Ess-For-H8152.

tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 705

Essential formulae
Number and Algebra
Laws of indices:
a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
a
m
a
n
= a
mn
(a
m
)
n
= a
mn
a
m
n
=
n

a
m
a
n
=
1
a
n
a
0
= 1
Quadratic formula:
If ax
2
+bx +c = 0 then x =
b

b
2
4ac
2a
Factor theorem
If x =a is a root of the equation f (x) =0, then
(x a) is a factor of f (x).
Remainder theorem
If (ax
2
+bx +c) is divided by (x p), the
remainder will be: a p
2
+b p +c.
or if (ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d) is dividedby(x p), the
remainder will be: a p
3
+b p
2
+c p +d.
Partial fractions
Provided that the numerator f (x) is of less degree
than the relevant denominator, the following iden-
tities are typical examples of the form of partial
fractions used:
f (x)
(x +a)(x +b)(x +c)

A
(x +a)
+
B
(x +b)
+
C
(x +c)
f (x)
(x +a)
3
(x +b)

A
(x +a)
+
B
(x +a)
2
+
C
(x +a)
3
+
D
(x +b)
f (x)
(ax
2
+bx +c)(x +d)

Ax +B
(ax
2
+bx +c)
+
C
(x +d)
Denition of a logarithm:
If y =a
x
then x = log
a
y
Laws of logarithms:
log (A B) = log A +log B
log

A
B

= log A log B
log A
n
= n log A
Exponential series:
e
x
= 1 +x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
(valid for all values of x)
Hyperbolic functions
sinh x =
e
x
e
x
2
cosech x =
1
sinh x
=
2
e
x
e
x
cosh x =
e
x
+e
x
2
sech x =
1
cosh x
=
2
e
x
+e
x
tanh x =
e
x
e
x
e
x
+e
x
coth x =
1
tanh x
=
e
x
+e
x
e
x
e
x
cosh
2
x sinh
2
=1 1 tanh
2
x = sech
2
x
coth
2
x 1 = cosech
2
x
Ess-For-H8152.tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 706
706 ESSENTIAL FORMULAE
Arithmetic progression:
If a =rst term and d =common difference, then
the arithmetic progression is: a, a +d, a +2d, . . .
The nth term is: a +(n 1)d
Sum of n terms, S
n
=
n
2
[2a +(n 1)d]
Geometric progression:
If a =rst term and r =common ratio, then the
geometric progression is: a, ar, ar
2
, . . .
The nth term is: ar
n1
Sum of n terms, S
n
=
a(1 r
n
)
(1 r)
or
a(r
n
1)
(r 1)
If 1 <r <1, S

=
a
(1 r)
Binomial series:
(a + b)
n
= a
n
+ na
n1
b +
n(n 1)
2!
a
n2
b
2
+
n(n 1)(n 2)
3!
a
n3
b
3
+
(1 + x)
n
= 1 + nx +
n(n 1)
2!
x
2
+
n(n 1)(n 2)
3!
x
3
+
Maclaurins series
f (x) = f (0) + x f

(0) +
x
2
2!
f

(0)
+
x
3
3!
f

(0) +
Newton Raphson iterative method
If r
1
is the approximate value for a real root of the
equation f (x) =0, then a closer approximation to the
root, r
2
, is given by:
r
2
= r
1

f (r
1
)
f

(r
1
)
Boolean algebra
Laws and rules of Boolean algebra
Commutative Laws: A+B=B+A
A B=B A
Associative Laws: A+B+C =(A+B) +C
A B C =(A B) C
Distributive Laws: A (B+C) =A B+A C
A+(B C) =(A+B) (A+C)
Sum rules: A+A=1
A+1 =1
A+0 =A
A+A=A
Product rules: A A=0
A 0 =0
A 1 =A
A A=A
Absorption rules: A+A B=A
A (A+B) =A
A+A B=A+B
De Morgans Laws: A+B=A B
A B=A+B
Geometry and Trigonometry
Theorem of Pythagoras:
b
2
= a
2
+ c
2
Figure FA1
Identities:
sec =
1
cos
, cosec =
1
sin
,
cot =
1
tan
, tan =
sin
cos
cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1 1 + tan
2
= sec
2

cot
2
+ 1 = cosec
2

Ess-For-H8152.tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 707

ESSENTIAL FORMULAE 707
Triangle formulae:
With reference to Fig. FA2:
Sine rule
a
sin A
=
b
sin B
=
c
sin C
Cosine rule a
2
=b
2
+c
2
2bc cos A
Figure FA2
Area of any triangle
(i)
1
2
base perpendicular height
(ii)
1
2
ab sin C or
1
2
ac sin B or
1
2
bc sin A
(iii)

[s(s a)(s b)(s c)] where s =
a +b +c
2
Compound angle formulae
sin(A B) = sin Acos B cos Asin B
cos(A B) = cos Acos B sin Asin B
tan(A B) =
tan A tan B
1 tan Atan B
If R sin (t +) =a sin t +b cos t,
then a =Rcos , b = Rsin ,
R=

(a
2
+b
2
) and = tan
1
b
a
Double angles
sin 2A = 2 sin Acos A
cos 2A = cos
2
A sin
2
A = 2 cos
2
A 1
= 1 2 sin
2
A
tan 2A =
2 tan A
1 tan
2
A
Products of sines and cosines into sums or differences
sin Acos B =
1
2
[sin(A +B) +sin (A B)]
cos Asin B =
1
2
[sin(A +B) sin (A B)]
cos Acos B =
1
2
[cos(A +B) +cos (A B)]
sin Asin B =
1
2
[cos(A +B)cos (A B)]
Sums or differences of sines and cosines into products
sin x +sin y = 2 sin

x +y
2

cos

x y
2

sin x sin y = 2 cos

x +y
2

sin

x y
2

cos x +cos y = 2 cos

x +y
2

cos

x y
2

cos x cos y = 2 sin

x +y
2

sin

x y
2

For a general sinusoidal function

y =Asin(t ), then
A = amplitude
= angular velocity = 2 f rad/s
2

= periodic time T seconds

2
= frequency, f hertz
= angle of lead or lag (compared with
y = Asin t)
Cartesian and polar co-ordinates
If co-ordinate (x, y) =(r, ) then r =

x
2
+y
2
and
= tan
1
y
x
If co-ordinate (r, ) =(x, y) then x =r cos and
y =r sin .
The circle
With reference to Fig. FA3.
Area = r
2
Circumference = 2r
radians = 180

Ess-For-H8152.tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 708

708 ESSENTIAL FORMULAE
s

r
r
Figure FA3
For sector of circle:
s =r ( in rad)
shaded area =
1
2
r
2
( in rad)
Equation of a circle, centre at (a, b), radius r:
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= r
2
Linear and angular velocity
If v =linear velocity (m/s), s =displacement (m),
t =time (s), n =speed of revolution (rev/s),
=angle (rad), =angular velocity (rad/s),
r = radius of circle (m) then:
v =
s
t
=

t
= 2n v = r
centripetal force =
mv
2
r
where m =mass of rotating object.
Graphs
Equations of functions
Equation of a straight line: y =mx +c
Equation of a parabola: y =ax
2
+bx +c
Circle, centre (a, b), radius r:
(x a)
2
+(y b)
2
=r
2
Equation of an ellipse, centre at origin, semi-axes
a and b:
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
=1
Equation of a hyperbola:
x
2
a
2

y
2
b
2
=1
Equation of a rectangular hyperbola: xy =c
2
Irregular areas
Trapezoidal rule
Area

width of
interval

1
2

rst + last
ordinates

sum of remaining
ordinates

Mid-ordinate rule
Area

width of
interval

sum of
mid-ordinates

Simpsons rule
Area
1
3

width of
interval

rst + last
ordinate

+4

sum of even
ordinates

+2

sum of remaining
odd ordinates

Vector Geometry
If a =a
1
i +a
2
j +a
3
k and b =b
1
i +b
2
j +b
3
k
a b = a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
| a | =

a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
cos =
a b
|a| |b|
a b =

i j k
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3

| a b | =

[(a a)(b b) (a b)
2
]
Complex Numbers
z =a +jb =r(cos +j sin ) =r =r e
j
where
j
2
=1
Modulus r = |z| =

(a
2
+b
2
)
Argument =arg z =tan
1
b
a
Addition: (a +jb) +(c +jd) =(a +c) +j(b +d)
Subtraction: (a +jb) (c +jd) =(a c) +j(b d)
Ess-For-H8152.tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 709
ESSENTIAL FORMULAE 709
Complex equations: If m+jn =p +jq then m=p
and n =q
Multiplication: z
1
z
2
=r
1
r
2
(
1
+
2
)
Division:
z
1
z
2
=
r
1
r
2
(
1

2
)
De Moivres theorem:
[r]
n
=r
n
n =r
n
(cos n +j sin n) =re
j
Matrices and Determinants
Matrices:
If A =

a b
c d

and B =

e f
g h

then
A +B =

a +e b +f
c +g d +h

A B =

a e b f
c g d h

A B =

ae +bg af +bh
ce +dg cf +dh

A
1
=
1
ad bc

d b
c a

If A=

a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3

then A
1
=
B
T
|A|
where
B
T
=transpose of cofactors of matrix A
Determinants:

a b
c d

= ad bc

a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3

= a
1

b
2
c
2
b
3
c
3

b
1

a
2
c
2
a
3
c
3

+c
1

a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3

Differential Calculus
Standard derivatives
y or f (x)
dy
dx
or f

(x)
ax
n
anx
n1
sin ax a cos ax
cos ax a sin ax
tan ax a sec
2
ax
sec ax a sec ax tan ax
cosec ax a cosec ax cot ax
cot ax a cosec
2
ax
e
ax
ae
ax
ln ax
1
x
sinh ax a cosh ax
cosh ax a sinh ax
tanh ax a sech
2
ax
sech ax a sech ax tanh ax
cosech ax a cosech ax coth ax
coth ax a cosech
2
ax
sin
1
x
a
1

a
2
x
2
sin
1
f (x)
f

(x)

1 [ f (x)]
2
cos
1
x
a
1

a
2
x
2
cos
1
f (x)
f

(x)

1 [ f (x)]
2
tan
1
x
a
a
a
2
+x
2
tan
1
f (x)
f

(x)
1 +[ f (x)]
2
sec
1
x
a
a
x

x
2
a
2
sec
1
f (x)
f

(x)
f (x)

[ f (x)]
2
1
cosec
1
x
a
a
x

x
2
a
2
Ess-For-H8152.tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 710
710 ESSENTIAL FORMULAE
y or f (x)
dy
dx
or f

(x)
cosec
1
f (x)
f

(x)
f (x)

[ f (x)]
2
1
cot
1
x
a
a
a
2
+x
2
cot
1
f (x)
f

(x)
1 +[ f (x)]
2
sinh
1
x
a
1

x
2
+a
2
sinh
1
f (x)
f

(x)

[ f (x)]
2
+1
cosh
1
x
a
1

x
2
a
2
cosh
1
f (x)
f

(x)

[ f (x)]
2
1
tanh
1
x
a
a
a
2
x
2
tanh
1
f (x)
f

(x)
1 [ f (x)]
2
sech
1
x
a
a
x

a
2
x
2
sech
1
f (x)
f

(x)
f (x)

1 [ f (x)]
2
cosech
1
x
a
a
x

x
2
+a
2
cosech
1
f (x)
f

(x)
f (x)

[ f (x)]
2
+1
coth
1
x
a
a
a
2
x
2
coth
1
f (x)
f

(x)
1 [ f (x)]
2
Product rule:
When y =uv and u and v are functions of x then:
dy
dx
=u
dv
dx
+v
du
dx
Quotient rule:
When y =
u
v
and u and v are functions of x then:
dy
dx
=
v
du
dx
u
dv
dx
v
2
Function of a function:
If u is a function of x then:
dy
dx
=
dy
du

du
dx
Parametric differentiation
If x and y are both functions of , then:
dy
dx
=
dy
d
dx
d
and
d
2
y
dx
2
=
d
d

dy
dx

dx
d
Implicit function:
d
dx
[ f (y)] =
d
dy
[ f (y)]
dy
dx
Maximum and minimum values:
If y =f (x) then
dy
dx
=0 for stationary points.
Let a solution of
dy
dx
=0 be x =a; if the value of
d
2
y
dx
2
when x =a is: positive, the point is a minimum,
negative, the point is a maximum.
Velocity and acceleration
If distance x =f (t), then
velocity v =f

(t) or
dx
dt
and
acceleration a =f

(t) or
d
2
x
dt
2
Ess-For-H8152.tex 19/7/2006 18: 2 Page 711
ESSENTIAL FORMULAE 711
Tangents and normals
Equation of tangent to curve y = f (x) at the point
(x
1
, y
1
) is:
y y
1
= m(x x
1
)
where m=gradient of curve at (x
1
, y
1
).
Equation of normal to curve y =f (x) at the point
(x
1
, y
1
) is:
y y
1
=
1
m
(x x
1
)
Partial differentiation
Total differential
If z =f (u, v, ..), then the total differential,
dz =
z
u
du +
z
v
dv +. . . .
Rate of change
If z =f (u, v, ..) and
du
dt
,
dv
dt
, denote the rate of
change of u, v, .. respectively, then the rate of change
of z,
dz
dt
=
z
u

du
dt
+
z
v

dv
dt
+. . .
Small changes
If z =f (u, v, ..) and x, y, .. denote small changes in
x, y, .. respectively, then the corresponding change,
z
z
x
x +
z
y
y +. . . .
To determine maxima, minima and saddle
points for functions of two variables: Given
z =f (x, y),
(i) determine
z
x
and
z
y
(ii) for stationary points,
z
x
=0 and
z
y
=0,
(iii) solve the simultaneous equations
z
x
=0
and
z
y
=0 for x and y, which gives the
co-ordinates of the stationary points,
(iv) determine

2
z
x
2
,

2
z
y
2
and

2
z
xy
(v) for each of the co-ordinates of the station-
ary points, substitute values of x and y into

2
z
x
2
,

2
z
y
2
and

2
z
xy
and evaluate each,
(vi) evaluate

2
z
xy

2
for each stationary point,
(vii) substitute the values of

2
z
x
2
,

2
z
y
2
and

2
z
xy
into
the equation =

2
z
xy

2
z
x
2

2
z
y
2

and evaluate,
(viii) (a) if >0thenthe stationarypoint is a saddle
point
(b) if <0 and

2
z
x
2
<0, then the stationary
point is a maximum point, and
(c) if <0 and

2
z
x
2
>0, then the stationary
point is a minimum point