Conifers- 3 species
Cycada-3 species
Equisetales- 1 species
Ferns-1 species
Calarnitelike stems with head
Loperia carolinens is, a pl ant "pr obably monocotyledonous, perhaps
aquatic" (Newberry, 1888)
2) From the shales (upper Meriden formation) :
Cycada- 4 species
Equisetales- 1 species
Loperia carolinensis
Since Da.Yi s's time, it has been shown t hat the black shales of the
upper Meriden formation ("posterior shales") do not form one single
narrow horizon, but are spread o,et.' se,eral hundred feet of strata.
:M. R. Thorpe (1D:28, p. 2Si"i) thtt s dl' seril>cs the flora collected from
the site of the Xorth Branford rescrYoir.
"The remains of vegetation collected at the s ite of the dam a nd in
the Sugar Loa;f Tunnel were submitted to Dr. G. R. Wieland. There are three
horizons: the bl ack shale (Horizon DB) at the dam, t he tough gray sand.
stone (Horizon TA) at the West Portal and, much higher in the series, the
black shale (Horizon TH) , a bout three-fourths of the di s t ance easterly through
the tunnel in ascending order. The fir st is characterized by wha t seems to
be Loperia, the second by Baiera., while the uppermost horizon c"Ontains huge
quantities or wood, but in a fragmentary crushed conrliUon."
Outside of the black shales, plant r emnants are few. Lull says
(1915, p. 48) that:
"In addition to these plants of t he black shale, certain footprint localities
have produced ferns, as Tac11i opteris in the gr ay sandstones of Mount Hoi
yoke, and a. very doubtful one described as Clat hroj>l eris at Mount Tom and
at Gill, though Fontaine concludes that neither of these is Cla.th ropteris, but
probably D-ictyophyllum or CamjJtopteris.
Field' s Orchard quarry a t Gi ll bas a lso produced a cune which may be
the conifer Palis.<)a, and twigs of Chci1olcj>is muenstcri. There is a lso a
Palissya.-like c\Jnifer impressed upon the gray shale from the Horse Race
quarry at Montague. 'Vith t:he possible exception of the Mount T:om and
Mount Holyoke specimens, these are all from !oocalities in the upper series
of sandstones and shales, and are therefore much younger than either the
antertor or posterior shal es."
Lull suggest s that possibly plant remains are more abundant out-
side o the dark shales than has been thought so far (1915, p. 47) :
"In this connection mention should be made of a small slab of gray
shale, preserved in the Peabody Museum at Yale, from the {ootprint locality
at the Horse Race, Montague, Massachusetts, one surface of whi ch is covered
by a mass of fragments o f vegetation consisting in the main of twigs and
stems of conifers. They a re very distinctly seen because of the film of
carbonaceous material which still adheres to most o! the impressions; but
I believe that, i! the carbon had not been preserved, or if a monotone cast
were taken of the surface, the plant remains would hardly be recognized as
such at all. This would account for much of the apparent dearth of plant
remains except in the black bituminous shale bands in which oxidation has
been carried to a relatively slight extent as compared with the red shale
and sandstone strata."
Abundant, but poorly preserved remnants of what appear to be
Equi setal es haYe been di scovered by the writer in the upper New
Haven reustone in the gorge of the Q.uinnipiac River, near Cheshire
Street ( loc. 35).
Oli111,atic Significance. The flora of the Connecticut Triassic
has been interpret ed as t ha t of a semi-ariel flood plain (Barrell, 1908,
p. 214):
"The strong oxidati-on a,cting at the sul'face normally dest!'loys all vege-
table tissues before they become buri ed in the course of time below the deep
zone of oxidation."
And also :
"The herbaceous types of vegetation, however, are the more common
over the well-drained portions of truly semi-arid fi,ood plains and the plant
impressions recorded in the strata would frequently be of small size corn-
pared to the la r ge and luxuriant vegetable forms <Of more rainy climates."
From these arguments it would be easy to conclude that the
fossil record points to a semi-arid climate during most of the Triassic,
the black shales representing either lake beds (Lull) or limited humid
periods.
However, it is not difficult to see that a solution of the problem
based upon Barrell's interpretation of the vegetation of semi-arid
flood plains omits the possibility that essentially similar results and
a very similar fossil record can just as easily be produced under a
very humid tropical climate, providing that well-defined wet and dry
seasons are present. There we have thorough oxidation instead of
moderate oxidation. The presence of marshes 2,500 square miles in
extent necessary to account for the black shales and their flora can
also be easily understood in such a region.
Such a climate of the savanna type is observed in t he tropies on
the border line of rainy forest belts, or on the leeward side of trade
wind belts. It is characterized by a constant high t emperature and
by a seasonal rainfall. In such a savanna belt conditions of great
aridity prevail during the dry season. It i s literally possible to die
of thirst for lack of water during the three rainless months in a
r egion where the rainfall is above 100 inches per year. The ground
water table flnctnates considerably according to the season. Thus,
atmospheric solutions can easily penetrate downward and deep oxi-
dation and destruction of organic matter take place.
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 17J
The dry season in the savanna belt does not permit the universal
development of a thi ck jungle forest. Instead, th,ere is a semi-
xerophilous vegetation of grass and low shrubs with some drought-
resistant trees, for the water table sinks deeply in the dry season.
Along streams and lakes, however , a luxuriant and extensiYe vege-
tation of the fo rest type is to be found, but the soil under this jungle
is still red. The fossil record of such a vegetative cover will hardly
differ from that postulated by Barrell for the vegetation of a semi-
arid flood plain.
In order to obtain more light on the subject the expert opinion
of a paleobotanist was sought. In nn oral commnni cation Dr. G. R.
'Wieland made substantiall y the following stat ements :
1) The plant remains of the Connecticut Triassic are f ew in
number and r emote from the present fl om as t o character. Hence
any interpretati on basel! upon the flora must be cautious and cannot
be considered to be absolutely final.
2) Keeping these limitation;; in mind, certain conclusions can
b_e drawn on the basis of the a vailnble plant remains. These conclu-
sions are :
a) Amon:.r the Triassic floras of the world. certain plants
(small-leaved t ypes) suggest aridity or semi-aridity (German Trias),
other species ( megaphalous t ypes ) indi cat e a humid jungle climate
(Virginia Triassic) , others finally suggest an intermediate environ-
ment (savanna). The latter are fonnd (trul y onl y in limited amounts)
in the Connecticut Triassic outside of the clark shale beds (such as
the fossil leaf r ecently discovered in the railroad cut near Branford).
b) The flora of the clark shales can best be accounted for by a
humid climate with plenty of rainfall. It is improbable that such a
flora could have exi sted al ong streams on a semi-ariel flood plain.
c) The character of the flora suggest s a wanner climate than
the present one, not necessarily a tropi cal one, but possibly sub-
tropical or Yery warmly temperate.
General Character of the Fossil Record
Conspicuous f eatures of the Connecticut Triassic are:
1) An abundance of plant and fi sh remains in the clark shales.
2) An extraordinar y abundance of animal footprints both with-
111 and outside of the dark shales.
3) An almost complet e a bscnce of plant remains outside of the
clark shales and an extreme scarcity of skeletal remains anywhere
(barely a dozen specimens known).
The locally abundant presence of plants and fi shes and the in-
numer able f ootprints found almost everywhere suggest that the gen-
180
eral absence of fossils is due not to the original lack of life, but
rather to the lack of preservation of its r emains. This usually is the
result of destruction by chemi cal decay before burial. Chemical decay
takes place best in a hot and hwmid climate.
At the present time the most potent chemical action on the
ea rth's surface is found in a tropical sayanna with a hen,y seasonal
rainfall. The high temperature and the extreme humidity are very
fayorable for bacterial growth an(l the alternating, thor ough soaking
and complete drying of the ground also contribute to the very
thoroul,!h oxidation occurring in snch regions. Chemical action on a
savanna i!:i infinitely more potent than on a semi-arid flood plain
where the low rainfall docs not provicle bacteria with enough
moi sture.
The reducing emironment of the Meriden dark beds was ,cry
fa,orable for the presenation of orga nic remains. Unfortunately
these dark shales have neve r ueen extensiYely quarrit(l and ha,e not
been thoroughl y sea rchecl for Yertebrate remains uy t rained \YOrkers.
It seent s reasonable to pre(li d that if such a search is ever made
many pleasa nt surpri ses will be in store for vertebrate paleontologists,
for of the entire Triassic section the l\leriden swamp beds are the
most l ogical place for skeletal remains to be preserved.
Probaule Clin1:1t e of the Newark Epoch
The total length of the Triassic period has ueen est imated at
30,000,000 year s. The Kewark epoch, which lasted apparentl y only
during Upper Triassic time, was t herefore much shorter. However , it
poss ibl y lastPd for se\eral ntiliion yea rs . .JJany clinmtic changes may
take place during snch a long period of time. NeYertheless, as judged
by the homogeneous character of the sediments. it seems that these
changes must haYe been rather in the nature of fluctuations (possibly
at times fairly prononnced) su peri m posefl on a geneml elimatic
background.
It is suggest ed that thi s general bac.kground \Yas one of a r ela-
tiYely high uniform temperature, and pronounced but seasonally dis-
tributed rainfall , a climate of the type fonncl at the present in tropi cal
and sub-tropical saYanrt-a regions. These conclusions are based upon
the following fa ct s :
1) Ext<J nsive red beds eontaining locally tlerived ted detritus
suggest st rongly a " ann and hnmid climate.
2) \Videspreacl S\Vamp deposits covering thousands of square
miles in warm regions are not known at the ptesent outside of humid
di strict s.
3) Differ ential pre-diagnostic we a the ring of local sedimentary
detritus and the interbedding of variegated, alternative fresh and
decayed layers is a f eature of sedimentation in a savanna or monsoon
climate close to a rugged source area.
No. 73}
4) Large-scale arkose deposits can easily form and be preserved
in an extremely humid climate if the rainfall is seasonal and an ade-
quate highland t-opography is at hand.
5) The same is true of fanglomerates. Local red detritus and
organic material within the fanglomerates themselves confirm this
VIeW.
G) The abundance of desiccation marks suggest s a marked dry
season.
7) Crystal casts of halite, glauberite, and gypsum also strongly
suggest a marked dry season but are compatible with a rainfall of
50 inches or more if a hot dry season of at least two or three months'
duration is a feature of the climate.
8) The structure of the lower lava sheet nmy suggest extrusion
upon a thoroughly water-soaked land snrface.
9) There I S no sati sfactory evidence either of glaciation or
eolian action.
10) Part of the Triassic fauna imli t: atps the presence of large
permanent water bodi es. The habit at of the rest is debatable or ob-
scure. The total numbers of the reptilian population can be under-
stood best if a warm lllunid ditnate is as.sumed to account for the large
amount of vegetation necessary to support snch a popnlation, which
included very large herbivorous forms.
. 11) The flora of the Connecticut Valley Triassic can best be
explained by a warm humid climate of the savanna type.
The concept of a hot a.nd humid saYanna climrite with a heavy
but seasonally di stributed rainfall thus accounts for all the f eatures
of the Triassic sedimentary record, an<l it does so without r esorting
to "an ingenious straining of nature's laws."
18
Having establi she(l the climate and the general ordPr of magni-
tude for rainfall and t emperatnre. a somewhat closer determination
of numeri cal valnPs for these climati c components will prove to be
a fa scinating, if somewhat speculati,e task. Recognized as such, the
following line of reasoning is offered:
1) Red soils, especiall y lateritic, can be accepted as evidence
for a minimum temperature of 55 or 600 F. and a rainfall in excess
of 40 inches per year.
2) Crystals of soluble salts are known to occur under a climate
with a rainfall slightly in excess of 50 inches, a dry season of 2 or 3
months, and a mean temperature of 75o to 800 F.
3) Arkose deposits haYe also been reported from a region with
a somewhat similar climate (mean t emperature 80 F. and a dry
season of 3 months ) but with a higher rainfall (in excess of 75
inches ). The relief of the folded tropical foothills where present-day
arkosic detritus originates is very . steep, but it is probable that the
I S Quoting one of Professor Lull "s for ceful expre ss ions (1915).
r elief due to a fault scarp would be even steeper, thus possibl y re-
ducing the amount of water necessary t o produce the same erosive
work.
As a t enabl e snpposition, it seems probable that a rainfall
of GO or 70 inches in the drainage area of the fault scarp would be
sufficient to cut thtongh YC!!;ctati on ancl by rapid " ,ertical " erosion
offset the chemi cal effects of a tropi cal climate. The elevation of the
fault scarp wns apparently quite moderate, but still it may have
r eached several hundred f eet. Hence the rainfall in the valley itself
may have been ns low as 50 inches.
A sa,anna climate of that t,vpe-with a uniforml y high t empera-
ture aroun(l 80 F. a t otall y ra.inless flry season lasting at least ~
months (and possibly longer) , and a hea\'.)' rainfall exceeding 50
i n ~ h e s (and possibl y much more) in the vall ey proper and in excess
of GO or 70 inehes (or much more) in the erosion regi on of the scarp
-seems t o be ent irely compatible with all the facts of the Triassic
sedimentary record.
A rainfall of :'\ 0 inches must be considered as close t o a minimum,
but it may ha ,.e been much higher. No difference, so far as the sedi-
mentary record goes, would exi st between an absolute rainfall o 50
inches and one o 125, or possibly 150 inches. There is, however, an
upper limit, for when the precipitation assumes extraordinary pro-
portions, of the order of 200 inches or more, the dry season usually
becomes so abbreviated as to render the preservation of desiccation
marks problematical.
CHAPTER VII
SEDIMENTATION AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY
l:\'l'RODUC'T0X
It has been shown in previous chapters that:
1) The Triassic basin of deposition was a trough formed by the
subsidence of a wedge-shaped downfaulted block bordered on the
east by a steep, but only moderately high, fault scarp. The surface
of this t rough possessed a westward slope suffi cient to maintain a
good drainage most of the time.
2) The source area of the Triassic, immecliately east of the
Great Fault. "as tnacl e 11p of granitic rocks with sltbor<.linate meta-
morphic formations. Depending 11]1011 the degree of weathering suf-
f ered by the parent material within the source area, thi s material
entered the basin of deposit ion either as fresh, coarse-grained arkosic
dctritns (quartz and mnch f eldspar), or as a greatly altered, fine-
grained kaoliniti c and gibbsite-bearing l ateritic clay, heavil y loaded
with red hematitic pigment.
3) The climate during the Newa rk epoch was probably hot and
humid with a heavy but seasonally di stributed rainfall and a marked
dry season.
These structural and climatic data., coupled with the t estimony
provided by the lithology of the sediments, make possible a r eason-
ably accurate r econstruction of the processes of sedimentation be-
lieved to have taken place in the Connecticut Valley during Newark
time.
1\fooEnN AxALOGJES FOR THE TmASSTc BAs iN 01<' CoNNECTICUT
Difficulties of Compari son
Inasmuch as the present is the key, or rather the clue, to the
past, it is usual , when commenting upon conditions thought to have
existed in former times, to provide as an illustration some suitable
analogy from the recent. Sometimes a certain association of struc-
tural and climatic features believed to have occurred in the past can
be exactly duplicated in the present. More often, especially if those
conditions were highly specialized, they may be duplicated singly,
but not as a combination. Then, in order to be valid, a comparison
between the past and the present must be properly qualified as to
what elements are being compared-i.e. , structure, climate, t opog-
raphy, or lithology.
The Great Vall ey of Ca lifornia and to a lesse r extent Owens
Valley and othm parts of the Great Basin are the favorit e modern
184
[BulL
analogies of the Newark basin offered in the literature. Great red
arkosic alluvial fans are a common feature both of the Great Valley
and the Newark basins ; fanglomerates and arkoses in a faulted basin
of deposition seem t o connect the Basin Ranges with the Triassic of
Connecticut. These features are superfi cially comparable, but a brief
analysis will show that any further general extension of the analogy
between the Connecticut Triassic and the California basins-for in-
stance as t o climate-can be made only with the greatest of caution.
The reason f or thi s is, that the Great Vall ey of California and Owens
Valley are not simple units, but are made up of several different
elements (mountain slope and valley floor), each of these elements
being a di stinct structural , topographic, and climati c province.
Furthermore, certain sedimentary features within these regions, ap-
parently of r ecent origin, are really of Pleistocene pluvial age and
bear no r elation Yvhatsoever to present climatic conditions.
The Great Valley of California
The Great Valley basin
19
consist s of:
1) The west ern slope of the Sierra Nevada , a wide ( 40 t o 70
miles ) , moderately rugged r egion with a seasonally humid climate
(rainfall 2-5 to 100 inches per year , wit h an average of 40 to 50
inches).
2) A broad, flat , semi-arid valley floor.
The r eel detritus which f orms the alluvial fans of the semi- arid
valley fl oor originates in another climatic province among the red
soils of the humid slope of the Sierra, from 25 to 100 miles away and
from 1,500 to 5,600 feet above its place of deposition. The redness
of the sediments is acquired not ir1 the semi-arid province, but in
the humid one.
Owens Valley
Owens Valley, exhaustively described by Knopf (1918) , is a
graben bordered on the east by the precipitous slopes of the Inyo
Range and on the west by the e\en bolder and higher eastern slope
of the Sierra Nevada. These monntains tower -from 5,000 to 8,000 feet
above the valley fl oor. The width of the slope from mountain base
to mountain top is from 6 to 12 mil es. Some alluvial cones begin only
41j
2
miles from the Sierra Nevada crest. The climate of the In yo
Range, valley fl oor , and eastern slope of the Sierra is ariel (3 t o 6
inches of rain per year). However. the drainage of the eastem slope
of the Sierra receives a considerable amount of water from some of
the heavy precipitation about the Sierra crest (up to 40 inches ) , part
of which passes the summit and feeds the glacier s and headwaters
of streams of the eastern slope. This is a somewhat unique set of con-
ditions, and when discussing erosion and sedimentation on the eastern
slope of the Sierra Nevada, it is well to remember that these processes
19 For original descTiptions see the works of Kirk Bryan, Knopf, Reed,
and Lawson. , . II
are the result not only of the arid climate of the region's, but also of
the large volume of water which enters the valley from the Sierra
Nevada.
20
Knopf summarizes the situation thus (pp. 9 and 10) :
"The drainage of the region is derived almost wholly from the Sierra
Nevada .. . . The great alluvia l cones that flank the mountains between which
Owens Valley lies cons titute one of the most s triking features of the r egion.
Their development differs notably on the two sides of the valley ; along the
Sierra Nevada they I()Verlay and form a continuous alluvial slope that merges
almost imperceptibly into the valley floor, but along the Inyo Range they
occur only at the mouths of the canyons and are distinct topographi c units
which stand out in bold contrast to the level floor of the valley."
These alluvial cones of 0\Yens Valley are not r eel; they are gray
or brilliantly white. In many places they contain enormous boulders,
up to 50 f eet in diameter. Boulders 18 by 8 feet haYe been transported
!l miles and boulders 4. feet i.n diamet er form prominent terraces 7
miles away from the Si eita N\iYada (Knopf, p. 53). Such extreme
coarseness and widespread extent of the coarse material can be ac-
cepted as good evidence for Yery high relief and to some extent for
a ve1-y marked dry season, possibly e,en aridity. No fanglomeratic
alluvial cones of comparable extent , color, or coarseness exi st in the
Triassic of Connecticut. The only comparable point between Owens
Valley and any Newark basin is the presence of a border fault scarp .
. The charact er of the detritus, and hence the probable relief and
climate cry.nnot be compared at all .
. . :
20
This is an impo-rtant feature which has been frequently overlooked when
discussing sedimentation in an arid climate. Many of the American deserts
used as illustrations of sedi1111entation under arid conditions are really freak
desert s. It is true that they receive a very scant' rainfall in their depressed
portions, but the volume o f water which enters these ultra-arid basins and
controls sedimentation thereili comes from a relatively considerable pre-
cipitation on the adjoining high mountain slopes. Nevertheless the inference
is f requently made that the rapid and p.owerful sedimenta ry processes which
t ake place in these basins are caused by the very small rainfa]] (1 to 5
inches per year) observed on the .floor of these deserts. In reality sedimen-
tation is the result of the precipitation on the mountain slopes arid' near the
mountain l'Un<mits, where it aimost invr,riably rea;ches at least 10 inches per
year, even in the Jnost ariel s pots of the Great Basin, and usually exceeds
15, 20, or 25 inches and more. When precipitation is really low- as in the
Sahara, a true desert-, then sedimentation is considerably slowed clown, and
often brought to a standstill.
To .make matters worse, ma ny of the sedimentary deposits found on the
fl oor of the des ertic basins of the arid American Southwest me not at all
t1le products of recent sedimentation under arid conditions. They were
formed inst ead, barely 20,000 years ago, during the humid, pluvial period of
the Pleistocene and have been, time and .again, mistaken for recent deposits.
This has led to much confusion in the literature and all statements as to
"arid" sedimentatton in the young American deserts must be regarded with
consid<:lrabl e s uspicion until positive proof is offered tha t the s ediments in
question are the product of a recent and not of a fossil ,cycle of sedimentation.
Sedimentation in authentic old . deserts, i.e., with no pluvial Pleistocene
interludes, has been ailcl still is-extremely meager, at many places almost
nonexistent.
186
Partial Analogy Only Between the California Examples and
the Triassic Basin of Connecticut
In order to compare properly recent sedimentation in the Cali-
fornia basins and Triassic sedimentation in the Newark trough (Fig.
36) it would be necessary, first of all, to turn the Sierra Nevada at
an angle of 1800 so that its faulted eastern slope would face west,
thus receiving the heavy rainfall of the present \Vestern slope. Then
the height of the Si erra should be reduced from five to t en times, to
an altitude of 1,500 feet or less. This new, relatively low and very
narrow, but steep and rugged slope would then replace the present
long and only moderately rugged western slope of the Sierra. It
still would have to receiYe the same amount of precipitation ( 40 to
50 inches ) in order to provide the same reel detritus as does the pre-
sent slope. The low elevation and narrowness of the new slope
(probably even narrower than the faulted slope of Owens Valley)
would unite it into one single climatic p1'ovince with the lowland
where the reel allu Yial fans were forming.
If these qualifications are provided, the sedimentary processes of
the California . basins can be used as a good illustration of the sedi-
mentary processes of the Newark period. It should also be kept in
mind that probably the temperature of Newark time was higher than
the present temperature of California. A simpler and more effective
illustration of Triassic sedimentation can he obtained simply by
transplanting an active basin range into a region with a savanna cli-
mate.
TRIASSIC SEDil\iENTARY PROCESSES
The different lithologic types of the Connecti cut Triassic are
due to variations of one fundamental sedimentary process : rapid
erosion and deposition under a savanna climate.
Erosion was taking in the region of a steep, moderately
high, narrow, periodicall y rejuvenateLl fault scarp. Numerous V-
shapecl canyons provided the fresh, coarse granitic detritus from
which fanglomerates, conglomerates, and arkoses were derived. The
upper , gentler slopes of the canyons, especially the flattish interfluves,
supplied partially \Yeatherecl (iron-coated) sand grains and deeply
decayed, reel , gibbsite-bearing days, for in these portions of the fault
scarp erosion was less acti ,.e and chemical decay prevailed. As
shown by Sapper ( 1935) and Krynine ( Hl 35), in tropical regions of
youthful or topography most of the erosion takes place
within the canyons. Hence a large predominance of fresh over
weathered material, of coarse clastics over fine clay, and of pal-e-
colored over red detritus is to be expected. These expectations are
confirmed by Table 3 and Figures 16 and 17 which summarize the
lithology of the Triassic of Connecti cut.
No. 73]
THREE CLIMATIC PROVINCES
S E M I - A R I D
Great Valley
of California
!IUMID
\"/estern Slope of the
Sierra llevada
v v v
Eastern
Slope
Sierra
Nevada
A R I D
187
lnyo
Range
Red alluvial 1 v "' Red Soils i
Small boulders Source area of red arkosic aetritus
White alluvial fans
Enormous boulders
R E C E N T S E D I 'N E N T A T I 0 N I N C A L I F 0 R N I A
O N E CLIMATIC PROVINCE
P R 0 B A B L Y S E A S 0 N A L L Y H U M I D
Connecticut Valley carp Eastern Highland

1 ...
. . . .... . ....... ..... , 1
Red alluvial fans Red Red Soils?
Small boulders Soils
T R I A S S I C S E D I Y E N T A T I 0 N I N C 0 N N E C T I C U T
Hori zontal Scale:
0 10 20
miles
Vertical Scale:
Thousands of feet
0
10
F ig ur e 36. Differences bet ween forma t ion of r ecent reel beds in the Gr ea t
Vallc v of Cal ifornia and the format ions of the reel Triassic arkoses of Connec-
ti cut: N otc marked cliffcr caces in re li ef a nd distances t o be covered by det r it us
in both rcg!ons.
The contemporaneous existence of two different loci of weather-
ing (with the possible mixing in all proportions of the resulting de-
tritus ) is evident from the occurrence, side by side, even within the
same thin section, of many different stages in the weathering of one
single mineral species ; or even more forcibly, by the simultaneous
existence, again in the same specimen, of fresh pi eces of such utterly
unstable minerals as biotite, orthoclase, or even augite and of deeply
weathered and decayed fragments of such a relatively stable mineral
as microcline.
This difference in the total amount of chemical alteration suf-
fered by the parellt material coming from the interfluves of the Great
Fault scarp as against the detritus originating from the canyon bot-
toms of the same scarp, is due to the fact that while intensity of chem-
?:cal decay was identical in both these two loci of weathering, the time
available j o1 chemical decay to do its work was infinitely shorter at
the bottom of the canyons than along the flatti sh interfluves (Fig-
ures 37, 38, 39).
Undermining
Figure 37. Left. Firs t step in the formation of the Newark detritus: A dou-
ble locus of chemi cal weathering (intensive on the interfluves at the top a nd al-
most nonexi stent within the canyons at the bottom) and concentration of the
physi cal erosion (verti cal or linear type) a t the bottom of the canyons through
impact of boulders a ga inst walls. Intensity of chemical action on intertluves
wa s adequate to produce gibbsite (lateritic weathering) and hematitic concre-
tions. In contrast, minerals from the canyon bottoms are brilliantly fresh.
Figure 38. Second st ep in the formati on of th e Newark detritus: U nder-
mining of th e ca ny on wall s ( throug h impact , et c.) loose ns up a larg e. segment of
the wall composed most ly of (under conditi ons of st eep topography) fr esh gr ani-
ti c detritus, since chemi cal decay and th e formati on of r ed soil s (solid bl ack) t ake
pl ace onl y 0n th e flatti sh int erflnves.
If relief gets gentler (through failure of fault scarp to rejuvenate its elf) the
P_wporti on of r ed clayey detritus may incr ease considerabl y (as in Meriden
time). The same minera l (such as microcline) will be fresh if coming fr om the
canyon bott om and alt er ed if coming fr om the int erfluves. Such a mixture can
be seen in a s ing le specimen (sec Pl ate X XI X) .
No. 73]
Sorting rind differentiation of this mixed detritus were functions
of the precipitation. Short, but violent cloudbursts which usually
charact erize the beginning and the end of a rainy season were prob-
ably sufficient to transport pell mell the jumble of unsorted material
from the canyons into the region of the sharp break in slope at the
f oot of the scarp, and thus fanglomerates were formed. The longer,
but equally violent cloudbursts, a feature of the middle of the rainy
season, swept the material past the apexes of the fans and, giving
rise to superfloods, di stributed it over the valley. Conglomerates an{l
arkoses 'vere deposited within the channels, "hich upon l ateral mi-
gration and coalescing produced apparently horizontally extensive
sandstone layers. Silt and clay, dropped down at the tail end of these
floods over the basin's interfluves, formed the real siltstone and shale
layers (Figures 40 and 41).
A decrease in gradi ent, ~ m l hence in velocity and transporting
po" er of the streams as they fl owed westward, explains why there is
a geneml tendency of the sediments to decrease in coarseness from
east t o west. This tendency is shown on Figures 8 and 9 and has been
mentioned in the discussion of the relations between the Redstone
and Lamentation types of New Haven arkose.
The phenomena of finvial transport and deposition were essen-
tially similar to those of a r ecent tropical piedmont. The arkosic
sediments were rapidly covered up and thus removed from the in-
fluence of post-depositional deca,y which affected only the upper
layers of the older gmvels exposed in interfluves where development
of reel soils, iron coa,ting of sand grains, a,ncl even formation of small
fe rri c-oxide concretions of the "perdigon" type (Plates XIX-A and
XXIX-E) were taking place. During the dry season dessiccation
marks appeared on mudflats, and crystals of soluble salts were
formed. The extremely thorough oxidation of such a savanna en-
vironment resulted in the almost complete destruction of all organic
r emains. F ootpri nts had a much better chance of survival than or-
ganic remains.
The different horizons of t he Triassic possess different mtios be-
tween coarse and fine, fresh and decayed, oxidized and r educed ma-
t erial (see Chapter IV). These changing ratios were mostly clue to
changes in t opography and hence were a consequence of the struc-
tural movements that were taking place during Triassic seclimenta-
tion. 'When accelerated faulting resulted in a sharp r ejmenation of
the Great Fanlt scarp, the reli ef in the re1-don of erosion became much
higher and steeper. I mmecliately conglomerates became abundant
and spread west" arcl far into the valley. Thi s apparently is what
took place at the end of New HaYen time shortly before the eruption
of the lower lava. The Foxon Park, Russo Street, East Rock, and
vV allirtgford conglomerates bear witness to this.
190
[Bull.
Deposition on a non-reducing piedmont slope was normal for
the Triassic. The slope was the product of a balance between the de-
pression of the basin's surface due to the saggi ng of the bottom .of
the trough and the building up of the same surface through the m-
fiux of sediments. On several occasions thi s equilibrium was de-
stroyed, drainage was impeded or made ineffecti ve, and a r educing
environment est ablished. The most important and widespread of
these distm'bances happened during upper Meriden time when a too
rapid subsidence of the valley fl oor, probably due to accelerated struc-
tural downwarping, reclnced t he slope nf the pi edmont and gave ri se
t o extensive swamps. These swamps, although extremely widespread,
were shifting and relatively i mper manent. During the rainy sea-
son almost the whole valley floor must have been a boggy quagmire,
FINE
WEATHERED
RED
DETRITUS
COARSE
FRESH
GRAY
DETRITUS
'
I
I
/
/
CSE., GYISH.,
FRESH
ARKOSE
RED CLAYEY ARKOSE
FLOOD
PLAIN
Figure 39. Left, above. Rel ative proportions of fresh granitic detritu:s
(75%) and altered, red, gibbsite-bearing clayey detritus (25 %) produced by
erosion of the fault scarp under average s tructura l conditions of the Newark.
Compare Figure 17 for resulting rock types. These proportions change with the
and ruggedness of the topogr aphy, i.e. , with t he intensity of the
uplift of the scarp.
Figure 40. Ri ght , above. Third s tep in the forma tion of the Newark sedi-
ments : P ell-mell deposition of the mixed granitic and clayey detritus produces
a red clayey feldspathic sandstone of the Redstone t ype.
Figure 41. Below. Fourth step in the formation of the Newark sedi-
ments : If deposition proceeds through cyclic floods, the detritus Is unmixed
all over again a nd sepa r a t ed into coarse, pale, arkosic sediment whi ch makeH
uP the deposits of the channels; and fine, red clayey sediment, which spreads
.out on the floodpla in, forming r ed siltstones and shales on the interfluves be-
tween the river channels. See Figure 17 for all possible rock types produced
by this process.
No. 73]
1Ul
but ma-ny of the swamps dri ed out during the dr y season. Possibly
conditions were then similar t o those that can be seen now on the
lower coastal plain of Tabasco. In the reducing environment of these
swamps black shales were formed, and many of the coarser
also lost their primary reel color or did not acquire it after deposi-
ti on. On account of the frequent changes in the position of these
swamps the reducing environment did not last very long at any one
place and dark sediments became interbedded with r ed ones. In
Virginia the sagging was either more pronounced, or longer, or both,
and in addition t o black or gani c shales, coal beds were formed.
21
Erosion in the meanwhil e was still intermittently active in the
region of the scarp. Thi s is proved by the presence of fanglomerates
and conglomerates interbedded with the upper Meriden dark shales
in the vicinity of the Great F ault and as far west as the east ern part
of the North Branford tunnel. However, thi s coarse material could
Lc transported farther west only with diffi culty because of the sluggish
character of the streams slowly meandering in the swampland. This
explains why the s wamp beds generally consist of fine muds.
Much of the Meriden sediments outside of the clark shale hori-
wns also consist of fine-grained red siltst ones and shales
(Table 3 and Figures 16 and 17) . This suggest s a marked decrease in
erosive intensity during Meriden time, probably because the rejuven-
ation of the fault scarp was proceeding then with less than its usual
vigor. As a result the average reli ef
22
of the scarp region became
more subdued and chemical decay more effecti ve. Fine r ed muds
entered the valley, replacing t o a large extent the coarser clastics, and
the total volume of sedimentary detritus supplied by the scarp re
gion became much less. As a result the construction of the piedmont
slope was slowed clown, the angle of slope was decreased, and the
equilibrium between the sagging of the surface and its building up by
sedimentation became so precarious that only a very little additional
sagging wa s required to establi sh swamp conditions. The clark beds
of Forestville (in the New Haven arkose) and of Middlefi eld (in the
Portland formation) were also apparently clue to impeded drainage
eaused by down-waLping 01 possibly even by a simple damming- ac
ti on due t o local excessi ,-e growth of some alluvial fan. The Forest-
ville beds are local in extent, but the Middlefield dark shales are wide-
spread, although much less so than the Meriden black shales.
The lower Meriden lake beds ha. ve been explained by Lull as
due t o a sudden damming of the drainage by lava flows. This view
is supported by the fa ct that at many places the lacustrine deposits
"' The Virginia Tria s s ic is dis cusseG. further along in this chapter.
By average relief is .mea nt the relief of the scarp region during most
of Meriden time. i.e., be tween the shorter-or less pronounced- uplifts of the
scarp when a gain bold relief and violent erosion were tempora rily re.
introduced.
192 Connecticut Geological avd Natural History Survey
rest directly on the lower lava sheet. This interpretation does not
explain the absence of a similar clamming action after the extrusion
of the middle and upper laYa flows. However, inasmuch as the dif-
ferent extrusions possibly came out of different fi ssures, their action
npon the drainage may have been diverse. The first lava flow may
ha\'e temporarily blocked the outlet from the valley, the others may
not have done so. Another hypothesis \'Wuld explain the lacustrine
conditions of lower Meriden time by a simple pronounced depression
of the land surface clue to accelerated downwarping, a notable fea-
tu re of l\Iericlen tectoni cs. The writer favors thi s second, tectonic
hypothesis bnt it is quite possible that both are con ect, at least in
part, and that the lower Meriden Iukes were of compound origin.
SouRCE AREA AND DnA IN AGE PATTEHN
The surface of the Triassic basin consisted of a pi edmont slope
built up by coalescing and dissected alluvial fans and floodplain de-
posits. The fanglomeratic portions of the fans did not extend more
than 2,000 f eet away from the fault. On the basis of their mineral
composition it is possible to distinguish two major fans or groups o
fans: the central Connecticut fan (Fig. 6) characterized throughout
at all horizons by indicolite; and the southern Connecticut fan char-
acterized by the absence o indi colite nnd the presence of other key
minerals (epidote, and pink garnet in the New Haven horizons, etc.) .
The in(licolite of the central Connecti cut fan can be traced to a huge
tourmalinizecl pegtnati tic area, east of Portland where indi colite occurs
as a notable feature of the Strickland quarry (Schairer, 1933).
There is no intermixing- of the material of these two major fans
within the main Triassic area of the Connecticut Valley. This sug-
p:ests that the drainage proceeded strictly in an east-"est clirection
with no mar ked longitudinal pattern. However, two sig-nificant ex-
ceptions are found : once, at the very base of the Newark, when incli-
colite is found in southern Con necti cut (Da\YSon Lake and Bethany
Gap) and conversely, epidote and pink p:arnet are prominent in cen-
tral Connecticut at Roaring Brook; ancl the second time, in the lower
Meriden lacustrine becls when intli colite again appears in southern
Connecticut (N orthord limestone). These two horizons are precise-
ly the ones at which such intermixing between southem anJ central
Connecticut material is to be expected, for at the ver y beginning of
Newark deposition the drainage pattern had not been definitely es-
tablished as yet, and again during the lower Meriden lacnstrine per-
iod the drainage pattern was destroyed and sediments moYed freely
to and fro along the valley. It appears, then, that there is no evi-
dence of longitudinal drainage and hence o the presence o a mas-
ter stream within the present main Triassic area.
In the Pomperaup: area indicolite. epidote, and pink garnet are
all present at the same horizon, this suggesting a complete coalescing
of the fans and an intermixing of their sediments. In addition some
No. 73J
of the Pomperaug minerals possess certain varietal characteristics
which have not been observed in the main valley area types. Finally,
if allowance is made for the fluctuations in garnet content, and the
frequencies of tourmaline and zircon are recomputed without the
garnet percentage, it will be seen that these frequencies change slow-
ly and gradually and in a way different from the corresponding
changes in the main area. All this suggest s that the Pomperaug ba-
sin was filled not only with material from the central and southern
Connecticut fans, but also from another source which possibly may
have been the sediment brought by a master stream. This stream, at
least during New Haven time, must have Hawed west of the Pamper-
aug area, for during this period material from the east was promin-
ently present there. Some idea as to the position and character of
this master stream can be indirectly derived from a study of the
source area of the Triassic sediments.
Most of the sedimentary detritus which formed the Triassic rocks
of Connecticut was probably derived from a region 3 to 10 miles wide
(or less ) east of the Great Fault scarp. A study of the original pris-
matic section of Figure 33 shows that a source area even 5 miles wide
(and it was probably much narrower during much of Triassic time)
and 3 miles high could hardly have supplied more than one-half of
the sediments 'vhich fill ed the Triassic basin. However, if the move-
ment on both sides of the Great Fault was not uniform but differen-
tial, then thi s difficulty becomes less. If the Eastern Highland was
elevated 25,000 feet while the basin of deposition 'vas depressed 16,000
feet , then the narrow scarp region becomes adequate to supply close
to 80 per cent of the sediments of the basin or more. In addition it
must be remembered that the part of the Triassic sediments which
escaped erosion and is now available for study consist s of the por
tion nearer to the eastern part of the basin , and as such, is evidently
formed entirely of material locally derived from the east . The more
central and also the higher parts of the section have been eroded
away. These eroded portions are the ones which possibly were built
up by an aggrading longitudinal master stream.
It is probable that early during Newark sedimentation the basin
was filled mostly by alluvial fans growing from the fault and extend-
ing beyond the Pomperaug area. 35 mil es west of the fault scarp. .A
coalescing and intermixing of the fans took place somewhere in the
Pomperaug di strict. It is al so possible that old streams were super
imposed from the pre-Newark peneplane and cut across the fault.
Such streams may have brought sediments from a region far beyond
the Great Fault. However, there is no evidence of the presence of
such superimposed streams in southern Connecticut, but this does
not exclude the possibility of their presence farther north. Finally
a longitudinal master stream was probably formed soon after t ~
opening of Newark sedi mentation and aggraded the western and cen-
tral part of the Triassic trough. It deposited material brought in by
itself, or by its tributaries (some of which may have been superim-
posed), or reworked the allnviurn of the piedmont. The direction of
flow of thi s master stream cannot be directly determined, but it prob-
ably was from north to south, this being- suggested by the general
paleogeography of Newark time, which favored a drainage toward
the Atlantic, across the eroded debri s of Paleozoi c landmasses. Dur-
ing New Haven time the course of thi s stream was apparently west
of the Pomperaug di stri ct. Its location during Meriden and Middle-
town time cannot be determined.
HELATIOKS O.F TilE D1n v.m: :\T Tnr.-\ssrc BASINS
A comparison of the lithology of the different Triassic areas of
east ern North Ameri ca (Nom Scotia, Connecticut Vall ey, New Jer-
sey, P ennsylvania , Virginia, and North Carolina) reveals that all
these nreas are essentially similar, with the only lithological varia-
tions due to differences in the nature of the rocks of their respective
source areas. E,en brick-red feldspathi c sandstones of the ' ' Red-
stone" t ype nre represented nmong the specimens from the Nova
Scotia Triassic in the Yale Collection. It seems reasonable to as-
Slime that all these rocks were formed in a similar climati c and
str11ctnral environment and were the product of ver y similar pro-
cesses.
This statement needs some elucidation, for the idea is current
among g-eologist s that the Triassic areas of Virginia are lithologically
different from those of New .Tersey and Connecticut. The remark-
able megaphnlous flora of the Virginia coal beds, whi ch leaves but
little doubt as to a mesophyti c swamp environment and a tropical
humid climate, has been associated in the minds of many geologists
with the iulplcssion that the \Tirginia arkoses are dark-colored or
gray. It has also been said that reel color, desi ccation marks, and
other features commonly associated with alleged semi-aridity are
much less prominent in Virginia t han farther north.
This is a conception not supported by facts. A study of the de-
tailed petrographic descriptions given by Roberts ( 1928) shows that
in Virginia the arkoses are abont equally divided between red and
gray, that 80 per cent of the shales arc reel (p. 40), that sun cracks,
rainchop impressions, and :fossi l tracks axe common ot abundant
(pp. 147, 158), and that coal seams are interbedded with red sand-
stones ( p. 98). These lithologic dcscri ptions and relative frequencies
are identi cal with those of the Connecticut Triassic. Finally, the
celeb1ated megaphalous flora. becomes almost entirely invisible when
looked for in fi eld exposures outside of coal mine shafts. Roberts
writes (p. 149) : "Outcrops are so rare and so poOl' when f onnd that
they yield nothing. " If thi s is correct, then the frequency of plant
remains visible in the field within the Meriden swamp beds compares
fayorably with that of the Virginia Triassic. The presence of the
No. 73]
marvelous flora described from Virginia seems to be due less to an
inherent difference between the Triassic vegetation of the Connecticut
and the Virginia basins than to the prosaic fact that the Virginia
plant-bearing beds haYe been well exposed Ly mining and trenching.
Hoberts (p. 14D) deplores that :
"The day of collecting in tho Triassic coal area is past ;for no J.onger a r e
prospectors interes ted in drilling or in sinking shafts. Fontaine probably
collected the best materi a l as to variet y and preserva.Uon that can ever be
collected again."
'Vieland (personal corni \1 Uni cation) has expressed the opinion
that the discovery of a good Hom from the Connecticut Triassic can-
not be expect ed until large-scale trenching of the Meriden black
shales is attempted.
Hence, on the basis of both lithology and the fossil record it ap-
pears that the difference between the Virginia and Connecticut Tri-
assic basins was not one of climate, but only of topography, and very
minor at that. In Connecticut a slight warping depressed the land
surface and f ormed shallow-or short-liYed-swamps in which black
shales and fragmentary wood were deposited. In Virginia a some-
what more pronounced-ot longer-subsidence gave birth to deeper
- or more permanent--swamps in whi ch coal was formed. A dif-
ference of 20 feet in the amount of structural warping appears as
sufficient to account for whatever difference there is between the Con-.
necticut and the Virginia swamp beds.
PROBABLE NEWARK PALEOm:oonAPHY m' EAsTEUN Nom.' n AMERICA
It has been generally stated (Schuchert and Dunbar, Brooks)
that the climate of the Triassic period was warmer than that of the
present. The results of the present investigation, which tend to as-
sign a tropical or sub-tropical climate to the Connecticut Valley, con-
firm these views.
I the climatic zones had been thus shifted toward the poles,
it is possible that the Atlantic seaboard was brought past the horse
latitudes and into the region of seasonal tropical rainfall. The
heavy precipitation of the Newark could have been easily derived
from the Atlantic Ocean. The nearness of the Atlanti c can be in
fened from the discovery of sharks' teeth in the black Triassic shales
of New J ersey (as described by Bryant).
ENvmON;\lENT AND LANDSCAPE OF THE NEwARK Eroc n
Central and westem Connecticut during Newark time can be
pictured as a wide flatland, bordered on the east by the steep but re-
latively low hills of the Great Fault scarp and to the west merging
insensibly into the somewhat similar flatland of southern New York
and New Jersey. The interfime between these two basins may have
196 Connecticut Geological and Natural Ifistory Survey [Bull.
been so lo"iv as to lack any topographic expression, but it probably
st ill was a eli vide between the two sedimentation basins of Connecti-
cut and New J ersey. A master stream meandered o,er this flatland,
probably fl owing southward. Rapid lleposition of material from
the sca rp region was building large alluvial fans and floodplains
with n western slope, but continued subsidence of the basin clue to
eastward tilting along the Great Fault kept the surface almost flat,
although a very small but still e1feetive westward slope provided for
adequate dissection and drainage. Thi s equilibrium, however , was
delicate, and as soon as it was disturbed in Meriden time, extensive
lakes and swamps cover ed the flatland. This disruption wns possibly
the r esult of a clamming action by the lava sheet immecliatdy after
the first extrusion. but prolmbly due to more complex causes such as
regional sagging of the bas in surface tlue to struct ural warping some
time after the extrusion of the thick middle lava sheet.
The climate was hot and seasonally very humid. During the
wet season heavy, long-continued rains transformed the flatland into
a vast, sticky, water-soaked morass. Torrential rivers, heavily loaded
with coarse detritus, roared westward from the hills. The gentler
rains rew-orked and transported the red clayey material and deposited
siltstones and shales.
During the dry season a broiling sun was beating upon the Con-
necticut savanna, caking and cracking the red soils. However, dense
and luxuriant forests extended for several hundred yards on each
side of the numerous watercourses. providing food and a cool shelter
for the reptilian denizens of the Newark.
'
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No. 73]
Triassi c Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 207
PLATE I
A.-H eavy r es idue fr om basa l N<:w ll ave n ~ r k o s l l0c. 21 ;\), showing kya-
nite (l arge fr agment ), garnet, ep idot e, zir con a nd t ourma line, X 47.
B.-Heavy r es idue f rom basal lvferiden forma ti on (Joe. 11) , s howing anatase,
barit e, biotit e, ilmenit e, leucoxenc, monazi te. muscovit e, t o urmaline and zircon
(sec al so Pl a t e II a-D), X 36.
PLATE II
A.-(Lcft) - Zir con, snbr ounded ( loc. 38), X 26i .
B.-(Rig ht)-Twinned purple ru til e (a ut hi geni c?) ( Joe. 38) , X 220.
C.-Zoned zir con; foxy -red st ri ated rutil e (Joe. 11 ), X 200.
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 20!)
PLATE Tla
A.- - P it tl'd pin' ; garn et and idi onw rphi c epidott' ( lower cente r ) fro m basal
New Haven ar kose. Joe. 21 (Dawso n Lake). :\ -17.
B.-(Lcft) - Bro ken (corr oded?) gar net , lo wer l\{criden a rkosic beds near
lava flow (loc. 11), X 145.
C.-(Cent er ) - - Brokcn zoned zircon. from lower Meriden limestone beds a t
Northford quarry ( Joe. 10), X 200.
D.-(Right)- "Potato s haped" zircon ( broken a nd abraded a long incipient
zoning, poss ibl y corroded?); thi s g t ain shown al so on P lat e I-B, Northford
quarry, X 121.
PLATE III
. . ~
A.-Staurolit e, from basal New Haven arkose, Joe. 39 ( Roaring Brook),
X 215.
B.-Titanite from basal :M criden arkosic beds, Joe. 11 (near Northford),
X I.'i 2.
PLATE IV
A.-Indi colit e or deep-blue t ourma line (l eft) , aug it e (center) and zoned
zircon (right) , against a backg r ound of large muscovite flakes, loc. 39, basal
Triassic at Roaring Brook, X 146.
B.- lndicolite (left) a nd brown tourmaline (right ). The indi colite is a
frag ment from a much large r cr yst a l of pcgmatiti c deep- b lue t ourmaline. T he
brown tourma line is an idiomor phic plutoni c vari ety. Loc. 38, Roaring Br ook,
75 feet a bove base of T ri assic. X 140.
PLATE V
A. - Barit e fro m the lower Meriden lac ustrine beds of ce ntra l Conn ecticut
( Joe. 30, S hutt le lv[ cadow) . Extreme irregul arit y of out lin e s uggests a uthi geni c
o ri g in a s a por e fiiJin g . In clusions a r c p ~ r t l y fluid bubbl es, a nd pa rtl y ca r bon-
aceous ma tt er. X 52.
B.-WeJJ -r oundcd (coin- shaped) mu scovit e a nd irregul a r- shaped (authi geni c)
barite full o f bubbl es and ca rbonaceous ma tt er, also fr om Joe. 30. Ro unding
of muscovit e s ugges t s th e exi st ence of very ge ntl e bott om curr ent s. X 52.
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecti cut
213
PLATE VI
A. - Fractured l.Jasal New Haven a rkose at Roa ring Brook (Joe. 39), s how
i ng permeation l.J y calcite whi ch fi ll s veinl ets in quartz a n d r epl aces mi cr ocline
(lower ri ght). X 2a.
B. --Same as above, but wit h crossed nicols. Note extreme unclul ose ext inc
t ion in t he large quar tz gr a in, X 25.
::l14 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
PLATE Vll
A.- Seri c iti zc d \cw Haven a r kose, showin g complete rep la cement of fe ld-
spar s by seri ci te t hrough metamorphi c action, Joe. 20, Mt. Sanford,
ver y cl cse to lo wer contact of 'vVest Rock sill. X 32.
B.---" Redstone fr om type locality a t Joe. 36, Redstone Hill, centra l Con-
nect icut. Not e a bundance of fresh biotit e a nd la rge of hemati ti c day.
X 6fi.
215
PLATE VIU
A.-Lower N" cw H avcn a rkose fr om Hethany Gap ( Joe. 19). showi ng large
quart z and mi crocline g r a in s embedded in matrix of fin e r g r a in s of similar com-
position and some k aolini c ( ?) clay. X 23.
B.-S:!mc as above, but in pol a ri zed li g ht with cr ossed nicols.
216 Connecti cut Geological and Natural History Sur vey l Bull.
PLATE IX
A.-Feldspathi c sa ndstone from a r elati vely open-wat er phase of a swamp
d eposit o-f upper Meiiden age; loc. 27, near Kensington (see als o Figure 4) .
Photograph s hows di ffe r enilitl weathering of fel dspars and secondar y ox idation
of granular siderite. X 46.
B. -Sarne as above, but with cr ossed nicols. X 60.
No. 73]
2l7
PLATE X
Sandstone dike ( ri gh t ) in tru ding int o a trap sill ( left) . Both r ocks are c ut
by a later calc it e ve in. Note or ientati on of elongated constituent s of t he arkose
pa ral lel to th e contact, i.e., t o the direct ion of flowage. One or two shreds of
are incorporated int o -t he arkose ( upper half of photogr ap h) . Upper New
arkose, o n Foxon Roa d. X 22.
PLATE XI
Sandstone dike cutting trap sill , as in P late X, but with crossed nicol s. X 22.
No. 73]
PLATE XII
219
i\.-- \ 1 icrohandi ng a mi cr oss-bedding 111 lacus trin e silt y shale fr om the
den format ion, X .J I / 2.
. -...
..:-. ...
_,
. . .
: . . . : . . ,.
. ....
.. ,:.
B.--l. [icroscopi c cut- a nd-f il l strat ifi cat io n in dolomiti c limest one, lower
Meriden fo n11a t ion at Shuttl e 11cadow, ce ntra l Connecticut , X 7 1/2.
PLATE XIII
, - .- - - , -1
~ :; 4 5 f
~ ~ ~ e . : _ ~ _ s _ _ j
A.- Limest one fr om S huttl e Mcadow, lower :V[ cricl cn formati o n of ce ntra l
Cc.nnccti cut: left- na tural a ppeara nce; ri g ht- et ched with hydroc hl ori c ac id.
1
2 3 4
Centimeters
5
B.-Limest one from the Northford quarry, lower Meriden formati on of
southern Connecti cut (Joe. 9): left- natural a ppeara nce ; right-after etching
with hydrochl0ri c acid. Not e numer ous sand g r ains.
No. 73]
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 22l
PLATE XIV
A.-Limest one s howi ng round orga nic (?) bodi es. pres umably spores of
Cha rop hyta. Northford quarry ( Joe. 10 ), X 25.
B.-Oval orga ni c ( ?) body in limest one, presumabl y s pecimen of fresh-water
a lga. Northf ord quarry (!oc. 10), X 25.
222 Conneclicut Geological and Natural History Survey [Bull.
PLATE XV
/\. - T rap. 5 fe et a bove lower contact o f midd le la va, Reed Ga p ( Joe. 7) .
Cross ed ni cols. X 17.
B.- -As above; altered trap with calcite nodules one-half foot above eoutact.
X 15.
No. 73]
223
PLATE XVI
A.-Lower tu ff ( ?) laye r. J (j feet below lower of upper lava flow,
upper Mer iden fo rmatio11; Gap (]uarry ( Joe. 7), X 45.

B.-As a bove, with crossed ni cols, :x: 4.5. 1\otc large amo unt of isotropic
mat erial.
PLATE XVII
A.-Nor ma l, r ed-colored, fine-grain ed arkose, showing gr a ins coated with
red l1 e mat it e ( ferri c oxide), whi ch is a lso fin ely di sseminated throughout rock
matrix; 21 feet bel ow contact of upper lava flow, Reed Gap quarry (loc. 7) ,
X 45.
B.-Same t ype of arkose as above, but bl eached whit e by therma l action of
th e npp<;_r lava flow. Four feet below flow cont act hemat it e has been r educed to
magnetite a nd is now concentrating in sma ll or medium sized gr ai ns. Loc. 7.
X 45.
~ 0 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 225
PLATE XVIII
A.-Bl eac hed a rkose as on P la te XVII -B; c rossed nicols, X 45.
B.-Calcar eous concr eti ons in maroon silt stone; 10 fC'et below t he upper la\'a
flow, Reed Gap quarry ( lac. 7). X 36.
226
[Bull.
PLATE XIX
A.- Detrital iron cotH:retion in Portland arkose, Joe. 23, X 18.
B.-F anglomerate from Lake Quonnipaug, Joe. I. Shows a m i ~ ~ i l r of
g nuutt c detritus- quart z and f cld spar-antid:;t large r fr ag ments o f the quartz- -
chlorite Dolton schi st, X 5 l j 2.
No. 73]
PLATES XX and XXI
A. - Lower New Haven arkose, loc. 17 on S hepard !\venue, Hamden.
Shows coarse, pal e purpli s h-g ray arkose, underlain by red sa ndy sil tstone faci es.
B.-Contact between basal New Haven arkose and hi g hl y fold ed and in-
jected crystalline Hartland schist heTow it. Toe . 3!l at Drook.
I
i
I
I
i
I

I
I ........ ..
l
A. -Alternat ion bet wee n t he Lamcnt ;ttion (coar se pa le arkose) and Red-
stone ( fine silty r ed sands tone) facies , at Hanover Pond, Joe. 33A.
H. - --Typica l develo pment of . Lamentat ion arkose a nd cong lomera t e facies in
t.he u .aven a rkos e of centra l Connecticut, To e. 34, Quinniviac Gorge .
I Bull.
PLATE XXII
A.-Intraformationa l unconformity, showing er osion of ]{etl st onc fac ies by
the Lamentati on a rkose facies. This is esse ntiall y the bottom of an ancient river
channel cntting la t era lly across it s own fl ood pl ain. From th e nppcr New Haven
arkose at Hanover Pond, central Connecticut.
B.-T ype locality of the Portl a nd a rkose, loc. 23, Second Ponla nd qua rry,
nc<>.r Middl etown, centra l Conn ec ti cut. Not e r egional eastward di p of Triassic
sedimentary pri sm.
No. 73]
22H
PLATES XXIII and XXIV
A.-Lower :vleriden lacustrine red beds, Joe., 28, Hubbard Park near
?ll criden. centra l Connecticut.
B.-Upper Meriden swamp dark ;JJeds. Loc. 27, Kensington quarry, near
Berlin, central Connecticut. (See also Figure 4.)
.i .
A.-Fine, dark s ilt stone interbedded with arkosic sand (at hammer) and
fanglomerate (above hammer) , loc. 1 at Lake Quonnipaug.
B.-Sli cken siding and minerali zation (calcite and along fau lt plane in
Lamentation arkose (above hammer) and to a minor extent in Redstone (below
hammer). Hanover Pond, cent r al Connecticut.
PLATE XXV
A.- Fanglomerate outcrop at East Portland, Joe. 22, on N-S road , south
oi junction with Rout e 15-A. Out crop i,: .'l U kd thick. ext ends for 250 feet,
ave rage siz e of pebbl e,; i;; 5 to 15 em .. ;;ome boulder ,; go tt p to 45 em. Int er-
layered, especially near top, with coarse arkosi c s and. Out crop approximatel y
1>50 teet ( ?) west of Grea t Fault.
B.-Piece of fanglomerate from Lake Quonni paug ont oop, ve ry close to
Great Fault. Surface oi specimen poli shed by g lac ial action. Not e granite and
chlorite-schist pebbles.
No. 73_1
231
PLATE XXVI
A.-Cross-b edded coa r se arkose and cong lomer ati c lenses of upper ~ w
Haucn age; det a il fr om photogr aph of outc rop shown bel ow on P late XXVI-B.
B.-Verti cal contact bet wee n int ruding trap dike ( left ) and upper New Ha-
ven a rkose (rig ht ) . Outcrop is o n west side of V/ hitney Avenue near New Ha-
ven-Hamden city lin e.
232 Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey !Bull.
PLATE XXVII
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION IN A TROPICAL FOOTHILL REGION
Fresh, coarse, angular boulders form small a lluvi al fans where a break in
the slope interrupts the course of intermittent mountain tonents. Taken dur-
ing the dry season in Ch iapas (southern Mexico) , a region with a rainfall of
200 inches ver year. Average elevation of mountain tops over canyon Jloors
around 500 feet.
No. 73\
PLATE XXVIII
A.-Sediment at ion o n a tr opical pi edmont savanna. Dri ed-up bed of !viez-
ealapa River nea r the Ghiapas-Tabasco boundary (southern Mexico) during
th e s hort dry season of a humi<i c limat e with a ra infall in excess of 100 inche;,
per yea r. Ch:tnn C' I, 3,000 feet wide, is cover ed with mud c1acks a nd swept by
sa ndstorms.
B.-Sediment ation on a tropical piedmont savanna. Alternation of pale gray,
coarse, arkosic sa nds a nd finer-grained, r eddi sh, clayey sil t s. Same genera l lo-
cation and c limatic conditions as above.
PLATE XXIX
A. and B.-Differential weathering of
mi crocline within one single specimen. Note
brilliantl y <f res-h and translucent g rain, 1; t wo
fresh a nd almost unaltered grains, 2 and 3;
a faintly altered g r a in, 4, and a deepl y
weathered kaolinized and reddened large
grain, 5.
Note calcite nest at 6, filling crack s a nd eating into grain, 2.
[Bull.
Note sma ll but very distinct and well developed overgrowth, 7, of sec-
ondary micr-ocline growing o ut or the l'aolinizecl gr ain, 5.
Specimens from l o ~ 13, up.per New Haven a rkose from Blakeslee quarry
at Fair Haven ; X 12; A-plain li gh t , Bcrossed nicols.
C.- Arkose f rom Joe. 17, S hepard Ave nu e. Rat her hi g h in sc hi st f r ag-
ments, X 13.
D.-Red siltstone, Joe. 17B, Sheparcl Avenue, interlayered with preceding
rock (C), X 29. Note mixture of red hematitic a nd gibbsite-bearing clay with
pieces of brilli ant ly fr es h and una lt er ed fe ldspar (l argest tri a ngular g rain ) a nd
very fr esh biotit e flakes.
E.-Detrital ( transport ed) hen'atitic iro n concr etion (' 'pcrdi gon" ) showing
residua l zonal arrangement jl.t top s uggest ed by semi- conce ntri c arrangement of
very small engulfed quart z grains, Joe. 17 (same as C). Shepard Avenue, X 16.
F.--Detrital ir on concretion from typi cal "brownst one" arkose. fr om t he
Portland quarry ( Joe. 23 ) . Note nest of fractur ed gar net g rains a t ri g ht a nd im-
mediately below con cretion, X 18. In thi s part icular specimen garnet forms al-
most 2 per cent of entire rock.
INDEX
Asteri sks indicate illustrations.
Abel, 0. , 173
Aetosaurs, 171, 172
Algae ('?), 21, 64, 107, 108, 110
Alluvial fans , 5, 6, 14, 15, 29, 30, 76,
95, 151, 154, 155, 184, 186, 197'",
1!!1, 192, 193
Alsace, potash beds of, 167
Am mosaurus, 172
Anchisauripus, 67, 68
Anchisaurus, 172
Angularity, 80-83
"Anterior shales ," 13, 29, 177
Arid, defi ned, 125, 126
Arkol;es, 5, 6, 7, 10''' , 17, 43, 71, 73,
7'[ . 75'' , 76, 77, 78 , 79, 80'", 84*, 85 ,
86, 87, 89, 91, 94, 98-102, 114, 115,
129, 131. 132-154, 157-158, 160,
175, 181, 184, 189, 190*, 194;
see also New Haven a rkose
Arthropods, 171
Auf r er e, L., 147
Baiera, 177
Bain, G. W., 15, 117, 121, 127, 128,
156.
Barrell, J., 8, 14, 15, 107, 121, 123,
137. 151, 170, 178
Barton, D. C., 127, 132, 170
Basin Ranges, 184
Batrachopus deweyi, 68
Belcher Broc-k , 62, 63
Denne tt a nd Alli s on , 153, 163. 165,
166. 167
Bethany Gap, 192
Bethany Gap sandstone, 44*
Big Conglomerate . Chi apas, 155
Bl akeslee quarry, 101
Bolton schi s t , 43, 57, 70, 71, 96,
97, 156
Boulders, 96, 97, 98, 118, 120, 155,
156, 185, 187"'
Br a nford, GO, 97, 160, 179; see also
North Branford
Branford granitegneiss, 71
Branner , J., 169
Brazil , 125, 168,- 169
Bristol, 53, 101
Brownstone, 69, 95, 102
Calamites, 177
Calcite, 21, 27*, 28. 51, 53. Si, 85, 86*,
87, 100, 101, 102, . 105, 108, 110,
111, 114, 115, 130, 168, 169
Cali che, 168
Camptopteris, 177
Centra l Connecticut facies, 31, 32,
34, 35, 36, 40, 41, 42, 49-57, 60-63,
192
Charophyta, 64, 76, 108
Cheirolepis muensteri, 177
Chemical decay, 134, 188, 191
Cherry Hill sandstone, 44*
Cheshire Street, 54, 55, 57, 103, 178
Chestnut Mt., 96, 156
Chinl e forma tion, 142
Clathropteris, 177
Clays, 21, 27*, 28, 86*
Climate, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 125-182,
183, 195-196
Coal , Virginia, 191
Coe's Mill, 64
Coe's quarry, 107
Conglomerates, 72, 77, 97-98, 119,
120, 129, 158, 189, 191
Conifers, 177
Connecticut River and Valley, 5, 7,
8, 10*, 11, 118
Cuba, 163, 165-166
Cycads, 177
Dana, J . D., 12, 13, 127, 170
Da vis, W. M., 12, 13, 15, 29, 31, 59,
117, 118, 121, 127, 174, 177
Dawson conglomerate-arkose, 44*
Dawson Lake, see Lake Dawson
Death Valley, 164
121-123
Deserts, 175, 185
23G
Connect icut Geol ogical and Natural Hi story Survey [Bull.
Desiccation marks, 128, 181, 189,
194; see also Mud cr ack s, etc.
Dlctyophyllum, 177
Dikes, 12, 15, G5
Dinosaurs, 10'1, 128, 172, 174, 175,
176
Dixwell arkose. 44*
Dixwell Avenue, 45, 46'", 47
Dorsey, G. E., 127
Drainage. 1G. G7, 153, UJO, 191, 192-
194
Dunbar Hill, 47
Dunbar H ill arl;ose. 4 P
Durham, 69, 70
East Portland, 69, 97, 176
East Rock, 48, 49, 98, 189
East Rock conglomerat e, 44*
Eastern Highl a nd, 9, 11, 71, 120, 198
Eastman, C. R. , 171
Emerson, B. K., 14, 117
Eolia n action, 170
6, 22, 36, 40, 42, 44, 192
Equi setal es, 103, 177, 178
Erosion, 52. 57, 119, 121, 122''', 127,
131, 132, 134-143, 186, 190*, 191, 193
Eubrontes, 67, 68, 174
Facies, 30. 31, 32. 33, 35; see a I so
Central a nd Southern Connecti-
cut fa cies; and Great Fault fac ies
F a ir . Haven, 21, 38, 44'", 49, 89, 101,
172
Fanglomerates, 5, 6, 13, 15, 31, 59,
69, 70, 95-97, 118, 119, 120, 128,
129, 131, 154-156, 159, 181, 184,
185, 189, 191, 192
Faults, 18, 14. 4D, 52. i) :l, 58 . 63, 69.
70, 85, 95, 117, 121, 182, 189; see
also Gr eat Fault
Fa ult s, block , 13, 14, 37, 54, 117,
121, 183
Fauna, 170-176, 181
Feldspars, 19- 20. 27"', 28, 50, 63, 73,
82, 83, 84, 86'", 87, 98, 99, 101, 103,
104, 105, 109, 111, 114, 128, 129,
132, 133, 157, 158
F eldspat hi c sandston es, 54, 102103
F ederal Hill, 53, 101
Ferns, 177
Fishes, 58, 106, 161, 171, 173, 176, 179
Five Mile sandstone, 44'''
6, 128, 130, 176-179, 181, 1!J4
Footprints, 6, 104, 105, 106, 162-164,
172-173, 179, 189; see also Track s
Forest vill e, 53, 176, 191
l''ossil s, 6, 13, 58, 59, 64, 67, 173-176;
see also Fa tma. F'lora. Tracks, e t c.
Foxon, 48, 49, 65
F oxon Park, 48, 98, 189
Foye, W. G .. 14, 17
Freise, F. W., 168
Gale, H. S .. 168
Garnet, 22, 36, 40. 41, 42, 43, 49, 55,
56, 69, 91, 92, 9H, 94, 192
Gibbsite, 21, 28, 73, 103, 105, 160,
186, 188, 190
Gigandipus caudatus, 67
Gilligan, A., 168
Glacial ftetion, 170
Glastonbury gr anite-gneiss. 43, 57,
'll' !)7
Gl a uberit e, 164, 168, 181
Glock. W. S., 128, 174
Grade size, 73, 78-79, 89, !l O
Grallator formosus,
Granby tuff, 10''
Ci'E;at Basin, 183, 184, 185
Gr eat Fault, 5, 6, 15, 31, 87, 39, 59,
68, 69, 70, 74, 75, 76, 95, 104,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 156.
158, 159, 160, 176, 183, 188, . 189 ,
191, 193, 196
Great F a ult facies , 31, 33, 70, 95-97;
see also Fanglomerates
Great Vall ey or Califomia, 151, 175,
183, 184, 187*
Gregor y, H. E., 14, 37
Gypsum, 128, 14 2, 149, 164, 165, 166,
167, 168. 181
Haddam granite-gneiss, 71
Hamden, 38, 45, 47, JS. 123; see
also Dixwell Avenue, Shepard
A venue, etc.
Hanover Pond. :;s, f> .J, 122
No. 73]
231
Hartford Turnpike, 38, 44, 49
Hartland schist, 49, 50, 52, 71, 101
Hitchcock, E. , 12, 171
Hobbs, vV. lH., 14
Huh bard Park reservoir, 61
Huntington, E., 134, 175
I Ll dings, J. P., 1::!2, 133
tndi colite. G, 23, 35, 40, 42. 52,
56''',
Insects, 171
Invertebrate trails, 171
lnyo Range, 184, 187*
Iron ores, 26, 40, 49, 59
-
90, 91,
Iron oxides. 148-149, 158, 159
Jiingst, H. , 130, 161, 162, 163
Juniata formation, 154
Kensington, 58, 62, 63
Kerner-Marilaun, F. , 134
Killing worth granite-gneiss , 71
Knopf, A., 98, 184, 185
Kii Pllen, W. P. , 125, 175
55,
192
9'1*
Krynine, P . D. , 132, 136, 138, 140-
141, 142, 149, 150, 153, 155, 158,
162, 163, 168, 186
Lacustrine beds, 5, 31, 33, 58, 59,
60, 76, 82*, 83'', 84, 87, 95, 160,
161, 191, 192, 196
Lake Dawson, 19, 43, 52, 100, 101,
170, 192
Lake Gaillard, 66
Lake Quonnipaug, 59, 69, 96, 156,
17G
Lake Saltonstall , 59, 69
Lamentation arkose, 54, 55, 56*, 57,
158, 189
Lava flows , 5, 10*, 13, 15, 29, 30, 31,
32, 58, 65, 71, 112, 120, 121, 158,
169-170, 181, 192, 196
Lawson, A. C., 154
Leuchs, K., l 54
Lighthouse Point granite, 43, 71 , 98
LHnestones. 7:{ , 74''' , 75*, 76, 78''', 79,
80*, 84*, 85, 86, 87, 106-113, 160,
161, 169
Longwell, C. R., 14, 15, 49, 117, 118,
121, 123, 150, 170
Lope ria, 177
Lull , R S., 14, 171, 172, 173, 177,
181, 191
Marbut, C. F ., 146, 147
Marcmas granite-gneiss , 71
Marshes, 178 ; see a lso Swamp beds
Ma uch Chunk beds, 151
Meriden, 41, 54, 103, 190
Meriden formation, 5, 6, 19, 21, 30,
J .l, 3 ~ 33, 34, ;;6, 3\i. 38''', 39'' , 42,
43, 57-69, 72*, 76, 82, 84, 98, 102,
103, 104, 105, 106, 110, 119, 120,
122*, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 164,
171, 172, 177, 180, 191, 192, 196
Nlexico, 138, 141, 149, 151, 153, 155
Micas, 20-21, 28, 49, 50, 85, 86*, 87,
90, 94*, 101, 103, 104
Middlefield, 191
Middl etown, 69, 171
Middletown formation, 70
Mineral zones, 35-37, 40
Mineral s, 19-28, 83-95
- authigeni c, 26, 87, 95
- - chemical , 84-87
- clay, 21, 83
- -detrital , 22-25, 83-84, 90-95
- -heavy, 17, 22-25, 30, 35, 40, 41,
55, 56*' 87-95
- rock-forming 19-21, 73-83
Mollusca, 171
Montowese- Northford district, 39
Mor molucoldes, 171, 173, 176
Mortensen, H., 131
Mt. Sanford, 44
Mt. Toby, 96, 121, 156. 170
Mud cracks, 130, 153, 160. 161, 162.
163, 164; s ee also Desiccation
marks
Mudstones, 170
New Britain, 160, 161
New Haven, 37, 38, 39, 44, 69, 96
New Haven a rkose, 5, 30, 31, 32,
33, 34, 35, 36, 37-57, 72*, 75, 93,
98, 100, 102, 103, 105, 106, 118,
120, 122*, 157, 158, 170, 171, 172,
173, 176, 178, 189, 191, 193, 194
238 Connecticut Geologi cal and Natural History Survey
L Bull.
Newark series, 15, 29, 31
----climate, 180-182
- distribution of principal rock
types, 72
-gross petrography, 73
-mineral zones, 35-37, 40
-normal sedimentary lithology, 34
-overall lithology, 34
- over ll m !n era! 27-28
-thidmess, 37
North Branford, 66, 67
North Branford reservoir, 66, 70,
172, 174, 177
North Branford tunnel , 191
North Guilford, 156
North Haven. 48
North Haven conglomerate, 44*
Northfield, Mass. 56, 69
Northford, 48, 59, 63, 101, 106, 109,
160
Northford limestone. 102
Nova Scotia, 194
Overthrusting, 15, 121
Owens Valley, 183, 184-185, 187*
Palissya, 177
Paug' s Pond, 64
Percival, J. G., 12, 29, 50, 64, 95
Phytosaurs, 171
Piedmont, tropical, .and red beds,
153154
Pillow lavas, 169
Pine Rock, 158, 163
Plants, 58, 64, 67, 103, 106, 107, 108,
156. 161. 176-179; see also
Flora
Podokesaurus, 172
Pomperaug basin, 5, 9, 13, 14, 24,
36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 59, 60, 98,
118. 121, 122*' 160, 176, 192. 193
Portland, 102, 172, 192
Portland formation, 5, 30, 31, 32, 33,
34, 35, 38*, 39*, 69-70, 72*, 76, 89,
95, 98, 102, 105, 106, 119, 122*,
156, 158, 159, 172, 191
"Posterior shales," 13, . -29, 177
Price, Armstrong, 168
Prospect gneiss, 71
Punjab, 168
Quartz, 19, 27*, 28, 49, 50, 52, 53,
ti 3, 73. 84*, 85, 86*, 87, 101, 102,
103, 105, 108, 109, 114, 115
Quievreaux, F. , 167
Quinnipiac River and Valley, 54, 55,
57, 103. 178
Rainfall , 125-126, 131, 134, 135-137.
141, 142, 147, 158, 164
Raymond, P. E., 15, 127, 128, 129,
144
Red beds, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 34, 41,
72, 128, 129, 143-154, 158-160
Redstone, 6, 21, 32, 54, 55, 56*, 57,
73, 74, 75*, 76, 77, 78, 79,
84*, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 98,
103, 157, 159
Reed Gap, 65, 66*, 104, 112-115, 158
Rice, W. N., 14
Ridge Road, 98
Roaring Brook, 38, 42, 49, 51, 52, 71,
101, 122*
Roberts, J. K., 15, 117
Robinson, G. W. , 134. 137, 144, 147,
148
Ross, C. S. , 113
Russell, I. C. , 12, 127
Russell, W. L., 15, 64, 117, 118, 121
Russo Street, 48, 49, 98
Russo Street conglomerate, 44*
Saltonstall tunnel, 123
Sal ts, solubl e, 128, 130, 131. 153,
164-169, 181, 189
San Joaquin series, 147
Sandstones, 72, 73, 74*, 75*, 76, 77,
78, 84*, 85, 86, 87, 98, 102-103,
157-158
Sapper, K. , 132, 133, 136, 138, 151,
154, 155, 158, 162, 186
Savannas, 134, 141, 142, 143, 149,
151, 152*, 153, 158, 162, 163, 170,
175, 178, 179, 180, 186
Schairer, J. F., 192
Sedimentary processes, 186-192
Semi-arid, defined, 126, 127, 129
Sespe formation, 150, 154
Shales, 72, 73, 75*, 76, 77, 78*, 79,
80*, 85, 87, 91, 94, 104, 106, 158,
159. 160, 189, 190. 191*, 196
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 23fl
Shales, black, 6, 13, 58, 59, 60, 73,
104, 160, 191
Sharks' teeth, New Jersey, 195
Shepard Avenue arkose, 44 *
Shepard Avenue, Hamden, 45, 98,
Shepardia palmipes, 68
Shuttle Meadow Pass, 57
122, 159
Shuttle Meadow reservoir, 58, 60,
64, 110
Sierra Nevada , 147, 184, 185, 186,
187*
Silliman, B., 12
Sills, 13, 15. 65
Siltstones, 17, 72, 73, 74*, 75* , 76,
77, 78 *, 79, so. 84*, 85, ss, 87,
91, 94, 105-106, 158, 159, 160, 161,
189, 190*, 191, 196
Simsbury, 172
Siwalik beds, 154
Sorting, 79-80, 189
Source areas, 12, 15, 16, 30, 57, 117,
12"0, 183, 186, 192-194
South Britain, 119
South Britain conglomerate, 39
South Meriden, 54, 98
Southern Connecticut facies , 31, 32,
;{4. 35, 36, 40, 42, 43-49. 63-69, 192
Southington, 103
Spring Glen facies , 44*
Spruce Bank sandstone, 44''
State Street sandstone, 44*
Stegomus, 49, 172
Stony Creek granite, 43, 47, 49, 71 ,
98
Stri ckla nd quarry, 192
Subsidence, 118, 119, 190, 196
Suga r Loaf tunnel , 66, 67. 177
Sugarloaf arkose, 39
Swamp beds, 5, 6, 31, 33, 58, 60, 84,
87, 105, 119, 134, 151, 152*, 160,
161, 162, 180, 190, 191, 196
Synaeresis, 161, 162, 163
Tabasco, 151, 153, 162, 163, 191
'!' a basco a rkoses , 133
Taconi c geanti cline , 117, 121
Taenlopterls, 177
Tarr, W. A., 169
Terra rossa, 145
Texture, 77-78
Thorpe, M. R., 14, 15, 66, 173, 174,
177
TopogJ'&phy, et'fect of, on erosion,
131, 134, 135, 137-139, 141, 142,
189, 191, 192
Totoket Mt. , 65
Tourma line, 24, 40, 42, 43, 49, 52,
55, 56''' , 57, 69, 91, 92, 111, 114, 193
Tracks, fossil, 6, 12, 14, 34, 68, 70,
128, 130, 164, 194; see also Foot-
prints
Transportation, of s ediments, 189
Trap, 11, 12, 13, 29, 31, 65, 66
Trees, 176
Twenhofel , W. H., 149, 151
Tyrannosaurus rex, 174
Unio, 171
Vegeta tion, effect of, on erosion,
134-135
Virginia, 191, 194, 195
Volcanic glass, 113
Waibel , L. , 155
Wa llingford. 48, 49, 98, 189
Walther, J. , 144, 146, 147
"Water bis cuits," 108
West River, 43
West Rock dolerite, 44*
West Rock ridge, 38, 44, 45
West Rock sill, 44, 45
Western Highland, 9, 71
Westwoods Avenue, 48
Westwoods series, 44*
Whitney Avenue, 38
Wieland, G. R., 177, 179, 195
Wood, fossil, 70, 105, 130, 156, 176;
see also Trees
Woolnough, W. C., 132, 133, 137, 147
Zircon, 25, 40, 42, 43, 49, 5!i, 56*, 57,
71, 91, 193
State
Geol ogical and Natural History Survey
of Connecticut
BULLETIN LIST
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l. First Bienni al Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
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2. A Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of
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3. A Preliminary Report on the Hymenial es of Connecti cut: by Ed -
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17. Fourth Bi ennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geologi-
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18. Triassic Fishes of Connecti cut : by Charl es Rochester Eastman,
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19. Echinoderms of Connecti cut: by Wesley Roswell Coe, Ph.D.; 152
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20. The Birds of Connecticut: by J ohn Hall Sage, M.S. , and Loui s
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em., 1913. (Out of print).
21. Fifth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
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22. Guide to the Insects of Conn. , prepared under the directi on of W.
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23. Central Connecti cut in the Geologic Past: by J oseph Barrell,
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24.. Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley: by Richard Swann Lull,
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25. Sixth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geolog
ical and Natural Histor y Survey, 1913-1914-; 24 pp., 23 em. , 1915. .10
26. The Arthrostraca of Connecticut: by Beverly Waugh Kunkel,
Ph.D.; 261 pp., 34 figs., 23 em., 1918. .85
No. 73J
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of ConnP.cticut 4 : ~
27. Seventh Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey, 1915-1916; 17 pp. , 23 em. , 1917 .. 10
28. Eighth Bi ennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey, 1917-1918; 21 pp., 23 em., 1919.
(Out of print).
29. The Quaternary Geology of the New Haven Region, Connect icut:
by Freeman Ward, Ph.D.; 80 pp. , 9 pls., 17 figs., 23 em., 1920. .60
30. Drainage Modifi cations, and Glaciation in the Danbury Region,
Connecti cut : by Ruth Sawyer Harvey, Ph.D.; 59 pp. , 5 pis., 10 figs., 23 em. ,
1920. .55
31. Check List of the Insects of Connecticut : by Wilton Everett Brit-
ton, Ph.D.; 397 pp. , 23 em., 1920. 1.60
32. Ninth Bi ennial Heport of the Commissioners of the State Geolog-
ical and Natural History Survey, 1919-1920; 18 pp., 23 em., 1920. .10
33. Geology of the Stonington Region, Connecticut: by Laura Hatch
Martin, Ph.D.; 70 pp., 1 map, 8 fi gs., 23 em., 1925. .60
34. Guide to the Insects of Conn. , prepared under the direction of W.
E. Britton, Ph.D. Part I V. The Hemiptera or Sucking Insects of Connecti-
cut: by W. E. Britton, Ph.D. , with J. F. Abbott, Ph.D. ,, A.(: . Baker, Ph.D.,
H. G. Barber, A. M. , W. T. Davis, D. M. DeLong, Ph.D. , W. D. Funkhouser,
Ph.D., H. H. Kni ght , Ph.D., A. C. Maxson, H. Osborn, D. Sc., H. M. Parsh-
ley, Sc. D. , E. M. Patch, Ph.D., L. A. Stearns, M.Sc., Jose R. de Ia Torre-
Bueno, F.E.S. , E. P. Van Duzee, H. F. Wilson, M.S.; 807 pp., 20 pls., 169
fi gs., 23 em. , 1923. (Out of print).
35. Tenth and Eleventh Biennial Reports of the Commissioners of the
State Geologica l and Natura l Hi story Sur vey, 1921-1924; 17 pp., 23 em. ,
1924. .10
36. The Uredinal es or Rusts of Connecticut and other lew England
States : by Willi s Roberts Hunt, Ph.D.; 198 pp., 2 fi gs., 23 em. , 1926. 1.00
37. Catal ogue of the Li chens of Connecti cut : by Alexander William
Evans, Ph.D. , and I{ose Meyrowitz, M.S.; 56 pp., 23 em., 1926. .60
38. Twelfth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geo-
logical and Natural Hist or y Sur vey, 1925-1926; 23 pp. , 1 pl. , 23 em., 1927 .
. 10
39. Guide to the Insects of Connecti cut. Part V. The Odonata or Drag-
onfli es of Connecticut: by Philip Garman, Ph.D.; 331 pp. , 22 pls., 67 fi gs.,
23 em., 1927. 2.00
40. The Geology of the Shepaug Aqueduct Tunnel , Litchfi eld County,
Connecti cut : by William M. Agar, Ph.D. , with a chapter by Robert A.
Cairns; 38 pp. , 8 pls., 2 maps, 3 figs., 23 em. , 1927. .50
244
Connecticut Geoiogical and Natural History Survey [Bull.
41. Guide to the Geology of Middletown and Vicinity : by William
l\' orth Rice, Ph.D., LL.D., and Wilbur G. Foye, Ph.D.; 137 pp. , 3 pis. , 33
fl gs., 23 em., 1927. 1.00
4.2. The Algae of Connecticut : by Cl arence .T ohn Rylander, Ph.D. :
245 pp. , 28 pis., 23 em. , 1928. l.SO
43. The Life Forms of Connecticut Plants and Their Si gnificance in
P. elati on to Climate : by Beulah Enni s, Ph.D.; 100 pp. , 20 pis., 23 em. ,
1928. .75
44 . Report on the Water Resources of Connecti cut: by Roscoe Henry
Sutti e, C.E.; 168 pp. , 7 fi gs., 23 em. , 1928. 1.00
45. Thirteenth Biennial Report of the Commi ssioners of the State Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey, 1927-1928; 32 pp. , 23 em. , 1929. .10
46. The Physical Hi stor y of the Connecti cut Shoreline: by Henr y Staats
Sharp, Ph.D.; 97 pp. , 8 pi s., 28 fi gs., 23 em., ] 929. .7S
47. The Glacial Geol ogy of Connecti cut: by Ri chard Foster Flint,
Ph.D.; 294, pp. , 64 pls. , 4,2 fi gs., 1 map (in pocket) , 23 em. , 1929. 2.00
48. Additi ons to the Fl ora of Connecti cut (Supplement to Bull. No.
14. ): by E. B. Harger, C. B. Graves, M.D., E. H. Eames, M.D. , C. A. Weath
crby, A.M. , R. W. Woodward, and G. H. Bartlett; 94 pp. , 23 em., 1930 .. 75
4,9_ Public and Semi-Publi c Lands of Connecticut: by Philip Laur-
ance Buttrick, M.F.; 151 pp. , 13 maps, 6 fi gs., 23 em., 1930. l.OO
50. Fourteenth Bi ennial Report of the Commissioners of the t a t ~
Geological and Natural History Survey, 1929-1930 ; 26 pp. , 23 em. , 1931.
.10
51. The Minerals of Connecticut : by .T ohn Frank Schairer, Ph.D.;
121 pp., 14 fi gs., 2.'3 em., 1931 (Out of print).
52. Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Commi ssioners of the State Geo-
logical and Natural Hi stor y Survey, 1931-1932 ; 24, pp. , 23 em. , 1933. .10
53. The Mammals of Connecticut : by George Gilbert Goodwin ; 221
pp., 33 pls. , 19 fi gs. , 23 em. , 1935. 2.00
54,_ The Reptiles of Connecticut: by George Herbert Lamson, M.S. ;
35 pp. , 12 pis., 23 em. , 1935. .50
55. The Petrol ogy of the Prospect Porphyritic Gneiss of Connecticut:
hy Lincoln Stewart, M.A. ; 40 pp., 8 pls. , 2 fi gs., 2.'3 em. , 1935. .50
56. Marbles and Limestones of Connecticut: by Fred H o l m s I e y
Moore, M.A.; 56 pp. , 14 pi s. , 23 em. , 1935. .60
57. The Amphi bia of Connecticut: by Lewi s Hall Babbitt ; 50 pp.,
20 pi s., 4 fi gs., 23 em. , 1937. .50
No. 73] Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut 24!)
58. The West Wall of the New England Triassic Lowland: by Girard
Wheeler; 73 pp., 7 pls. , 43 figs., 23 em., 1937. .60
59. Sixteenth and Seventeenth Biennial Reports of the Commissioners
of the State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1933-1936; 24, pp.,
20 em., 1937. .10
60. Additions to the Check-Li st of the Insects of Connecticut (Supple-
ment to Bull. No. 31): by W. E. Britton, Ph.D.; Check-List of the Spiders
of Conn.; by B. J. Kaston, Ph.D.; 201 pp., 23 em., 1938. 1.00
61. The Weather and Climate of Connecticut: by Joseph Milton Kirk;
253 pp., 12 figs., 23 em. , 1939. 1.25
62. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Biennial Reports of the Commis-
sioners of the State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1937-1940;
16 pp., 23 em., 194,2. .10
63. A Fishery Survey of Important Conn. Lakes: by a Survey Unit
of the State Board of Fisheries and Game. Introduction and Sect. I, Fishery
Management: by Lyle M. Thorpe, Biologist in Charge. Sect. II,
nology: E. S. Deevey, Jr. , Ph.D. and J. S. Bishop. Sect. III, Life Histories
of Certain Fishes: D. A. Webster. Sect. IV, Parasites of Fresh Water Fishes:
G. W. Hunter liT, Ph.D.; 339 pp. , 128 figs. , 23 em., 1942. (Available in
parts at .35 each.) 1.50
63. Supplement. Some 60 maps showing bottom contours of im-
portant lakes; scale l" to 600'. (Out of print).
64,. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut. Part VI. The Diptera or True
Flies of Connecticut. First Fascicle: by G. C. Crampton, Ph.D. , C. H. Cur-
ran, D.Sc., C. P. Alexander, Ph.D., R. B. Friend, Ph.D.; 509 pp., 4, pis.,
56 figs. , 23 em., 194,2. 2.25
65. The Cottontail Rabbits in Connecticut. A report on the work of
the Connecticut Wildlife Research Unit, P. D. Dalke, Leader. Edited by
N. W. Hosley. Authors : P. D. Dalke, Ph.D., C. E. Friley, Jr., P. Sirne,
G. Spinner, E. Jungherr, Ph.D., C. F. Clancy, K. E. Hungerford and N. W.
Hosley, Ph.D.; 97 pp. , 4, pis., 18 figs., 23 em., 1942. . 75
66. Twentieth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
Geological and Natural History Survey, 194,1-1942; 19 pp., 23 em., 1942 .
. 10
67. Twenty-first Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
Geological and Natural History Survey, 1943-1944; 15 pp., 23 em., 1944 .
. 20
68. Guide to the Insects of Connectieut. Part VI. The Diptera or
True Flies of Connecticut. Second Fascicle: The Culicidae or Mosquitoes;
by R. Matheson, Ph.D. ; 48 pp. , 6 pis. , 16 figs., 23 em., 194.5. .75
69. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut. Part VI. The Diptera or True
Flies of Connecticut. Third Fascicle: Asilidae or Robber Flies; by S. W.
Bromley, Ph.D.; 51 pp., 2 pis., 38 figs., 23 em., 1946. - .75
70. Spiders of Connecticut; by B. ]. Kaston, 874. pp. , 142 pis.,
7 text figs. , l map, 23 em., 1948. 6.00
71. Twentysecond Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
Geological and Natural History Survey, 19451946; 23 pp. , 23 em., 1947 .
. 20
72. Twentythird Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
Geological and Natural History Survey, 19-171948; 16 pp., 23 em., 1949
.20
73. The Petrography, Stratigraphy and Origin of the Triassic Sedi
Rocks of Connecticut: by Paul D. Krynine, Ph.D., 26b pp., 41 figs.
29 pis., l Map in Pocket, 23 em., 1950.
74. The Geology of Eastern Connecticut: by Wilbur G. Foye, Ph.D.;
100 pp., 25 figs. , 1 pl., 23 em. , ] 949. 1.00
75. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut. Part VI. The Diptera or
True Fli es of Connecticut. Fourth Fascicle. Family Tabanidae, by G. B.
Fairchild. Family Phoridae, by C. T. Brues. 100 pp., 1 pl., 8 figs., 23
em., 1950.
76. Preliminary Report on the Geology of the Mt. Prospect Complex;
by Eugene N. Cameron. In Press
MISCELLANEOUS SERIES
l. Rocks and Minerals of Connecticut; by Solon W. Stone; 16 pp.,
23 em. , 1949. .20
2. An Exposure of Triassic Eastern Border Fault; by Ralph E.
Digman, Ph.D.; reprinted from American Journal of Science; vol. 248,
pp. 3745, 3 figs., 23 em., 1950. .20
BOUND
A few hundred copies of each bulletin of the foregoing list have been
for binding, and these have been assembled and bound in the
following order :
Volume
I
II
III
IV
v
VI
VII
VIJI
IX
Contains Bulletins
l-5
6--12
13-15
16--21
22
23-32
33-35
36-42
43-48
Price Prepaid
Out of print
Out of print
$2.75
2.50
2.75
4 . .] 5
3.75
5.00
5.00
-..., .,.. Correspondence concerning projects, and subject matter of the bul-
. Ietins, should be sent to
I
Edward L. Troxell, Director,
Trinity College, Hartford 6, Conn.
Requests for bulletins should be made to
James Brewster, State Librarian.
Distribution and Exchange Agent,
State Library, Hartford 1, Conn.
COMMISSIONERS
Hon. Chester A. Bowles, Governor of Connecticut
Dr. Chester R. LongwelL Department of Geolog)', Yale University
Dr. Arthur H. Hughes, Dean of Trinity College
Dr. Joe Webb Peoples, Department of Geology, Wesleyan University
Dr. Ri chard H. Goodwin, Department of Botany, Connecticut College
Dr. John B. Lucke, Department of Geology, University of Connecticut
CATALOGUE SLIPS
CoxxECTICUT
State Geological and Natural History Survey, Bulletin No. 73
The Petrography, Stratigraphy and Origin of the Triassic Sedi-
mentary Rocks of Connecticut, by Paul D. Krynine; Hartford,
1950.
264. pp., 41 fi gs., 29 pis. , 1 Map in Pocket, 23 em.
KRYNI.\"E, PAUL D.,
The Petrography, Stratigraphy and Origin of the Triassic Sedimentary
Rocks of Connecti cut, Hartford, 1950.
GEOLOGY
264. pp., 41 figs. , 29 pis., 1 Map in Pocket, 23 em.
(Bulletin No. 73, Connecticut Geological and Natural History
Survey).
Kr ynine, Paul D. , The Petrography, Stratigraphy and Origin of the
Triassic Sedimentary Rocks of Connecticut, Hartford, 1950.
(Bull et in No. 73, Connecti cut Geological and Natural History
Survey).
LOCALITY
Lake Quonnipaug
TABLE
ROCK TYPE
Arkose 98
84
94
88
84
83
6{)
73
89
2
5
u
i6
'6
i2
25 34 23 12
32 34 14 12
37 31 15 10
12 40 20 13
12 40 18 16
30 45 14 7
4 4(1 44
ii 21 2I
4
X
s 3o 35 i3 ;,
9342920 4
12 54 20 8
i3 25 27 17 10 4
x 33 32 is
itl i9 28 32 7'
36 42 u
15 30 22
59 24 i4
45 . 8 i4 i4
2i 4i 25 6 2 2
8 30 25 21
1 10 37
. :; :ii 5i i 7 . 4 . 3
25 14 14 4 4
6
8
;\
15
14
4
33
i9
l
15
52
2
2
6
4
2
X- Traces, below one percent
25 34 23 12 ()
32 ;H 14 12 8
37 31 15 1,0 3
12 40 20 13 15
9 30 14 12 ll
27 41 13 6 4
4 4o 44 5 6
3 1() 49 12 20
20 15 6 2 7
3;; i2 '6 '5 5 4
26 18 3 1 1 11
49 18 7 4 1 10
H94 226
28 27 i5 . 3 . 8 i6
.24 28 . (, 2 '2 i2
10 21 15 23 31
4o i7 io i 32
39 7 ii i2 16 is
:ii 4i 25 6 2 2 1 2
5 18 15 12 1() 43
X 7 25 :l5 33
2i 5i i7
24 13 35 13
3
4
2i 3o is
. 2 37
4 30
3 H1
2 7
25 59 81
32 66 80
37 68 83
12 52 72
9 39 53
27 (,8 81
'4 44 88 93
ts 43
SIZE
't .3 3i 58 73 7(, 84 10f) o.t.o 1).29 o.io
9 26 5o 78 84 86 88 too uo o.5o o.26o 2:o6
10 31 46 (J9 100 0.174 0.055 0.012 3.81
39 46 ss 7o
2i 62 87 93 95 97
5 22 36 48
X 7 32
'3 24 75 9i 95
24 37 72 85 89
ii 5i 66
. 2 39 ;}
100: I) 5
6 14
25 8
64 20
32 9
31 4
l 10: 0:90 20
50
76
46
42
50
TABLE 4B. PE1'ROGRAPHIC STUDY OF A SUITE OF TYPICAL TRIASSIC ROCKS FROM CONNECTICUT
TOTAL COMPOSITION OETAILS
""
(l.l
LOCALITY
9 ROCK LOCATION
:I
tl
~
!!;
l'l
z
..
""
Ill
""
'1ri
Cl r;.;,
-E
(I$
:I '; :::1
cr.:
0 u 0 0
Lake Quonnipang Arkose 4 ; ~ H1 5 2 44 Near major fault
z
~
f;l4
= E-<
p
0
(/')
:::.:
f;l4
z
Q
E-<
z
65' <
;;J
...l
u t-<
... ~
npperlava flow
E-< 0
u
i!l<
f;l4
5 55 45
z
z
25
0 t5' 10 deposit
u 43
...l
<
52
er::
2
I:""
z
1o
j;W
u
5
1 3
20 45 17 38
<
~
j;W
i!l< 30 44 56
~
.,.
0
(I
p.,
2

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These four expo;,: nres represent t he fonr t y pi cal lithologic va ria

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